FORCE & NLM

n Force : A force can be defined as ‘a push or a pull exerted on an object that can cause the object to speed up,
slow down, or change direction as it moves or it can change its shape and size’.
l An interaction of one object with another object results in a force between the two objects i.e., to apply force
at least two objects are required.
l The effect of a force depends on both magnitude and direction, thus, force is a vector quantity. A force vector
points in the direction of the force, and its length is proportional to the magnitude of the force.
l Forces applied on an object in the same direction add to one another. If two forces act in the opposite
directions on an object, the net force acting on it is the difference between the two forces.
l Unit of force : SI unit - Newton ; c.g.s unit - Dyne 1 N = 105 dynes
n Net force : If many forces are acting simultaneously on an object, the effect on the object is due to the net force
acting on it. The combination of all the forces acting on an object is called net force. The net force acting on an
object is also referred as the total force, the resultant force, or the unbalanced force acting on the object.
n Contact force : It is a force that is exerted only when two objects are touching.
Examples :
l Muscular Force : The force resulting due to the action of muscles is known as the muscular force.
l Friction : Friction is a force that resists motion. Friction is found everywhere in every material i.e., solids,
liquids and gases.
l Tension : Tension is a force exerted by string, ropes, fibres, and cables when they are pulled.
l Normal force : The force perpendicular to the surfaces of the objects in contact is
called normal force. Normal force

n Non-contact force : It is a force that one object exerts on another when they are not
touching. Examples :
l Magnetic force : The force exerted by a magnet on a piece of iron or on an ////////////////
another magnet is called magnetic force. Like (or similar) poles repel while unlike
(or opposite) poles attract. Force of gravity
(Weight)
l Electrostatic force : The force exerted by a charged body on another charged
body or uncharged body is known as electrostatic force. Like charges repel and
unlike charges attract.
l Gravitational force : The attractive force between two objects that have mass is called gravitational
force. Force of gravity is always attractive in nature and pulls objects toward each other. A gravitational
attraction exists between you and every object in the universe that has mass.
n Balanced forces : If the resultant of all forces acting on a body is zero, the forces are called ‘balanced forces’.
l If the forces are balanced, this means the acceleration of the object is zero and its velocity remains constant.
That is, the object either remains at rest or continues to move with constant velocity.
l When forces on an object are balanced, the object is said to be in equilibrium. This means, it has zero
acceleration which includes, the state of rest as well as, the state of uniform motion.
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l The equilibrium rule : For any object or system of objects in equilibrium, the sum of the forces acting
equals zero. In mathematical form, å F = 0 .
n Unbalanced forces : If the resultant of all forces acting on a body is not zero, the forces are called ‘unbalanced
forces’.
l In this case, the acceleration of the object is not zero and its velocity changes. That is, unbalanced force
changes the state of rest or the state of uniform motion of the object.
n Inertia : It is ‘the natural tendency of an object to remain at rest or in motion at a constant speed along a
straight line’. It is the tendency of an object to resist any attempt to change its velocity.
l The mass of an object is a quantitative measure of inertia. More the mass, more will be the inertia of an
object and vice-versa.
l Inertia of an object can be of three types :
Inertia of rest : The tendency of an object to remain at rest. This means an object at rest remains at rest
until a sufficiently large external force is applied on it.
 Inertia of motion : The tendency of an object to remain in the state of uniform motion. This means an
object in uniform motion continues to move uniformly until an external force is applied on it.
Inertia of direction : The tendency of an object to maintain its direction. This means an object moving in
a particular direction continues to move in that until an external force is applied to change it.
n Newton's first law of motion (Galileo’s law of inertia) : ‘Every object continues in its state of rest, or of
uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it’.
n Linear momentum (or momentum) : It is the product of the mass (m) & velocity (v). p = mv
l Linear momentum is a vector quantity. Its direction is ‘the direction along the velocity’. +

l The linear momentum of a particle is directly proportional to (i) its mass (ii) its velocity.
l Unit of linear momentum : SI unit : kg m/s or kg m s–1 or Newton-second (N-s) – +
c.g.s. unit : g cm/s or g cm s–1 or Dyne-second
–
l Linear momentum can be positive or negative depending on its direction.
Sign convention
l For a given velocity, the momentum is directly proportional to the mass of the object for momentum
( p µ m ). If a car and a truck have same velocity, then, the momentum of truck is more than the momentum
of car as the mass of a truck is greater than the mass of a car.
l For a given mass, the momentum is directly proportional to the velocity of the object
( p µ v ). If two bodies with same masses move with different velocities then, the body having more velocity
will have more momentum.
l For a given momentum, the velocity is inversely proportional to the mass of the object (v µ 1 / m) . If a car
and a truck have same momentum, the velocity of car will be more than the velocity of truck as the mass of
a car is smaller than the mass of a truck.

p p v
p = constant
v = constant m = constant

m v m
l When an object is moving along a circular path, its velocity is tangential to the circular path hence, its
momentum is also tangential to the circular path.
n Newton's second law of motion : ‘The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
applied force and takes place in the direction in which the force acts’. Mathematically, it can be represented as,
p2 – p1 m(v – u)
F = ma = =
t t
l If force is constant i.e., F = ma = constant, then, the acceleration produced in the body is inversely proportional
to its mass, i.e, a µ 1 / m . This means, if same force F is applied to masses m 1 and m2 and the resulting
accelerations in them are a1 and a2 respectively, then, m1a1 = m2a2

a 2 m1
or =
a1 m2
l When an external non-zero net force acts on an object, the object accelerates in the direction of the net
force. The magnitude of the acceleration is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object’. This is an another statement of Newton’s second law.

F F a
F = constant
a = constant m = constant

m a m
 l 1 newton is the amount of force that produces an acceleration of
1 m s–2 in an object of 1 kg mass. Similarly, 1 dyne is the amount of
force that produces an acceleration of 1 cm s–2 in an object of
1 g mass.
l Force is necessary for changing the direction of momentum, even if
its magnitude is constant. We can feel this while rotating a stone in
a horizontal circle with uniform speed by means of a string.
l Force, F = Dp/t, this means for a given change in momentum, the
force is inversely proportional to the time interval in which this change
takes place. Thus, for the same change in momentum brought about
in a shorter time needs a greater applied force and vice-versa. For
example, an experienced cricketer while catching a cricket ball,
allows a longer time for his hands to stop the ball. He moves his
hands backward in the act of catching the ball. As the time for catching
increases, the force with which the ball hurts his hand decreases. As
a result, his hands are not injured.
n Impulse (J) : The product of force and time is called 'impulse'. It is also
the change in momentum of the body. It is a vector quantity.
J = F ´ t = Dp = p2 – p1 = m (v – u) F A1
l A large force acting for a short time that produces a significant change
in momentum is called an impulsive force.
A2
l Area under the force-time graph gives impulse (see adjoining fig.).
n Newton's third law of motion : Whenever one body exerts a force on a
second body, the second body exerts an oppositely directed force of equal t
magnitude on the first body’. ‘To every action, there is always an equal Impulse = A 1 + A 2
and opposite reaction’.
l Forces always exist in pairs : When two objects interact, two
Faction
forces will always be involved. One force is the action force and the
other is the reaction force.
l Consider a pair of bodies A and B. According to the Newton’s third
law, FAB = – FBA Freaction
Where, FAB = force on A due to B and FBA= force on B due to A
l Though action-reaction pair are equal in magnitude and opposite
in direction but the reaction force always acts on a different object than
the action force. Thus, these forces do not cancel out each other. Hence,
there can be an acceleration in an object. For example, a volleyball
player while bumping the ball (see figure), the action force is the upward Object
force that the player exerts on the ball. The reaction force is Fg
the downward force that the ball exerts on the player’s arms. Due to
the upward action force, the ball accelerates upward. (The player’s Fe
arms also accelerate downward but we hardly notice it as mass of the
player is quite large).
l Newton’s third law is applicable to non-contact forces also.
For example, the Earth pulls an object downwards due to gravity
(see fig.). The object also exert the same force on the Earth but in
Earth
upward direction. But, we hardly see the effect of the stone on the
Earth because the acceleration of Earth is negligible due to its huge mass.
l Even though the action and reaction forces are always equal in magnitude, these forces may not produce
accelerations of equal magnitudes. This is because each force acts on a different object that may have a
different masses.
l Some important examples of Newton’s third law of motion :
} When we strike a nail using a hammer to fix in a board, the hammer exerts a downward force on the
nail, and the nail exerts an equal an upward force on the hammer.
} While walking (or running) on a road, we push the road below backwards and the road exerts an equal
and opposite reaction force on our feet to make us move forward.
 } When a gun is fired, it exerts a forward force on the bullet. The bullet exerts an equal and opposite
reaction force on the gun. This results in the recoil of the gun. Since the gun has a much greater mass
than the bullet, the acceleration of the gun is much less than the acceleration of the bullet.
} When a sailor jumps out of a rowing boat, as the sailor jumps forward, the force on the boat moves it
backwards.
} An inflated balloon recoils when air is expelled from it. When the air is expelled leftward, the balloon
accelerates rightward.
} Rocket Propulsion : In a rocket engine, the highly combustible fuel burns at a tremendous rate. The
rocket exerts a downward (or backward) force on the exhaust gas and thus, the exhaust gas exert an
equal upward (or forward) force on the rocket.
n The normal force : A force that acts on a surface in a direction perpendicular to the surface is called 'normal force'.
l Like every force, a normal force is one half of an action-reaction
pair, so it is often called a ‘normal reaction force’.
n Conservation of momentum : ‘When the net external force on a system of
objects is zero, the total momentum of the system remains constant’.
l The total momentum of an isolated system of objects remains constant.
l The term ‘collision’ is used to represent the event of two particles Initial momentum = 0
coming together for a short time and thereby producing ‘impulsive V
v
forces’ on each other. These forces are assumed to be much greater
than any external forces present because they act for a very short
time interval.
m
l Momentum is conserved for all types of collisions that take place in
real world in the absence of any external force.
M
l Rocket propulsion or the recoil of gun are based on law of
conservation of momentum as well as Newton’s third law. This is Final momentum = mv – MV = 0
because the law of conservation of momentum is derived using
Newton’s third law.
l Solving problems on conservation of momentum : u
} Recoil of a gun : Initial momentum = Final momentum M
m
m U=0
or 0 = MV – mv or V = v (see fig.) Initial momentum =
M
m × u + M × 0 = mu
} A bullet is fired on a wooden block and it gets embedded in it,
M+m
after that they move together with a common velocity (see fig.).
Initial momentum = Final momentum V

mu Final momentum =
or mu = (M +m) V or V =
M+m (M+m)V
} A bomb of mass M explodes in two parts having masses m1 and m2 (see fig.).
Final momentum = initial momentum
or m2v2 – m1v1 = 0 or m2v2 = m1v1

v2
v1
Bomb

m1
Initial velocity, u = 0 m2
Mass of bomb = M Final momentum =
Initial momentum = M × 0 = 0 m2v2 – m1v1
(Before explosion) (After explosion)
 } Two objects having masses m1 and m2 moving with velocities u1 and u2 along a straight line collide head-
on, stick together, and move with a common velocity v after the collision.

u1 u2
m1 m1
m2 m2
Before collision After collision

Initial momentum = Final momentum

m1 u 1 + m2 u 2
or m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v + m2v or v =
m1 + m2
n Tension in the strings :
l Strings are assumed to be inextensible i.e., they cannot be stretched. Due to this assumption 'acceleration of
masses connected through a string is always same. They are assumed to be massless unless it is mentioned.
Due to this assumption 'tension in the string is same every where'.
l The direction of tension at body (or a point) is always outward along the string i.e., away from the body along
the string. A tension always have pulling action.
l Motion of bodies connected by strings :
a m1
m2 a a
T F T F T
m1 m2
FBD for m1 FBD for m2
A massless string

F m2 F
} a= } T=
m1 + m 2 m1 + m2
l Motion of bodies connected by string passing over a light pulley (Atwood’s Machine) :

(m 2 – m1 )g
} a=
(m2 + m1 )

T
T
a m2
2m1 m2 g T T
a
m1
} T= a
m1 + m 2
m1 a m1g m2g

m1g FBD for m1 FBD for m2

m2

m2g
l Motion of bodies in contact :
a
m2
m1 a a
Applied f F f
force F f f m1 m2
FBD for m1 FBD for m 2

F m2 F
} a= } f=
m1 + m 2 m1 + m2
n Weight of an object in a lift : A weighing machine measures the normal force not the 'true weight'.
l When the lift is at rest or in uniform motion, apparent weight, i.e., W = mg [Apparent weight = true
weight]
l When the lift is moving up with uniform acceleration a, apparent weight, i.e., W' = m(a + g) [Apparent
weight > true weight]
l When the lift is moving down with uniform acceleration a, apparent weight, i.e., W'' = m(g – a) [Apparent
weight < true weight]
l Suppose the rope of the lift breaks, then it will fall freely under gravity i.e., a = g. In this situation, apparent
weight, W'' = m(g – g) = 0. That is, the weighing machine will read zero weight.
n Friction : It is a force that opposes the movement between two surfaces in contact.
l The magnitude of the friction force depends on the types of surfaces in contact. The frictional force
is usually larger on the rough surfaces and smaller on the smooth surfaces.
l Friction is always parallel to the surface in contact.

l Friction depends on both of the surfaces in contact, therefore, the value of friction is different for
different pairs of surfaces.
l If an object is allowed to move on a surface then, more the distance travelled by the object on the
surface, less will be the friction between them and vice-versa.
l Friction is caused by the irregularities on the two surfaces in contact.
l There are many kinds of friction that exist in different media :
} Static friction : It exists when two surfaces try to move across each other but not enough force
is applied to cause motion.
} Sliding friction : It exists when two surfaces slide across each other.
} Rolling friction : It exists when one object rolls over another object.

} Air friction (air resistance) : It exists when air moves around an object.
} Viscous friction : It exists when objects move through water or other liquids.
l Force of friction increases if the two surfaces are pressed harder. The greater the force pressing the
two surfaces together, the greater will be the force of friction between them.
l Friction increases with weight : For a heavy object, the weight is quite large, therefore, the force
between the object and the floor is also large. Thus, the friction force between them is large.
l For hard contact surfaces, the force of friction does not depend on the ‘area of contact’ between the two
surfaces. But, it is not true if the surfaces are wet, or if they are soft. Rubber is soft as compared to the
surface of a road. The friction between rubber and surface of road also depends on how much rubber is
contacting with the surface of road. Thus, wide tires (made of rubber) have more friction than narrow tires.
n Static friction (fs) : It is the force exerted on an object at rest that prevents the object from sliding.

l The direction of static friction is opposite to the applied force. Also, it acts in a direction opposite to
the direction in which an object tends to move.

l The maximum value of static friction is called the starting friction or limiting friction. It is the
amount of force that must be overcome to make a stationary object start moving.
 l The law of static friction may be written as, fs £ m s N

Where, ms = coefficient of static friction, which depends only on the nature of surfaces in contact ;
N = normal force (or normal reaction)
l Normal force on a horizontal plane is exactly equal to the weight of Normal force
the body while on an inclined plane it is smaller than the weight of the
body that depends of the angle of the inclined plane (see fig.).
l Limiting (maximum) value of static friction is given by, fL = ms N. If the
////////////////
applied force F exceeds fL , the body begins to slide on the surface.
Force of gravity
l If applied force F is less than f L, then, F = fs (Weight = mg)
Normal force = weight = mg
n Sliding friction (or kinetic friction) (fk) : It is the force exerted on an
object in motion that opposes the motion of the object as it slides on another

e
rc
fo
object.

al
m
or

//
l Sliding or kinetic friction is smaller than the limiting value of static

/
//
q

//
friction. This is because it takes more force to break the interlocking in
gs

q
/
os
//
between two surfaces than it does to keep them sliding once they m

gc
//
q

m
//
are already moving. Normal force = mgcosq
l Kinetic friction, like static friction, is also found to be independent of
the area of contact. Further, it is nearly independent of the velocity
of the body.

l The law of kinetic friction may be written as, fk = m k N

Frictional force

Kinetic friction
Where µ k is the coefficient of kinetic friction, which depends
n
only on the nature of surfaces in contact. io
ct
fri
ic

m s > m k , ms or mk have no units as they are ratio of two

at

l
St

forces. Applied force

l Note that it is not motion, but relative motion that the frictional Variation of friction with applied force

force opposes.
n Rolling friction : The rolling motion of the wheel is a combination of both spin (rotational) motion and linear
(translation) motion.
l Rolling reduces the friction significantly.
l When one body rolls over the surface of another body, the resistance (opposition) to its motion is
called the rolling friction.
l Since the rolling friction is smaller than the sliding friction, sliding is replaced in most machines by
rolling by the use of ball bearings.
n Fluid friction : The force of friction exerted by the fluids on the objects moving through them is called fluid friction.
l Factors that affects fluid friction :
} The speed of the object in the fluid. The faster an object moves in a fluid, the greater is the fluid friction
acting on it.
} The shape of the object moving in the fluid. For example, a piece of paper crumpled into a ball falls
faster than a flat piece of paper falls.
} The nature of the fluid. For example, an object moving with certain speed experiences a greater friction
in water than experienced in air.
n Friction is a necessary evil : Friction is often undesirable, it causes wear of machine parts, engines, soles of
shoes, etc. But, it is useful in many cases. For example,

l Walking on the road is not possible without static friction.

l Friction is useful for brakes and tyres : The brakes on a bicycle create friction between two
rubber brake pads and the rim of the wheel. Friction between the brake pads and the rim slows down
or stops the bicycle. Friction is also necessary to make vehicles go on the road. Without friction the
vehicle’s tyres would not grip the road.

n Friction changes energy of motion into heat energy. Rubbing hands together quickly can make them
warmer on a cold day.

n Increasing friction : Grooving the soles of shoes increases friction between the feet and the ground

l Treads on tyres increases friction on pavement (road surface) in dry as well as wet conditions.
 GRAVITATION
n Gravitation is the weakest force in nature. It is negligible in the interactions of tiny or ordinary size particles. When
we consider very large objects, such as stars, planets, and satellites (moons), gravitation is of primary importance.
n The Newtonion gravitation : Sir Isaac Newton did not discover gravitation, its effects have been known throughout
human existence. But he was the first one to understand the broader significance of gravitation. Newton discovered
that ‘gravitation is universal, it is not restricted to earth only’, as others physicists of his time assumed.
n Newton’s universal law of gravitation : ‘Every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force
which is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. The force is along the line joining the centres of two objects’.
Let us consider two masses m1 and m2 lying at a separation distance r. Let the force of attraction between two
objects be F. According to the universal law of gravitation,
F µ m1 m2 F12 F21
m2
1 m1
Fµ 2
r
m1 m2
Combining both, we get, F µ
r2
Gm1m2
or F= r
r2
Where, G is the constant of proportionality and is called the universal gravitation constant.
l Universal gravitation constant is the magnitude of the force (in newton) between a pair of 1 kg masses that
are kept 1 meter apart.
l Unit of universal gravitation constant : According to the universal law of gravitation,

Gm1 m2 Fr 2
F= or G=
r2 m1 m2 F

Newton ´ (meter)2 Nm2

l Thus, S.I. unit of G = = = Nm2 kg –2
kg ´ kg kg2
O r
l The numerical value of G is 6.673 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2,
Dependence of
determined by Henry Cavendish. gravitational force (F)
l Characteristics of gravitational force : on separation distance (r).

} It is a universal force of attraction.

} It acts along the line joining the centres of each mass.
} It acts equally on each mass, i.e., it obeys Newton’s third law i.e., F 12 = –F21
1
} It is weaker if the masses are further apart. It acts in an inverse square manner, i.e., F µ 2 ,
r
where 'r' is the distance between the centres of the masses.
} It depends directly on the mass of each body involved, i.e., F µ m1 and F µ m2.
} It is a long range force i.e., its influence is extending to very large distances.
} It does not depend on the medium present between the two masses, or the presence of other masses
around them.
l The Newton’s universal law of gravitation successfully explained several phenomena which were believed to
be unconnected :
} The force that binds us to the earth.
} The motion of the moon around the earth.
} The motion of planets around the Sun.
} The tides due to the moon and the Sun.
n Why moon does not fall on earth directly ?
The motion of moon is just like the motion of an object in circular motion.
Moon
The velocity of the moon is directed tangent to the circle at every point v
along its path. The acceleration of moon is directed towards the center
of the circle i.e., towards the earth (the central body) around which it is
orbiting. This acceleration is caused by a centripetal force which is
supplied by the gravitational force between the earth and the moon. If
this force were absent, the moon in motion would continue in motion at
the same speed and in a direction tangential to the circular path and
Earth
would have escaped away from the earth. If the moon had no tangential
velocity, it would have fallen on earth due to gravitation. Thus, it is the
tangential velocity and the gravitational force that are perpendicular to
each other and keep the moon to fall around the earth without actually
falling into it.
n Kepler’s laws of planetary motion :
l Law of orbits : All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun situated at one of the foci of the ellipse
(see fig.). The closest point is P called the perihelion and the farthest point is A called the aphelion. The
semimajor axis (R) is half the distance AP.
Semi-minor axis Semi-major axis

Minor axis
P A

F1 F2

Major axis
l Law of areas : The line that joins any planet to the sun sweeps equal areas in equal intervals of time i.e.,
DA
= constant . This means, the planet moves faster when it is nearer to the Sun and it moves slower
Dt
v A rP
when it is farther from the Sun i.e, (v µ 1/r). For example, = . Since rA > rP, vA < vP.
v P rA

P A
F2
F1

R
l Law of periods : The square of the time period of revolution of a planet is proportional to the cube of the
T2
semi-major axis (mean distance) of the ellipse traced out by the planet i.e., T2 µ R 3 or =constant .
R3
2 3
æT ö æR ö
Also, ç 1 ÷ = ç 1 ÷
T
è 2ø è R2 ø
n Free Fall (Motion under gravity) :
l Free fall is the motion of an object subject only to the influence of gravity.
l Acceleration due to gravity (g) : It is the acceleration of an object in free fall that results from the
influence of Earth’s gravity.
l Acceleration due to gravity at the surface of earth : Let us consider an object of mass m placed on the
surface of Earth. Let the mass of Earth be M and radius of earth be R.
GM
\ g=
R2
 m
} The acceleration due to gravity g for any planet is (i) directly proportional
to the mass of the planet (ii) inversely proportional to the square of the Fg
radius of the planet. R
} Acceleration due to gravity (g) on earth is 9.8 ms–2. In CGS system,
value of g is 980 cm/s2. In FPS system, value of g is 32 ft/s 2.
} Among the planets, value of 'g' is maximum for Jupiter, gjupiter = 26 m/s2.
} For two planets 1 and 2, ratio of their acceleration due to gravity,
M
g2 M 2 R12
=
g1 M1R 22
l Variation in g :
} Our earth is not perfectly spherical. The radius of earth at poles (RP) is slightly smaller than the radius of
earth at equator (RE). Since, RE > RP, therefore, gP > gE.
} Rotation of earth also affects the value of acceleration due to gravity at a place on the surface of earth.
Because of rotation, an object experiences an centrifugal force acting away from the axis of rotation
which varies from place to place on the Earth. This centrifugal force is maximum at equator and
minimum (zero) at the poles. As a result, value of g at equator is minimum and value of g at poles is
maximum. In other words, if latitude angle increases from 0° (equator) to 90° (poles), g also increases. If
rotation of earth stops, value of g will increase at the equator while it will remain unchanged at the poles.
A
} g at a height above the surface (Point A) :
h
GM gR 2
gA = = R d
(R + h)2 (R + h)2 B

For h << R, i.e., a point very near the surface,

æ 2h ö
gA = g ç 1 –
è R ÷ø

} g at a depth below the surface (Point B) : g

æ dö
gB = g ç 1 – ÷
è Rø
O R r
Centre Surface
} At the centre of Earth, gcentre = 0 of earth of earth

n Mass : The amount of matter contained in a body is called its mass. Mass of a body is constant at all places
in the universe. It is measured by physical balance. It is a scalar quantity and it is always taken positive.
Unit of mass : SI unit : Kilogram (kg) ; CGS unit : Gram (g)
n Weight : The force of gravity on an object is called weight.
Weight = m ´ g
Where, m = mass of object in kg ; g = acceleration due to gravity
l Weight is a force, it is measured in unit of force i.e., newtons. At Earth’s surface, a 1 kilogram mass has a
weight of 9.8 N, a 2 kilogram mass has a weight of 19.6 N, and so on.
l It is measured by a weighing machine or spring balance.
l Weight of a freely falling body is zero. At the centre of Earth, weight of a body is zero.
l Acceleration due to gravity on the moon is one sixth of the acceleration due to gravity on the earth i.e.,

gm 1
=
ge 6

Thus, weight of an object on the moon = (1/6) × its weight on the earth.
n Orbital velocity : The speed of a satellite, spacecraft, or other body travelling in an orbit around the earth is
called orbital velocity.
Satellite
2 vO
GM gR
vO = = h
(R + h) (R + h)
l For a satellite orbiting quite near to the earth,
R
GM
vO = = gR
R
l Time period of a satellite orbiting around the earth
in a circular path, Earth

(R + h)2 (R + h)3
T = 2p = 2p
GM gR 2
l Time period of a satellite orbiting very near to the surface of earth in a circular path,

R3 R
T = 2p = 2p » 85 minutes
GM g

l Geostationary orbit : It is an orbit of the earth made by an artificial satellite with a period exactly equal to
the earth’s period of rotation on its axis, i.e., 24 hours. If the orbit lies in the equatorial plane and is circular,
the satellite will appear to be stationary. This is called a stationary orbit (or geostationary orbit) and it occurs
at an altitude of 35800 km. Most communication satellites are in stationary orbits, with three or more
spaced round the orbit to give worldwide coverage. Such satellites are called geostationary satellites.
l Polar satellites : These are low altitude satellites (h is nearly 500 to 800 km), but they go around the poles
of the earth in a north-south direction whereas the earth rotates around its axis in an east-west direction.
Their time period is around 100 minutes and they cross any latitude many times a day.
n Escape speed (or velocity) : The minimum speed needed by an object like space vehicle, rocket, etc., to escape
from the gravitational field of the earth, moon, or other celestial body is called escape speed or velocity (ve).

2GM
ve = = 2gR
R

l Escape velocity is independent of the mass of the object projected from the Earth. For example, a spacecraft
has the same escape speed as a molecule.
l Escape velocity is independent of the direction of the velocity.
l Escape velocity for earth is about 11.2 km/s. Escape velocity for moon is about 2.3 km/s, nearly five times
smaller than that of earth. Among the planets, escape velocity is maximum for Jupiter, it is 59.5 km/s.