University of Mississippi

eGrove

Honors College (Sally McDonnell Barksdale

Honors Theses Honors College)

2019

An Analysis of Financial Accounting Fundamentals Through Case

Studies
Sarah Caswell
University of Mississippi

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Recommended Citation
Caswell, Sarah, "An Analysis of Financial Accounting Fundamentals Through Case Studies" (2019).
Honors Theses. 1097.
https://egrove.olemiss.edu/hon_thesis/1097

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 AN ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING FUNDAMENTALS THROUGH
CASE STUDIES

By
Sarah Caswell

A thesis submitted to the faculty of The University of Mississippi in partial fulfillment of

the requirements of the Sally McDonnell Barksdale Honors College.

Oxford
May 2019

Approved by

Advisor: Dr. Victoria Dickinson

Reader: Dean Mark Wilder

 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this thesis is to analyze and discuss a broad range of financial

reporting topics. This paper was developed over the course of a year in the Honors

Accountancy Independent Study class led by Dr. Victoria Dickinson. It is organized into

a series of 12 case studies that each examine a specific accounting issue or topic. This

required using all resources available to research and understand the specific topics and

companies at hand. This process gave me an advanced knowledge of financial accounting

beyond the traditional accounting classroom lectures and textbooks. As a result, writing

this thesis acquainted me to what accounting looks like in a real-world context.

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CASE 1: Financial Reporting Decisions PAGE 1

CASE 2: Profitability and Earnings Persistence PAGE 7

CASE 3: Accounts Receivable PAGE 16

CASE 4: Bad Debt Reporting PAGE 25

CASE 5: Property, Plant and Equipment PAGE 31

CASE 6: Research & Development Costs PAGE 40

CASE 7: Data Analytics PAGE 47

CASE 8: Long-Term Debt PAGE 54

CASE 9: Shareholder’s Equity PAGE 64

CASE 10: Marketable Securities PAGE 72

CASE 11: Deferred Income Taxes PAGE 81

CASE 12: Revenue Recognition PAGE 89

CASE 1: FINANCIAL REPORTING DECISIONS
Glenwood Heating, Inc. and Eads Heaters, Inc.

1
 Introduction

This case follows two companies, Eads Heater, Inc. and Glenwood Heating, Inc.,

who sell home heating units. The two companies have exactly the same operations during

the year. However, the managers make different decisions when applying generally

accepted accounting principles. I learned to trace the transactions to financial statements

in order to compute key numbers such as net income, retained earnings, and the balance

of accounts. This case gave me new experience in Excel. Developing transactions into

financial statements in Excel and Word taught me to organize data in an efficient way to

best analyze and compare the information provided. This takes planning, double

checking, and precision. It equipped me with a new skill set to carry on to my future

career.

Executive Summary

When analyzing the two sets of financial statements, it is easy to compare the two

companies. When looking at the big picture, I would choose to invest in Glenwood

Heating, Inc. Comparing the two company’s Income Statements shows Glenwood

Heating has a higher net income for the year. Most important, Glenwood Heating, Inc.

has significantly more retained earnings than Eads Heater, Inc. retains. This money is

invested back into the company and allows cushion to cover debt. Moreover, they didn’t

choose to capitalize their lease on equipment. Ultimately, the management of Glenwood

Heating, Inc. made better decisions to support their company’s financials.

APPENDIX 1: Financial Statements of Glenwood Heating, Inc. and Eads Heaters, Inc.

GLENWOOD HEATING, INC.

Income Statement
For Year Ended December 31, 20X1
Sales 398,500
Cost of Goods Sold 177,000
Gross Profit 221,500

Operating Expenses
Selling Expenses
Other Operating Expenses 34,200
Administrative Expenses
Bad Debt Expense 994
Depreciation Expense-Building 10,000
Depreciation Expense-Equipment 9,000
Rent Expense 16,000 35,994 70,194

Income From Operations 151,306

Other Expenses and Losses

Interest Expense 27,650

Income Before Income Tax 123,656

Income Tax 30,914
Net Income for the Year 92,742

GLENWOOD HEATING, INC.

Statement of Retained Earnings
For Year Ended December 31, 20X1

Retained Earnings, January 1 0

Add: Net Income 92,742
92,742
Less: Dividends 23,200

Retained Earnings, December 31 69,542

3
 GLENWOOD HEATING, INC.
Classified Balance Sheet
December 31, 20X1
Assets
Current Assets
Cash 426
Accounts Receivable 99,400
Less: Allowance for Doubtful Accounts 994 98,406
Inventory 62,800
Total Current Assets 161,632

Property, Plant, and Equipment

Land 70,000
Building 350,000
Less: Accumulated Depreciation 10,000 340,000
Equipment 80,000
Less: Accumulated Depreciation 9,000 71,000
Total Property, Plant, and Equipment 481,000
Total Assets 642,632

Liabilities and Stockholder's Equity

Current Liabilities
Accounts Payable 26,440
Interest Payable 6,650
Total Current Liabilities 33,090

Long Term Liabilities

Note Payable 380,000
Total Liabilities 413,090

Stockholder's Equity
Common Stock 160,000
Retained Earnings 69,542
Total Owner's Equity 229,542

Total Liabilities and Stockholder's Equity 642,632

4
 EADS HEATERS, INC.
Income Statement
For Year Ended December 31, 20X1
Sales 398,500
Cost of Goods Sold 188,800
Gross Profit 209,700

Operating Expenses
Selling Expenses
Other Operating Expenses 34,200
Administrative Expenses
Bad Debt Expense 4,970
Depreciation Expense-Building 10,000
Depreciation Expense-Equipment 20,000
Depreciation Expense- Leased Equipment 11,500 46,470 80,670

Income From Operations 129,030

Other Expenses and Losses

Interest Expense 35,010

Income Before Income Tax 94,020

Income Tax 23,505
Net Income for the Year 70,515

EADS HEATERS, INC.

Statement of Retained Earnings
For Year Ended December 31, 20X1

Retained Earnings, January 1 0

Add: Net Income 70,515
70515
Less: Dividends 23,200

Retained Earnings, December 31 47,315

5
 EADS HEATERS, INC.
Classified Balance Sheet
December 31, 20X1
Assets
Current Assets
Cash 7,835
Accounts Receivable 99,400
Less: Allowance for Doubtful Accounts 4970 94,430
Inventory 51,000
Total Current Assets 153265

Property, Plant, and Equipment

Land 70,000
Building 350,000
Less: Accumulated Depreciation 10,000 340,000
Equipment 80,000
Less: Accumulated Depreciation 20,000 60,000
Leased Equipment 92,000
Less: Accumulated Depreciation 11,500 80,500
Total Property, Plant, and Equipment 550,500
Total Assets 703,765

Liabilities and Stockholder's Equity

Current Liabilities
Accounts Payable 26,440
Interest Payable 6,650
Lease Payable 83,360
Total Current Liabilities 116,450

Long Term Liabilities

Note Payable 380,000
Total Liabilities 496,450

Stockholder's Equity
Common Stock 160,000
Retained Earnings 47,315
Total Owner's Equity 207,315

Total Liabilities and Stockholder's Equity 703,765

6
CASE 2: PROFITABILITY AND EARNINGS PERSISTANCE
Molson Coors Brewing Company

7
 Introduction

This case focuses on the Income Statement in the context of a brewing company,

titled Molson Coors Brewing Company. This case emphasized the concepts and

interpretations behind the Income Statement, rather than just the quantitative aspects. It

asked the “why” question frequently to allow for deeper investigation and understanding

of each individual item appearing on the statement. This helped to grow and expand my

knowledge on this financial statement in particular as I thought of the specifics behind

each detail. Knowing the purpose of each item is just as important as knowing the amount

associated with it. Moreover, it is essential to recognize where each item finds its place.

The Generally Accepted Accounting Principles has very strict standards for reporting on

the Income Statement, however allows for some judgment. For example, discontinued

operations involve judgment to discern the contents reported under this title.

We were asked to write this case as if writing to a bookkeeper or someone

clerical. This involved molding accounting concepts, their definitions, and explanations

so a bookkeeper can understand them with ease. In doing this, I had to be careful to

maintain the true integrity and meaning of the accounting concepts. This gave me

experience I will take with me for years to come. The accounting profession demands

much more than just accounting skills. It expects writing, analyzing, and organization

skills as well. In this case, I had to think about the items on the Income Statement, but

even more, the distinction between each item. This took analysis and reasonable thought

beyond pure accounting.

8
 Concepts

A. What are the major classifications on an income statement?

The major classifications on an income statement are as follows:

o Sales: This is presented as sales less discounts, allowances, and returns to arrive at net

sales.

o Cost of Goods Sold: This item shows the cost of goods that were sold to produce the

sales.

o Gross Profit: Gross Profit is a subtotal computed by subtracting cost of goods sold

from net sales.

o Operating Expenses: This section includes all revenues and expenses resulting from

central operations.

o Selling Expenses: This outlines all expenses resulting from the company’s

efforts to make sales.

o Administrative Expenses: This lists all expenses from general administration.

o Income from Operations: This subtotal is calculated by subtracting operating

expenses from gross profit.

o Other Revenues and Gains: This subsection falls under the Nonoperating section of

revenues (including usual and infrequent gains) resulting from secondary activities.

o Other Expenses and Losses: Other Expenses and Losses also falls under the

Nonoperating section but instead lists the expenses (including usual and infrequent

losses) resulting from secondary activities.

o Income before Income Tax: This subtotal is the net of the operating and nonoperating

sections.

9
o Income Tax: This is calculated by applying the tax rate to the income before income

tax.

o Discontinued Operations: This section reports the gain or loss from disposal of a

component or segment and results of operations or a segment that has been disposed

of.

o Noncontrolling Interest: This section details the allocation of income to

noncontrolling shareholders. This portion relates to minority interest.

o Net Income: This total encompasses all sections before it.

o Earnings Per Share: EPS is a measure of performance required on the face on the

income statement. It should be presented for income for continuing operations and

discontinued operations if it exists. First, calculate net income less preferred

dividends. This number represents income not available to common stockholders.

Divide this by weighted average common shares outstanding. This is for common

stockholders.

B. Explain why, under U.S. GAAP, companies are required to provide “classified”

income statements.

Under U.S. GAAP, companies are required to provide classified income statements.

Classified in this context means the financial statement items are split into classifications.

A classified income statement separates operating transactions from nonoperating

transactions, and matches cost and expenses with related revenues. This practice also

emphasizes the difference between regular and non-recurring or incidental activities. The

operating section allows users to focus on a pure measure without considering investment

and secondary performances. These revenues and expenses related to core business

10
activities offer insights into the performance of a company. A classified income statement

highlights certain intermediate components of income as well that allow users to assess

operating effectiveness of company and the efficiency of management. When broken out,

users can evaluate which sectors are performing well or poorly. Moreover, it shows gross

profit; a tool investors and creditors use to make decisions. Overall, a classified income

statement walks the user through the details of sales to net income, and finally, earnings

per share. Therefore, users can see a company transforms net revenue realized into a

profit or loss.

C. In general, why might financial statement users by interested in a measure of

persistent income?

Persistent income excludes events and transactions that prove atypical from transactions

that will continue to occur in the core operations of the company. A measure of the

permanent, persistent income provides implications for the future. It provides a forecast

of the future discounted for unusual events. Potential investors or creditors can

distinguish regular activities from incidental and nonrecurring ones to assess the amount,

timing and uncertainty of future cash flows. Thus, these users are able to assess the risk.

Furthermore, a measure of persistent income allows a better measure of comparison, in

trend analysis, as non-recurring activities will most likely not continue into future periods

at the same level. Internal management can use this as a tool for planning and budgeting.

D. Define comprehensive income and discuss how it differs from net income.

Comprehensive income has a broader scope than net income. It includes all revenues,

gains, expenses and losses. Net income shows income from day-to-day operations

whereas comprehensive income shows all changes in equity (net assets) of a company

11
during a period except those resulting from investments by owners and distribution to

owners. Thus, it includes items such as unrealized holding gains and losses on trading

securities and certain pension adjustments.

Process

E. The income statement reports “Sales” and “Net sales.” What is the difference?

Why does Molson Coors report these two items separately?

Sales is the gross amount of revenue received in exchange for something of value (a

product or service). This amount doesn’t encompass sales discounts, returns and

allowances. Additionally, it shows sales before they are impacted by excise taxes.

Reporting them separately allows them to assess trends more easily. By putting excise tax

here, they are trying to convey that they are not paying this specific tax but instead, they

levy this tax onto their consumer. Therefore, it is treated as a reduction in sales and not as

a regular tax. This is because taxes collected from the customers are liabilities and

consequently must be reduced when handed over to the tax authority.

F. Consider the income statement item “Special items, net” and information in Notes

1 and 8.

i. In General, what types of items does Molson Coors include in this line item?

Molson Coors includes a section titled “Special Items, net”. Here, they disclose items

they believe are not indicative of their “core operations”. Molson Coors claims they do

not expect these gains and charges incurred to occur regularly. Items included in this line

item are as follows: restructuring charges, impairments or asset abandonment charges,

atypical employee-related costs, fees on termination of significant operating agreements,

and gains or losses on disposal of investments. For example, during 2013, Molson Coors

12
recorded losses and related costs of $5.4 million in their Europe business in relation to

significant flooding in Czech Republic. This loss and the related flood loss insurance

reimbursement fell under the “Special Items, net” line item.

ii. Explain why the company reports these on a spate line item rather than

including them with another expense item. Molson Coors classifies these special

items as operating expenses. Do you concur with this classification? Explain.

I do not agree with this classification. Special items can be seen as a red flag to investors.

Just because these items are under the special items title does not mean they are not

recurring. “Special Items” are subjective in nature. Therefore, putting these separately

creates uncertainty and negatively impacts the ability to assess their performance. They

reflect deceptive manipulation of the user. Before the Statement of Financial Accounting

Standard No. 154, certain cumulative effects of changes in accounting were given special

treatment on the Income Statement. However, since 2005, this practice is not permitted.

Gains and losses from extraordinary items are no longer considered extraordinary items.

Impairment or asset abandonment related losses fall under continuing operations.

Unusual or infrequent items should be reported in the nonoperating item section.

Moreover, restructuring charges should be presented in the non-operating section.

Disposal of investments should be reported in the discontinued operations.

G. Consider the income statement item “Other income (expense), net” and the

information in Note 6. What is the distinction between “Other income (expense),

net” which is classified as nonoperating expense, and “Special items, net” which

Molson Coors classifies as operating expenses?

13
Other Income and Expenses fall under the nonoperating section. This is where Molson

Coors reports revenues and expenses rising from secondary activities of the company.

Here, they outline their gains and losses that are not considered part of the discontinued

operations. For example, Molson Coors recorded the gain on sale of non-operating assets

related to selling their 14.6 percent interest in the Colorado Rockies Baseball Club, Ltd.

This amount also included gains related to the sale of water rights and other secondary

transactions.

H. Refer to the statement of comprehensive income.

i. What is the amount of comprehensive income in 2013? How does this amount

compare to net income in 2013?

Molson Coors Brewing Company had a comprehensive income of $760.2 million in

2013. Their net income was much lower at $572.5 million.

ii. What accounts for the difference between net income and comprehensive

income in 2013? In your own words, how are the items included in Molson

Coors’ comprehensive income related?

The “dirty surplus” accounts for the difference between net income and comprehensive

income in 2013. This comprises gains and losses on foreign currency translations,

derivative assets and liabilities, pension adjustments, and unrealized securities available

for sale. These are sometimes reported on the bottom on the income statement but often,

they are reported on the Statement of Stockholder’s Equity.

J. Consider the information on income taxes, in Note 7.

i. What is Molson Coors’ effective tax rate in 2013?

14
Their effective tax rate in 2013 is 12.8 percent. This is calculated by dividing the income

tax expense (84) by the pretax income (654.5). This is much lower than the statutory

federal corporate tax rate, 35 percent, as a result of their foreign deferred tax benefits. In

Note 7, their reconciliation outlines how they are able to decrease their taxes.

15
CASE 3: ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE
Pearson PLC

16
 Introduction

This case, titled Pearson PLC, focuses on the Accounts Receivable account and its

accompanying contra accounts. Explaining the concepts behind these accounts in plain

English helps solidify my understanding of them. Contra accounts emphasize the

importance behind the revenue and expense recognition principles which provides the

basis and foundation of accrual accounting.

The “Process” section includes creating the T-accounts, the journal entries, and

the connections between them. Certain numbers from one T-account would plug into the

next one so it became a puzzle to connect the dots. Understanding and following these

connections is essential to take a step further in knowledge beyond the basic grasp I

previously held. I was forced to recognize the flow of information. Following a flow

allows me to understand and retain the process much better than merely memorizing

steps and what goes where. Furthermore, this case asks to indicate which accounts were

on the balance sheet accounts and which were on the income statement. This practice

helps visualize the bigger picture and not just the components separated into pieces.

Overall, these cases continue to simulate real word financials which facilitates and pairs

with my other accounting classes; making abstract concepts more concrete. Moreover,

answering questions in short answer or essay form poses a different task than just

knowing the concept for a test. I found myself going back to the basics, looking in my

Accounting 201 and 202 book to revisit foundational concepts, ones that I know but

couldn’t explain well. The case originates in the United Kingdom, so it adds a taste of

different practices seen in other countries’ financials.

17
 Concepts

A. What is an account receivable? What other names does this asset go by?

An account receivable is the amount of money owed by entities outside of the company.

It is an asset account. Accounts Receivable is also called Trade Receivables.

B. How do accounts receivable differ from notes receivable?

Both Accounts Receivable and Notes Receivable are asset accounts. Accounts

Receivable are sales on credit or sales on account. They are held by a seller and indicate

the promise or obligation of a customer to pay the seller. Notes Receivable represents a

written promise of another entity to pay a specified sum of money on a specified date in

the future to the holder of the note. Thus, Notes Receivable differ as they indicate money

lent to a borrower, whereas Accounts Receivable represent money owed as a result of an

operating transaction. In addition, Notes Receivable are often interest-bearing, whereas

Accounts Receivable are not.

C. What is a contra account? What two contra accounts are associated with Pearson’s

trade receivables (see Note 22)? What types of activities are captured in each of

these contra accounts? Describe factors that managers might consider when

deciding how to estimate the balance in each of these contra accounts.

A contra account offsets an account. Contra accounts have the opposite normal balance of

the account they connect to. They are subtracted from the other account’s balance. When

using accrual accounting, these contra accounts must be estimated in order to follow the

Expense Recognition Principle (based on matching revenues with the expenses incurred

to generate them). There are two contra accounts associated with Pearson’s Trade

Receivables: Allowance for Sales Returns and Allowances and Allowance for Doubtful

18
Accounts. Note: As Pearson PLC operates in the United Kingdom, they use different

terminology in certain instances. Their financial statements label allowance account as

provisions. The Allowance for Sales Returns and Allowances contra account estimates

the losses arising from customer returns and allowances. These losses result from

customers returning damaged or defective items. Sales Allowances occur when

customers keep the damaged or defective item in return for a reduction of the original

selling price. This account is deducted from Sales. Pearson’s other contra account, titled

Allowance for Doubtful Accounts, estimates the uncollectible amounts so that

receivables are reported at their net realizable value. Managers must use and consider

many factors to estimate these account amounts. They are based on the amount of bad

debts or sales the company has experienced in past years, general economic conditions,

how long the receivables are past due, their credit history, and other factors.

D. Two commonly used approaches for estimating uncollectible accounts receivable

are the percentage-of-sales procedure and the aging-of-accounts procedure.

Briefly describe these two approaches. What information do managers need to

determine the activity and final account balance under each approach? Which of

the two approaches do you think results in a more accurate estimate of net

accounts receivable?

Uncollectible account estimates can be calculated by using one of two methods. The

percentage-of-sales method assumes a certain percent of receivables is uncollectible. This

percent is then multiplied by the total dollar amount of receivables to find the total

uncollectible amount. The percent is based upon the past experience, economic

conditions, and the company’s trends. The aging-of-accounts procedure examines both

19
past and current receivables. This approach requires classification of each receivable by

the amount of time past due. As this time increases, the likelihood it becomes

uncollectible increases proportionally. Next, a percent is assigned and applied to each

class to determine the estimated balance of uncollectible accounts. Ultimately, the aging-

of-accounts method proves more reliable and accurate as it examines each account

separately.

E. If Pearson anticipates that some accounts will be uncollectible, why did the

company extend credit to those customers in the first place? Discuss the risks that

managers must consider with respect to accounts receivable.

Accounts Receivable allows customers to make purchases without cash or checks.

However, anytime something is purchased on credit, the firm is extending a great amount

of trust. Credit sales increases convenience which in turn increases revenue. In order to

gain maximum revenue, uncollectible accounts are a risk that a firm must take. In the

long run, the risk proves worthwhile for all the sales made on credit. This is why

uncollectible accounts are viewed as an expense to generate Sales. In summary,

uncollectible accounts are a consequence of convenience and maximizing Sales Revenue.

Process

F. Note 22 reports the balance in Pearson’s provision for bad and doubtful debts (for

trade receivables) and reports the account activity (“movements”) during the year

ended December 31, 2009. Note that Pearson refers to the trade receivables contra

account as a “provision.” Under U.S. GAAP, the receivables contra account is

typically referred to as an “allowance” while the term provision is used to

20
 describe the current-period income statement charge for uncollectible accounts

(also known as bad debt expense).

i. Use the information in Note 22 to complete a T-account that shows the activity in

the provision for bad and doubtful debts account during the year. Explain, in your

own words, the line items that reconcile the change in account during 2009.

Allowance for Doubtful Account

All figures in £ millions

5 (72)

20 (26)

(3)

(76)

-£72 million represents the beginning balance of the Allowance for Doubtfuls account

whereas -£76 million represents the ending balance on the account. The line items to the

right of the T-account are credit movements, which represent the Bad Debt Expenses for

2009, which Pearson calls Income Statement movements. These decrease the account

balance. The line items to the left of the T-account show the write offs of the Accounts

Receivable, called “Utilised”. These increase the account balance.

ii. Prepare the journal entries that Pearson recorded during 2009 to capture 1) bad

and doubtful debts expense for 2009 (that is, the “income statement movements”)

and 2) the write-off of accounts receivable (that is, the amount “utilised”) during

21
 2009. For each account in your journal entries, note whether the account is a

balance sheet or income statement account.

1. Bad Debt Expense (I/S account) £26 million

Allowance for Doubtful Accounts (B/S acct) £26 million

2. Allowance for Doubtful Accounts (B/S acct) £20 million

Accounts Receivable (B/S acct) £20 million

iii. Where in the income statement is the provision for bad and doubtful debts

expense included?

The allowance for bad and doubtful debts expense is included under the operating

expense section on the income statement as it is a loss associated with normal credit

sales.

G. Note 22 reports that the balance in Pearson’s provision for sales returns was £372

at December 31, 2008 and £354 at December 31, 2009. Under U.S. GAAP, this

contra account is typically referred to as an “allowance” and reflects the

company’s anticipated sales returns.

i. Complete a T-account that shows the activity in the provision for sales returns

account during the year. Assume that Pearson estimated that returns relating to 2009

Sales to be £425 million. In reconciling the change in the account, two types of

journal entries are required, one to record the estimated sales returns for the period

and one to record the amount of actual book returns.

22
 Allowance for Sales
Returns and Allowances
All figures in £ millions
372

443 425

354

ii. Prepare the journal entries that Pearson recorded during 2009 to capture, 1) the

2009 estimated sales returns and 2) the amount of actual book returns during

2009. In your answer, note whether each account in the journal entries is a

balance sheet or income statement account.

1. Sales Returns and Allowances (I/S acct) £425 million

Allowance for Sales Returns and Allowances (B/S acct) £425 million

2. Allowance for Sales Returns and Allowances (B/S acct) £443 million

Accounts Receivable (B/S acct) £443 million

iii. In which income statement line item does the amount of 2009 estimated sales

returns appear?

On the income statement, the amount of 2009 estimated sales returns appears under Sales

Revenue. It is deducted from Sales because it is a contra account. This provides the Gross

Sales Revenue amount.

H. Create a T-account for total or gross trade receivables (that is, trade receivables

before deducting the provision for bad and doubtful debts and the provision for

sales returns). Analyze the change in this T-account between December 31, 2008

and 2009. (Hint: your solution to parts f and g will be useful here). Assume that

all sales in 2009 were on account. That is, they are all “credit sales.” You may

also assume that there were no changes to the account due to business

23
 combinations or foreign exchange rate changes. Prepare the journal entries to

record the sales on account and accounts receivable collection activity in this

account during the year.

Gross Trade Receivables (Gross A/R)

All figures in £ millions
1,474

5,624 5,216

20

443

1,419

Trade Receivables £5,624 million

Sales Revenue £5,624 million

Cash £5,679 million

Accounts Receivable £5,679 million

The beginning balance for gross trade receivables, £1,474 million, can be found in Note

22 in the total trade receivables line item under the 2008 column. Gross Trade

Receivables slightly decreased between December 31, 2008 and December 31, 2009.

This T-account reconciles the beginning balance by first adding gross credit sales of the

year, £5,624 million, which is adjusted for the Estimated Sales Returns and Allowances.

Then, cash collections, write-offs of accounts receivables, and sales returns are credited

(subtracted) to yield the ending amount of Gross Trade Receivables, which is £1,419

million.

24
CASE 4: BAD DEBT REPORTING
Step-by-Step Guide

25
 Introduction

For this case, I chose to work a problem on a topic I felt unsure about. This

problem is about receivables and bad debt reporting. It can be found in the Intermediate

Accounting book by Kieso, Weygandt, and Warfield in chapter seven. The problem is a

series of unrelated situations. By providing a step-by-step guide, it enabled me to gain a

greater understanding on the previously unfamiliar topic. The problem has a series of

questions so it allowed me to master different components of the topic.

26
 Problem along with the Step-By-Step Guide:

Problem P7-2:

Answer the questions related to each of the five independent situations as requested:

1. Halen Company’s unadjusted trial balance at December 31, 2017, included the

following accounts.

Debit Credit

Accounts Receivable $53,000

Allowance for doubtful accounts 4,000

Net Sales $1,200,000

Halen Company estimates its bad debt expense to be 7 percent of gross accounts

receivable. Determine its bad debt expense for 2017.

To find the bad debt expense, start by multiplying Halen Company’s accounts receivable

amount, $53,000 by the percentage indicated, 7 percent. This calculation solves for the

ending balance of Allowance for Doubtful accounts, which equals $3,710. Next, create a

T-account titled Allowance for Doubtful accounts. $3,710 plugs in as the ending balance.

The beginning balance, $4,000 is given in the problem. Thus, all you must solve for is the

credit balance, on the right-hand side of the T-account. This is a simple calculation: x-

4,000= 3710 where x equals bad debt expense. So, Halen Company has $7,710 as its bad

debt expense for 2017.

Allowance for Doubtful Accounts

4,000 7710

3710

27
 2. An analysis and aging of Stuart Corp. accounts receivable at December 31, 2017,

disclosed the following.

Amounts estimated to be uncollectible $180,000

Accounts Receivable 1,750,000
Allowance for doubtful accounts (per books) 125,000

What is the net realizable value of Stuart’s receivables at December 31,2017?

Net realizable value is essentially the net accounts receivable. Thus, to solve for it,

subtract the amounts estimated to be uncollectible ($180,000) from accounts receivable

($1,750,000). This calculation finds the NRV as 1,570,000.

3. Shore co. provides for doubtful accounts based on 4 percent of gross accounts

receivable, the following date are available for 2017.

Credit sales during 2017 $4,400,000

Bad debt expense 57,000
Allowance for doubtful accounts 1/1/17 17,000
Collection of accounts written off in prior years
(customer credit was reestablished) 8,000
Customer accounts written off as uncollectible during 2017 30,000

What is the balance in Allowance for doubtful accounts at December 31, 2017?

Start with the beginning balance 1/1/17, $17,000 and add the collection of accounts

written off in prior years. Then, multiply the accounts receivable amount by the

percentage, which equals $176,000. Finally, subtract the customer accounts written off as

uncollectible ($30,000). This reconcile the account for the ending balance as 171,000

December 31, 2017.

Allowance for doubtful accounts 1/1/17 17,000

Collection of accounts written off in prior years 8,000
(4,400,000* 4 percent) 176,000
Customer accounts written off as uncollectible (30,000)
Allowance for Doubtful accts, 12/31/17 171,000

28
 4. At the end of its first year of operations, December 31, 2017, Darden Inc. reported

the following information.

Accounts receivable, net of allowance for doubtful accounts $950,000

Customer accounts written off as uncollectible during 2017 24,000
Bad debt expense for 2017 84,000

What should be the balance in accounts receivable at December 31, 2017, before

subtracting the allowance for doubtful accounts?

First, subtract the accounts written off as uncollectible during 2017 from the bad debt

expense.

Bad Debt Expense 84,000

Uncollectible (24,000)
60,000

Next, deduct the answer found above from accounts receivable, net of allowance for

doubtful accounts to find the ending balance, before subtracting the allowance for

doubtful accounts.

Net Accounts Receivable 950,000

(60,000)
12/31/17 Balance 1,010,000

5. The following accounts were taken from Bullock Inc.’s trial balance at December

31, 2017.

Debit Credit
Net credit sales $750,000
Allowance for doubtful accounts $14,000
Accounts receivable $310,000

If doubtful accounts are 3 percent of accounts receivable, determine the bad debt

expense to be reported for 2017.

First multiply the accounts receivable amount (310,000) and the percentage (3 percent).

This gives the bad debt expense, before adjustment. Next add the amount given for the

29
allowance for doubtful accounts ($14,000). Thus, the bad debt expense reported for 2017

is $23,300.

Accounts receivable 310,000

Percentage *.03
Bad debt expense, before adjustment 9300
Allowance for doubtful accounts 14,000
Bad debt expense 23,300

30
CASE 5: PROPERTY, PLANT, AND EQUIPMENT
Palfinger AG

31
Introduction

This case highlights the property, plant, and equipment section on the balance

sheet. These are noncurrent assets such as land, buildings, machinery, fixtures, and more.

These tangible assets are not used in operations or held for resale. This allowed me to

learn this specific section on the balance sheet in greater depth.

This case gave me exposure to a few things I had never seen before such as

government grants and the account “self-constructed assets”. Moreover, it offered

comparisons of the depreciation methods and the resulting impact on the financial

statements when using one or the other. Each impacts income differently by causing

gains or losses. Comparisons give context to the methods; which proves more useful or

practical. Additionally, this case gave me more experience in Excel, which equips me

with important skills needed in my future career. Excel is an excellent tool for

computation, comparisons, and organization.

32
 Concepts

Note: Palfinger reports all financial statement information is in thousands.

A. Based on the description of Palfinger above, what sort of property and

equipment do you think the company has?

Palfinger AG makes knuckle boom cranes, timber and recycling cranes, and telescopic

cranes. They also provide container handling systems, tailgates, aerial work platforms,

transportable forklifts and railway system solutions. For this, they need heavy machinery.

Additionally, they need a lot of depleting resources such as steel. They need a lot of

construction equipment and transport devices to move this heavy equipment.

Furthermore, this kind of manufacturing requires a lot of square footage for their plants.

B. The 2007 balance sheet shows property, plant, and equipment of €149,990.

What does this number represent?

€149,990 represents the amount of money invested into the equipment, plant and property

used to produce the products they manufacture. This number is adjusted for depreciation

because assets should be recorded at net realizable value.

C. What types of equipment does Palfinger report in notes to the financial

statements?

Palfinger reports a few types of equipment in the notes to the financial statements. First,

they have their own buildings and investments in third party buildings. They also have

plant and machinery equipment. Finally, the report fixtures, fittings, and equipment.

D. In the notes, Palfinger reports “Prepayments and assets under construction.”

What does this sub-account represent? Why does this account have no

33
 accumulated depreciation? Explain the reclassification of €14,858 in this account

during 2007.

The sub-account titled “Prepayments and assets under construction” represents their self-

constructed assets. These are the assets the company builds themselves. This makes sense

because they produce the same items necessary to build their production items. This

account has no accumulated depreciation because something under construction is not

depreciated. Assets start accumulating depreciation only after completion when it is

available for use. Companies temporarily use a clearing account called construction in

progress. The costs are collected here and treated as an asset. When they are finished they

are removed and debited to actual Property Plant and Equipment. This explains the

reclassification of €14,858 (representing it moving departments, from under construction

to the administration department).

E. How does Palfinger depreciate its property and equipment? Does this policy

seem reasonable? Explain the trade-offs management makes in choosing a

depreciation policy.

Palfinger depreciates its property and equipment with the straight-line method.

This seems reasonable because the straight-line method is appropriate where benefits

from an asset will be realized evenly over its useful life. It is also reasonable for Property,

Plant and Equipment with longer useful lives. Double declining balance is used for things

with shorter lives. Additionally, the straight-line depreciation method is easier to use.

However, the double declining balance method is more accurate.

34
 F. Palfinger routinely opts to perform major renovations and value-enhancing

modifications to equipment and buildings rather than buy new assets. How does

Palfinger treat these expenditures? What is the alternative accounting treatment?

Palfinger opts for major modifications over buying new assets. When performing

maintenance and repair work, Palfinger treats these are current expense in the year in

which they occur. Palfinger capitalizes replacement investments and value-enhancing

investments and depreciates them over either the new or the original useful life. Thus,

they treat major and extraordinary repairs as capital expenditures. Alternatively, they

could treat them as operating expenses.

Major and extraordinary repairs are treated as capital expenditures. Thus, these repairs

can be capitalized.

Process

G. Use the information in the financial statement notes to analyze the activity in

the “Property, plant and equipment” and “Accumulated depreciation and

impairment” accounts for 2007. Determine the following amounts:

i. The purchase of new property, plant and equipment in fiscal 2007.

€61,444 represents the purchase of new property, plant and equipment in fiscal 2007.

This results from the following calculation: 12,139 + 2,020 + 15, 612 + 10,673 + 21,000.

These numbers are found in the “additions” row in the financial statement notes.

ii. Government grants for purchases of new property, plant and equipment in

2007. Explain what these grants are and why they are deducted from the property,

plant and equipment account.

35
The government grants for purchases of new property, plant and equipment amount to

€733. This is calculated by €417 and €316. To account for government grants, they are

deducted from the carrying amount of the asset. This is done to match them with the

related costs, for which they will compensate. This is why they are reductions to

property, plant and equipment.

iii. Depreciation expense for fiscal 2007.

The depreciation expense is €12,557.

iv. The net book value of property, plant and equipment that Palfinger disposed of

in fiscal 2007.

The net book value of property, plant and equipment of disposal is €1501, which is the

difference between €13, 799 and €12,298.

H. The statement of cash flows (not presented) reports that Palfinger received

proceeds on the sale of property, plant and equipment amounting to €1,655 in

fiscal 2007. Calculate the gain or loss that Palfinger incurred on this transaction.

Hint: use the net book value you calculated in part G iv, above. Explain what this

gain or loss represents in economic terms.

Palfinger incurs a €154 gain. This is the difference between €1,655 and €1,501. This

represents the excess amount over the book value resulting form the sale. It increases

income.

I. Consider the €10,673 added to “Other plant, fixtures, fittings, and equipment”

during fiscal 2007. Assume that these net assets have an expected useful life of

five years and a salvage value of €1,273. Prepare a table showing the depreciation

36
expense and net book value of this equipment over its expected life assuming that

Palfinger recorded a full year of depreciation in 2007 and the company uses:

i. Straight-line depreciation

ii. Double-declining-balance depreciation

Straight Line Double Declining

Depreciation Balance
Gross Book Value € 10,673 € 10,673
Depreciation Expense 2007 1,880 3,760
Net Book Value 2007 8,793 6,913
Depreciation Expense 2008 1,880 2,435
Net Book Value 2008 6,913 4,478
Depreciation Expense 2009 1,880 1,577
Net Book Value 2009 5,033 2,901
Depreciation Expense 2010 1,880 1,022
Net Book Value Year 2010 3,153 1,879
Depreciation Expense 2011 1,880 606
Net Book Value Year 2011 € 1,273 € 1,273

Depreciation Expense Formula

Double Declining
Straight Line Balance = 2 ×
Depreciation = Straight-line
(Purchase Price of depreciation rate ×
Asset - Salvage Book value at the
Value) /estimated beginning of the
useful life year

37
 J. Assume that the equipment from part I was sold on the first day of fiscal 2008

for proceeds of €7,500. Assume that Palfinger’s accounting policy is to take no

depreciation in the year of sale.

i. Calculate any gain or loss on this transaction assuming that the company used

straight-line depreciation. What is the total income statement impact of the

equipment for the two years that Palfinger owned it? Consider the gain or loss on

disposal as well as the total depreciation recorded on the equipment (i.e. the

amount from part i.i)

Using straight-line depreciation, there would be a gain of €1,293. This would increase

income. As the original cost was €10,673 and the accumulated depreciation was €1,880,

the book value at the time of disposal was €8,793. Considering the cash proceeds of

€7,500, the loss is €1,293 (calculated as €8,793-€7,500 = €1,293).

ii. Calculate any gain or loss on this transaction assuming the company used

double-declining balance depreciation. What is the total income statement impact

of this equipment for the two years the Palfinger owned them? Consider the gain

or loss on disposal as well as the total depreciation recorded on the equipment (i.e.

the amount from part i. ii)

The original cost was €10,673 and the accumulated depreciation was €4,269. As such, the

resulting book value at the time of the disposal was of €6,404. Considering the cash

proceeds of €7,500, the gain is calculated as €7,500 – €6,404 = €1,096. This would

negatively impact the income statement by decreasing income.

38
 iii. Compare the total two-year income statement impact of the equipment under

the two depreciation policies. Comment on the difference.

Using the straight-line depreciation method yields a higher income, €11,261 (calculation:

€9968 + €1293) than the income resulting from using double declining balance. Under

double declining balance, the income is €9,381 (the difference between €9968 and €587).

39
CASE 6: RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT COSTS
Volvo Group

40
 Introduction

This case focused on research and development costs. This case broadened my

horizons, as I have never dealt with this particular subject matter. I learned what kind of

costs fall into this category and how they are handled on the financial statements. There

are two differing treatments: under U.S. GAAP or under IFRS. Thus, research and

development costs can either be expensed or capitalized. I also assessed the impact of

how they are handled.

When comparing companies, it gave me a better perspective on how Volvo Group

dealt with their own financials. Further, looking at the proportion of the research and

development costs to the net sales allows for even greater comparison. Moreover,

working with excel on regular basis this semester has solidified my skills. I enjoyed this

case because it gave me experience in a new area.

41
 Concepts

A. The 2009 income statement shows research and development expenses of SEK

13,193 (millions of Swedish Krona). What types of costs are likely included in

these amounts?

Research and development expenses can include a broad range of costs. In terms of

research, this expense includes costs to cover the laboratory research directed at the

discovery of new knowledge and data. For development expenses, some costs stem from

the design of new possible products or process alternatives and construction of

prototypes. The costs associated with R&D activities cover the salaries for the research

staff working on the developments. It also includes the engineering costs incurred to

advance new commercial vehicles or engines. Additionally, it would include the costs of

materials, equipment and facilities used in these projects. Volvo Group would incur costs

to test the prototype and design modifications. Indirect costs are associated with research

and development expenses as well. Finally, the costs to obtain patents or copyrights are

likely included in this amount.

B. Volvo Group follows IAS 38—Intangible Assets, to account for its research and

development expenditures (see IAS 38 excerpts at the end of this case). As such,

the company capitalizes certain R&D costs and expenses others. What factors

does Volvo Group consider as it decides which R&D costs to capitalize and

which to expense?

Under GAAP, Volvo Group expenses research and development costs when incurred. In

contrast, under IAS 38, research and development costs are treated differently. In this

42
case, Volvo Group can only capitalize the development costs if they meet three criteria.

They must expense all research costs.

C. The R&D costs that Volvo Group capitalizes each period (labeled Product and

software development costs) are amortized in subsequent periods, similar to other

capital assets such as property and equipment. Notes to Volvo’s financial

statements disclose that capitalized product and software development costs are

amortized over three to eight years. What factors would the company consider in

determining the amortization period for particular costs?

Some intangible assets have an infinite life. Volvo discloses that their capitalized product

and software development costs have a finite life. They choose to amortize their costs

over three to eight years. They must consider the speed of software development

innovation. To determine this, they can look at their own past. Moreover, they can look at

other companies’ innovations and similar technology. Product and software development

is constantly improving and changing and this rate of change must be considered.

D. Under U.S. GAAP, companies must expense all R&D costs. In your opinion,

which accounting principle (IFRS or U.S. GAAP) provides financial statements

that better reflect costs and benefits of periodic R&D spending?

The two contrasting standards under U.S. GAAP and IFRS majorly impacts

comparability of the financial statements across companies. In my opinion, the

accounting principle under U.S. GAAP better reflects costs and benefits of periodic R&D

spending as it follows the revenue and cost recognition and matching principles.

43
 Process

E. Refer to footnote 14 where Volvo reports an intangible asset for “Product and

software development.” Assume that the product and software development costs

reported in footnote 14 are the only R&D costs that Volvo capitalizes.

i. What is the amount of the capitalized product and software development costs, net

of accumulated amortization at the end of fiscal 2009? Which line item on Volvo

Group’s balance sheet reports this intangible asset?

The amount of the capitalized product and software development costs, net of

accumulated amortization at the end of fiscal 2009 is $11,409. This is show on the last

line item under the “Product and software development” column. The first table only

shows the gross amount so the amortization must be subtracted out.

ii. Create a T-account for the intangible asset “Product and software

development,” net of accumulated amortization. Enter the opening and ending

balances for fiscal 2009. Show entries in the T-account that record the 2009

capitalization (capital expenditures) and amortization. To simplify the analysis,

group all other account activity during the year and report the net impact as one

entry in the T-account.

Capitalized Product and Software, net

Beginning Balance 12,381

Amounts Capitalized 2,602 3,126 Amortization

448 Other activity

Ending Balance 11,409

44
 F. Refer to Volvo’s balance sheet, footnotes, and the eleven-year summary. Assume

that the product and software development costs reported in footnote 14 are the

only R&D costs that Volvo capitalizes.

i. Complete the table below for Volvo’s Product and software development intangible

asset.

(in US $ millions) 2007 2008 2009

Total R&D costs incurred

during the year, expensed on
the income statement 375 384 433
Net sales, manufactured
products 11,910 14,339 11,300
Total assets 11,448 10,390 10,028

Operating income before tax (73) 191 359

2007 2008 2009

1) Product and software development
costs capitalized during the year 2,057 2,150 2,602

2) Total R&D expense on the income

statement 11,059 14,348 13,193
3) Amortization of previously
capitalized costs (included in R&D
expense) 2,357 2,864 3,126

4) Total R&D costs incurred during the

year = 1 + 2 - 3 10,759 13,634 12,669

iii. What proportion of Total R&D costs incurred did Volvo Group capitalize (as

product and software development intangible asset) in each of the three years?

In 2007, Volvo Group capitalized 19.11 percent of total R&D costs. In 2008, they

capitalized 15.77 percent of total R&D costs. Finally, in 2009, Volvo Group capitalized

20.54 percent of their total R&D costs.

45
 G. Assume that you work as a financial analyst for Volvo Group and would like to

compare Volvo’s research and development expenditures to a U.S. competitor,

Navistar International Corporation. Navistar follows U.S. GAAP that requires that all

research and development costs be expensed in the year they are incurred. You gather

the following information for Navistar for fiscal year end October 31, 2007 through

2009.

i. Use the information from Volvo’s eleven-year summary to complete the following

table:

(in SEK millions) 2007 2008 2009

Net sales, industrial operations 276,795 294,932 208,487
Total assets, from balance sheet 321,647 372,419 332,265

ii. Calculate the proportion of total research and development costs incurred to net

sales from operations (called, net sales from manufactured products, for Navistar) for

both firms. How does the proportion compare between the two companies?

Navistar 2007 2008 2009

Total R&D 375 384 433
Net Sales from Operations 11,910 14,339 11,300
R&D/Net Sales 3.15% 2.68% 3.83%
Volvo
Total R&D 10,759 13,634 12,669
Net Sales from Operations 276,795 294,932 208,487
R&D/Net Sales 3.89% 4.62% 6.08%

As this table illustrates, in all three years, Volvo Group has a higher proportion of total

R&D incurred to net sales from operations in comparison with Navistar.

46
CASE 7: DATA ANALYTICS
Hadoop

47
 Introduction

Case #7 gave me much needed knowledge in data analytics through researching a

specific software tool called Hadoop. Hadoop is a widely used tool for big data. I learned

a lot about the background of the tool such as the overall purpose, the history and how it

is used to make more informed business decisions by many highly acclaimed

corporations. This case was research intensive but forced me to use creative and critical

thinking skills to apply the research to real life business scenarios. This helped me to

view the accounting world through the lens of data analytics. Accountants face an

exciting era where if they adapt to the new perspectives, they possess the ability to be the

link between corporations, their strategies, and information technology. However,

accountants can only do so if they keep up to pace with the technology. Exposure is the

first step for students like me to gain a foundational knowledge. This case gave me that

exposure opportunity.

48
 Concepts

1. Identify the history and purpose of this tool and describe, in general, how it is

used to make business decisions. Be specific about what kind of technology

platform it uses, etc. and other resources that need to be in place to fully utilize

the functionality of the tool.

Hadoop is a software framework to store, manage, and analyze any kind of data on

commodity hardware. It is an open-source tool possessing massive capacity for data

storage and incredible processing power. Hadoop started as a search engine called Nutch

in the early 2000s. The establishment of the World Wide Web was a major driving factor

in the need for and creation of automated search engines to efficiently find relevant

information. Doug Cutting and Mike Cafarella created Nutch as an open source web

search engine that used calculations and data to both speed up the information search

process and allow simultaneous web interactions. Cutting combined with Yahoo which in

turn split his Nutch project into two divisions. One remained the web search called Nutch

and the other evolved to a computing and processing mechanism named “Hadoop”.

Cutting also pulled ideas from Google’s early innovations. It was officially released by

Yahoo in 2008. Apache Software Foundation now runs Hadoop.

Hadoop allows companies to process big data by running applications at a low cost.

Moreover, it has the capacity to process this data, at different volumes and varieties, in a

flexible manner and at a high speed. Additionally, there is a fault tolerance system put in

place for consistency, backup, and assurance. Hadoop’s purpose is to better inform

decision makers through data analytics so their resolves will in turn be better and faster.

49
For example, Facebook, LinkedIn, Netflix, and more use Hadoop to predict customer

preferences in real time, creating systems like “people you may know” or “similar items

you may like”. Insights like these allow for continuous improvement and opportunities.

2. What special skills are needed to use this tool to aid in business decision

making. How might a student like yourself gain those skills?

Using Hadoop to aid in business decision making requires advanced programming and

coding skills. This creates a gap in knowledge and expertise. Majority of other data

analytics tools use SQL so finding programmers proficient in Java is the key to success

with MapReduce. To complement these more advanced skills, a foundational knowledge

of operating systems and hardware is necessary. This requires familiarity with databases,

data mining, querying and things of the like. Finally, analytical skills are needed to make

pivotal business decisions such as problem solving. Accounting systems is a great

introduction class to skills in data analytics.

3. How, specifically, would you use the tool in the following business settings?

Create at least three specific scenarios for each category in which the tool would

lead to more efficiency and/or better effectiveness. Be sure to describe what kinds

of data your tool would use for each scenario.

A. Auditing

1. Audit involves assessing estimates. Therefore, the audit department can use Hadoop to

better predict estimates and see if with more data, if the estimate can be more precise. For

example, it can predict an accounts receivable balance with associated collection periods

to create models.

50
2. Hadoop can allow auditors to assess the general ledger for discovery to verify

completeness and existence of liabilities and assets. It can search through massive data to

make sure every liability is complete. It can also scan to make sure each asset exists. Data

serves as evidence to validity and reliability and the more data that can be evidenced, the

better the audit. Instead of using a small sample of the client’s overall data, Hadoop can

create a more complete perspective to increase accuracy.

3. Hadoop can be used to audit internal controls with continuous monitoring. It has the

capacity to flag abnormal behavior in real time. This is a revolutionary way to detect

fraud and reduce risk by analyzing patterns and usage models that depict normal behavior

from the company’s history. It can analyze transactions as they flow in against

departmental history. Further, it can use filters to be more efficient and reduce human

error.

B. Tax Planning

1. The goal of tax planning is to minimize legal worldwide tax payment while

simultaneously maximizing profitability. Hadoop can help recommend optimal locations

in the United States and the world to expand operations in order to best address those two

opposing goals. This is accomplished through predictive analytics. CPA’s can use

Hadoop to find trends in tax rates and income to avoid any surprises at year end.

Furthermore, they can look at data to assess how certain changes in controls or

investments can improve tax obligations.

2. Hadoop can check a massive assortment of facts and numbers at once to ensure total

compliance with state, federal and international tax programs.

51
3. Tax professionals can use Hadoop to make comparisons in similar companies’ taxes by

searching for patterns in order to find possible anomalies and candidates for examination.

C. Financial Statement Analysis/Valuation/Advisory

1. Hadoop can allow the advisory department to improve. They can analyze unstructured

data about their clients to assess customer satisfaction and suggest improvements. This

means looking at social media, emails, complaint logs, online forums, and unmonitored

interactions. This will enable CPAs to look at market trends and customer behavior to

better drive sales or customer interaction.

2. Advisory can also use Hadoop for diagnostic analytics to look at past problems and

find the causes. Here, they can use variance analysis to pinpoint areas to improve or

change going forward.

3. Financial services can now reach their clients on the go. They no longer have to sit in

the corporate on location sites. They can access all this data remotely, through the cloud,

which reduces overall cost and increases convenience.

4. Write a few paragraphs to your future public accounting partner explaining

why your team should invest in the acquisition of and training in this tool. Explain

how the tool will impact the staffing and scope of your future engagements.

Hadoop offers a wide variety of valuable tools that can be applied to accounting. For

starters, it will set precedent and allow our company to retain more informed knowledge

on our clients to access for future reference and continuous improvement. With the

introduction of powerful and innovative big data technology, our company can cut down

on manpower; and thus staffing. This transforms tedious, time consuming, and therefore,

expensive tasks to become more productive and efficient. With anywhere from 10

52
percent to 50 percent more time from departmental professionals, staff can be redeployed

to more value-added activities.

It is in our team’s best interest to invest in the talent necessary and training to implement

Hadoop. This tool has enormous capacity to save time and money.

Works Cited

“The Next Frontier in Data Analytics.” Journal of Accountancy, 1 Aug. 2016.,

www.journalofaccountacy.com/issues/2016/aug/data-analytics-skills.html

“What Is Hadoop?” SAS Institute Inc., www.sas.com/en_us/insights/big-

data/hadoop.html

53
CASE 8: LONG TERM DEBT
Rite Aid Corporation

54
 Introduction

The Rite Aid case focuses on long-term debt. This matches up exactly with the

content I am currently learning in my Intermediate Accounting class. It helped to advance

my knowledge in this specific area on the balance sheet. As a future auditor, I will have

to reconcile what is found on the balance sheet with the footnotes. This gave me practice

for that by verifying the numbers for total debt. It also gave me a real-life example of a

company’s varying types of debt with ranging interest rates. Practice makes perfect and

the opportunity to apply journal entries, amortization schedules, and analysis on an actual

company solidified my understanding of the different aspects of long term debt. Working

hands on with the numbers instead of just concepts allowed me to separate in my mind

the differences between secured and unsecured debt and effective interest rate method

versus the straight-line method.

55
 Concepts

A. Consider the various types of debt described in note 11, Indebtedness and

Credit Agreement.

i. Explain the difference between Rite Aid’s secured and unsecured debt. Why

does Rite Aid distinguish between these two types of debt?

Secured debt is debt backed by collateral to reduce the risk associated with lending.

These debts are tied to specific assets. Therefore, unsecured debt is not backed by

collateral. Distinguishing between the two is important as it distinguishes the risk level. A

secured debt means the company has a lot more to lose than just avoiding the obligation.

ii. What does it mean for debt to be “guaranteed”? According to note 11, who has

provided the guarantee for some of Rite Aid’s unsecured debt?

Rite Aid’s wholly-owned subsidiaries guarantee their unsecured debt. The subsidiaries

are the third party who guarantees the debt in case Rite Aid defaults. This means they

hold responsibility over paying the debt.

iii. What is meant by the terms “senior,” “fixed-rate,” and “convertible”?

“Senior” is in reference to senior debt securities which is issued in the form of senior

notes or senior loans. It simply labels the debt as priority over other unsecured or lesser

than debt owned by the issuer. A good way to think of it is having more seniority in the

issuer’s capital structure. Senior notes must be paid before other unsecured notes in an

event of liquidation. These notes have a lower coupon rate as it has greater security and

less risk. Moreover, Rite Aid uses the term “fixed-rate” to describe a senior note. This

means it requires the same amount of interest for its entire term. Additionally, the term

“convertible” means the notes are convertible into shares of Rite Aid’s common stock at

56
a set conversion price (in this case at $2.59 per share) at any time. This is only an option

that a holder can use or forgo.

iv. Speculate as to why Rite Aid has many different types of debt with a range of

interest rates.

Ultimately, Rite Aid needs to protect their cash flow. Different types of debt with ranging

interest rates allows more flexibility on their liquidity.

Process

B. Consider note 11, Indebtedness and Credit Agreement. How much total debt

does Rite Aid have at February 27, 2010? How much of this is due within the

coming fiscal year? Reconcile the total debt reported in note 11 with what Rite

Aid reports on its balance sheet.

As found under note 11, titled Indebtedness and Credit Agreement, Rite Aid has

$6,370,899 in total debt at February 27, 2010. This can be reconciled with what is found

on the balance sheet. It can be broken down into current maturities of long-term debt and

lease financing obligations of $51,502, long-term debt of $6,185,633 and lease financing

obligations of $133,764.

C. Consider the 7.5 percent senior secured notes due March 2017.

i. What is the face value (i.e. the principal) of these notes? How do you know?

The 7.5 percent senior secured notes due March 2017 had a face value of $500,000. It can

be inferred the notes were issued at par because there is no discount associated.

ii. Prepare the journal entry that Rite Aid must have made when these notes were

issued.

Cash 500,000

57
 Note Payable 500,000

This increases assets and liabilities.

iii. Prepare the annual interest expense journal entry. Note that the interest paid on

a note during the year equals the face value of the note times the stated rate (i.e.,

coupon rate) of the note.

Interest Expense 37,500

Cash or Interest Payable 37,500

This decreases net income and increases liabilities.

iv. Prepare the journal entry that Rite Aid will make when these notes mature in

2017.

Notes Payable 500,000

Cash 500,000

This decreases liabilities and decreases assets.

D. Consider the 9.375 percent senior notes due December 2015. Assume that

interest is paid annually.

i. What is the face value (or principal) of these notes? What is the carrying value

(net book value) of these notes at February 27, 2010? Why do the two values

differ?

At February 27, 2010, the face value of the note is $410,000 and the carrying value (the

net book value) is $405,951. The current carrying value is the face value less the

unamortized discount (or plus the unamortized premium). Thus, the carrying value is

calculated by subtracting $4,049 from the face value of $410,000. The fair value is based

58
on a market to market accounting basis whereas the carrying value is computed through

figures on the balance sheet such as amortization.

ii. How much interest did Rite Aid pay on these notes during the fiscal 2009?

Rite Aid paid $38,438 in interest on these notes during the fiscal year 2009. The cash

interest payments are calculated by multiplying the principle ($410,000) by the rate

(.09375) by the time (12/12 months).

iii. Determine the total amount of interest expense recorded by Rite Aid on these

notes for the year ended February 27, 2010. Note that there is a cash and a

noncash portion to interest expense on these notes because they were issued at a

discount. The noncash portion of interest expense is the amortization of the

discount during the year (that is, the amount by which the discount decreased

during the year).

Cash interest payments will always stay the same unless under special circumstances.

Therefore, the cash interest paid by Rite Aid on these notes for the year ended February

27, 2010 is $38,438. This must be added to the discount amortized of $705 to equal

$49,143 in total for amount of interest expense recorded by Rite Aid on these notes for

the year ended February 27, 2010.

iv. Prepare the journal entry to record interest expense on these notes for fiscal

2009. Consider both the cash and discount (noncash) portions of the interest

expense from part iii above.

Interest expense 39,143

Discount on Notes Payable 705

Cash 38,438

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This entry decreases net income and assets.

The interest expense is found by adding the discount on notes payable and cash. It is

easiest to back into the numbers here by first finding the discount on notes payable to

then solve for interest expense. The discount is found by subtracting the two amortized

discounts ($4,754-$4,049).

v. Compute the total rate of interest recorded for fiscal 2009 on these notes.

The total rate of interest recorded for fiscal 2009 on these notes is 9.659 percent. To find

the interest rate, the interest expense of $39,143 must be put into the numerator. The

denominator is the carrying value from the beginning of the period. This is found by

subtracting the unamortized discount of $4,754 from the face value of $410,000. The

result is $405, 246. Thus the rate is found by dividing $39,143 by $405,246 which

equates to 9.659 percent.

E. Consider the 9.75 percent notes due June 2016. Assume that Rite Aid issued

these notes on June 30, 2009 and that the company pays interest on June 30th of

each year.

i. According to note 11, the proceeds of the notes at the time of issue were 98.2

percent of the face value of the notes. Prepare the journal entry that Rite Aid must

have made when these notes were issued.

Cash 402,620

Discount on Bonds Payable 7,380

Bonds Payable 410,000

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This entry increases assets and liabilities.

The amount credit under bonds payable represents the face amount. The cash proceeds

are found by multiplying the face value of $410,000 by 98.2 percent. This percentage is

found in the footnotes on page 87. The notes indicate the 9.75 percent senior secured

notes due June 2016 were issued at 98.2 percent par. Finally, the discount is the face

value of $410,000 less the cash proceeds of $402,620. It equals $7,380.

ii. At what effective annual rate of interest were these notes issued?

The effective annual rate of interest on these notes issued is 10.1212 percent This can be

found easily through excel formulas. Using the excel formula builder for RATE, the

number of periods, cash interest payment for one period, cash proceeds, and the fair value

can be plugged in. The cash interest payment and the face value must be plugged in as

negative. This appears as “=RATE (7,-39975,402620,-410000)” on the excel document in

formula bar and result in 10.1212 percent in the cell.

iii. Assume that Rite Aid uses the effective interest rate method to account for this

debt. Use the table that follows to prepare an amortization schedule for these

notes. Use the last column to verify that each year’s interest expense reflects the

same interest rate even though the expense changes. Note: Guidance follows the

table.

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 Interest Interest Discount Net Book
Date Payment Expense Amortization Value of Debt Effective Interest Rate
6/30/09 $ 402,620 10.1212%
6/30/10 $ 39,975 $ 40,750 $ 775 403,395
6/30/11 39,975 40,828 853 404,248
6/30/12 39,975 40,915 940 405,188
6/30/13 39,975 41,010 1,035 406,223
6/30/14 39,975 41,115 1,140 407,363
6/30/15 39,975 41,230 1,255 408,618
6/30/16 39,975 41,357 1,382 $ 410,000

June 30, 2009 Net Book Value of Debt is the initial proceeds of the bond issuance, net of

costs. The face value of this debt is $410,000; the discount is $7,380; the coupon rate is

9.75 percent and the effective rate (including fees) is 10.1212 percent. Interest Payment is

the face value of the bond times the coupon rate of the bond. Interest Expense equals

opening book value of the debt times the effective interest rate. The difference between

the interest payment and interest expense is the amortization of the bond discount. This is

equivalent to saying that interest expense equals the interest paid plus the amortization of

the bond discount. Amortizing the discount increases the net book value of the bond each

year.

iv. Based on the above information, prepare the journal entry that Rite Aid would

have recorded February 27, 2010, to accrue interest expense on these notes.

Interest expense 27,167

Discount on Notes Payable 517

Interest Payable 26,650

This decreases net income and increases liabilities.

The discount on the note payable is found by multiplying 775 by (8/12). The interest

payable reflects the cash payment of $39,975 multiplied by the time (8/12).

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 v. Based on your answer to part iv., what would be the net book value of the notes

at February 27, 2010?

The net book value of the notes at February 27, 2010 is $403,137. This results from the

last carrying value ($402,620) plus the amortization up to February 27 ($517). This

number is off on the balance sheet because Rite Aid chose to use the straight-line method

over the effective interest rate method as they decided the difference is not material.

Using the straight-line method, the discount on notes payable is greater at $703. The

calculation for it is as follows: ($7,380/7) = $1,054 * (8/12 months) =$703.

63
CASE 9: SHAREHOLDER’S EQUITY
Merck & Co., Inc.

64
 Introduction

This case zoomed in on stockholder’s equity. It gave me experience in finding,

differentiating and calculating shares authorized, issued, and outstanding. It also

conceptualized the purpose of treasury stock and dividends. It asked the important “why”

questions: why companies pay dividends and why companies repurchase their own

shares. Additionally, the ability to reconcile numbers found with notes or financial

statements is a crucial skill to verifying answers. This skill appears again and again in

these financial reporting cases. Finally, this case uses a chart to analyze differences

across years. The chart shows dividends in the big picture and how it relates to net

income, stock price, total assets, and more. In conclusion of the case, I have a greater

understanding and clarity of stockholder’s equity and its many confusing components.

65
 Concepts

A. Consider Merck’s common shares.

i. How many common shares is Merck authorized to issue?

Merck is authorized to issue 5,400,000,000 shares. The maximum amount of stock

authorized is called a charter. This is found on the balance sheet in the equity section. It is

the highest number with issued shares as the second highest (unless they equal

outstanding shares). Outstanding shares is the third category. Outstanding shares can

never be greater than shares issued but can equal to the shares issued.

ii. How many common shares has Merck actually issued at December 31, 2007?

At December 31, 2007, Merck has issued 2,983,508,675 common shares.

iii. Reconcile the number of shares issued at December 31, 2007, to the dollar

value of common stock reported on the balance sheet.

The par value is 1 cent. When the par value is multiplied by the number of shares issued

(2,983,508,675), this equals the $29.8 million as reported on the balance sheet.

(2,983,508,675*.01=29,835,086.75)

iv. How many common shares are held in treasury at December 31, 2007?

There are 811,005,791 shares held in treasury at December 31, 2007. Treasury stock

represents the shares the company has bought back. There are two ways Merck can buy

back their stock. They can buy their shares through the open market. This is called an

“open market repurchase” and means they pay the market rate. Alternatively, Merck can

make a tender offer which entails making offers to specific people.

v. How many common shares are outstanding at December 31, 2007?

66
There are 2,172,502,884 common shares outstanding at December 31, 2007. Outstanding

shares can be calculated by subtracting shares of treasury stock from shares issued.

vi. At December 31, 2007, Merck’s stock price closed at $57.61 per share.

Calculate the total market capitalization of Merck on that day.

Market capitalization is the number of shares outstanding multiplied by the market price

per share. This calculation (1,605,485,534 * $57.61) yields the total market capitalization

on December 31, 2007 as 92.5 billion.

C. Why do companies pay dividends on their common or ordinary shares? What

normally happens to a company’s share price when dividends are paid?

When a company pays dividends on their common shares, this signals financial strength

and suggests positive projections for future earnings. As a result, the stock more

appealing for an investor. Dividends help to maintain investor confidence and loyalty so

to encourage long term investments. Furthermore, it helps keep cash flow in check.

Finally, it returns money back to the shareholder who indirectly contributes to the

company profits. When dividends are paid, the company’s share price decreases by the

amount of dividend payment.

D. In general, why do companies repurchase their own shares?

Companies buy back their own shares for many reasons. First, repurchasing shares boosts

the earnings per share and return on equity to make business appear more successful.

Moreover, they may wish to consolidate more ownership back from private investors.

This means reducing the number of stockholders in order to avoid takeover attempts. If a

stock is undervalued, the company may want to repurchase stock in order to sell later

once the market is favorable. In addition, repurchasing shares is a common way to handle

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excess cash. Finally, companies may reacquire shares to provide stock for employee

compensations plans or to prepare for possible merger needs.

Process

E. Consider Merck’s statement of cash flow and statement of retained earnings.

Prepare a single journal entry that summarizes Merck’s common dividend activity

for 2007.

Retained Earnings 3310.7 (found on the Statement of Retained

Earnings)

Cash 3307.3 (found on the Statement of Cash Flows)

Dividend Payable 3.4 (3310.7-3307.3=3.4)

G. During 2007, Merck repurchased a number of its own common shares on the

open market.

i. Describe the method Merck uses to account for its treasury stock transactions.

Merck uses the cost method to account for its treasury stock transactions. This is the most

widely used method across the board. The cost method debits the treasury stock account

for the reacquisition cost. This reports the balance as a deduction form the total paid-in

capital and retained earnings. The name “cost method” derives from the fact that it

maintains the treasury stock account at the cost of the shares purchased.

ii. Refer to note 11 to Merck’s financial statements. How many shares did Merck

repurchase on the open market during 2007?

Merck repurchased 26.5 million on the open market during 2007. This appears on the

“purchases” row of note 11.

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 iii. How much did Merck pay, in total and per share, on average, to buy back its

stock during 2007? What type of cash flow does this represent?

On average, Merck paid in total $1,429.7 million in total which means $53.95/share

during 2007. This represents a financing activity. This number can be found on the

statement of cash flows on the row titled purchases of treasury stock.

iv. Why doesn’t Merck disclose its treasury stock as an asset?

Assets, by definition, are probable future economic benefits. Treasury stock does not

include voting rights or preemptive rights. Moreover, treasury stock does not receive cash

dividends or assets upon corporation liquidation. Thus, it does not make sense to disclose

treasury stock as an asset. If Merck disclosed its treasury stock as an asset, this would

improperly imply that they own part of itself. Treasury stock actually reduces assets and

stockholders’ equity.

Analysis

i. Determine the missing amounts and calculate the ratios in the tables below. For

comparability, use dividends paid for both companies rather than dividends

declared. Use the number of shares outstanding at year end for per-share

calculations. What differences do you observe in Merck’s dividend-related ratios

across the two years?

69
 Merck

2007 2006

Dividends paid (in 3,307.3 3,322.6

millions)

Shares outstanding 2,172,502,884 2,167,795,445

Net income (in millions) 3,275.4 4,433.8

Total assets (in millions) 48,350.7 44,569.8

Operating cash flows (in 6,999.2 6,765.2

millions)

Year-end stock price 57.61 41.94

Dividends per share 1.52 1.53

Dividend yield (dividends 2.64 3.65

per share to stock price)

Dividend payout 1.01 0.75

(dividends to net income)

Dividends to total assets 0.07 0.07

Dividends to operating 0.47 0.49

cash flows

2006 paid higher dividends. Additionally, 2006 had substantially higher net income. The

stock price was much lower in 2006. However, the dividends per share for both years was

almost equal. The stockholders had a better dividend yield in 2006 at 3.65 versus 2.64 in

70
2007. The other dividend related ratios involving total assets and operating cash flows are

very similar between the two years.

71
CASE 10: MARKETABLE SECURITIES
State Street Corporation

72
 Introduction

The case on State Street Corporation focuses on marketable securities. It helped

me differentiate the three classifications (trading, available-for-sale, and held-to-

maturity), their unique qualifiers, and the accounting for each. There are three ways to

make money off marketable securities: appreciation, dividends and interest payments.

Investment appreciation means buying low and selling high. Equity securities earn

dividends. Finally, interest payments arise from debt securities. I practiced the journal

entries for each classification in the case of dividend revenue, interest revenue, and an

increase in market value. Furthermore, this case gave me additional practice on the

appropriate treatment for gains and losses. To recognize income, the stock does not have

to be sold. Unrealized holding gains and losses can be recognized without a sale.

Realized gains and losses are included in income as they are converted to cash. This case

helped me to contextualize marketable securities in the big picture, as State Street

Corporation had all three types.

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 Concepts

A. Consider trading securities. Note that financial institutions such as State Street

typically call these securities “Trading account assets.”

i. In general, what are trading securities?

The term “trading securities” is one of the three possible classifications for marketable

securities. Trading securities are debt or investment securities where management’s intent

is to buy and sell in a rapid fashion to generate profit. Profits arise from short term

differences in prices. They are meant to be short term investments of about 3 months or

less. Furthermore, they are reported at fair market value with unrealized holding gains

and losses reported as part of net income.

ii. How would a company record $1 of dividends or interest received from trading

securities?

Cash 1

Dividend Revenue 1

Cash 1

Interest Revenue 1

iii. If the market value of trading securities increased by $1 during the reporting

period, what journal entry would the company record?

Fair Value Adjustment—Trading 1

Unrealized Holding Gain—Income 1

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 B. Consider securities available-for-sale. Note that State Street calls these,

“Investment securities available for sale.”

i. In general, what are securities available-for-sale?

Available-for-sale securities are those debt or equity securities that are neither held-to-

maturity or trading. They are recorded at fair value with any unrealized holding gains or

losses recognized as other comprehensive income (a separate component of stockholder’s

equity)

ii. How would a company record $1 of dividends or interest received from

securities available-for-sale?

Cash 1

Dividend Revenue 1

Cash 1

Interest Revenue 1

iii. If the market value of securities available-for-sale increased by $1 during the

reporting period, what journal entry would the company record?

Fair Value Adjustment—AFS 1

Unrealized Holding Gain—Equity 1

C. Consider securities held-to-maturity. Note that State Street calls these,

“Investment securities held to maturity.”

i. In general, what are these securities? Why are equity securities never classified

as held-to-maturity?

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A debt security is classified as held-to-maturity if it has both the positive intent and the

ability to hold the securities to maturity. They are accounted for at amortized cost. Equity

securities do not have maturity dates by definition. They are not limited in life and

therefore cannot be classified as held-to-maturity.

ii. If the market value of securities held-to-maturity increased by $1 during the

reporting period, what journal entry would the company record?

The company does not recognize any changes in market rate of securities held-to-

maturity. The market rate may fluctuate because interest rates may change. However, the

changes are not recognized because held-to-maturity securities are not adjusted to fair

market value.

Process

D. Consider the “Trading account assets” on State Street’s balance sheet.

i. What is the balance in this account on December 31, 2012? What is the market

value of these securities on that date?

The balance for the “Trading account assets” account is 637 million on December 31,

2012. The notes indicate this is the fair market value.

ii. Assume that the 2012 unadjusted trial balance for trading account assets was

$552 million. What adjusting journal entry would State Street make to adjust this

account to market value? Ignore any income tax effects for this part.

Trading Account Assets 85 million

Unrealized Holding Gain 85 million

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This amount is found by subtracting the unadjusted trial balance amount for trading

accounts assets of $552 million from the market value found on the balance sheet at

December 31, 2012 ($637 million).

E. Consider the balance sheet account “Investment securities held to maturity”

and the related disclosures in Note 4.

i. What is the 2012 year-end balance in this account?

The 2012 year-end balance of the “Investment securities held to maturity” is $11,379

million.

ii. What is the market value of State Street’s investment securities held to

maturity?

The market value of the investment securities held to maturity is $11,661 million.

iii. What is the amortized cost of these securities? What does “amortized cost”

represent? How does amortized cost compare to the original cost of the securities?

Amortized cost is the acquisition cost adjusted for the amortization. The amortized cost is

$11,379 million. This is lower than the original cost of the securities.

iv. What does the difference between the market value and the amortized cost

represent? What does the difference suggest about how the average market rate of

interest on held-to-maturity securities has changed since the purchase of the

securities held by State Street?

This difference represents the amortization. The fair value increased because the interest

rate has decreased compared to the market rate of the interest when purchased. It is now

below the interest rate when purchased.

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 F. Consider the balance sheet account “Investment securities available for sale”

and the related disclosures in Note 4.

i. What is the 2012 year-end balance in this account? What does this balance

represent?

The 2012 year-end balance for available for sale securities is $109,683 million. The notes

indicate this is the fair market value.

ii. What is the amount of net unrealized gains or losses on the available-for-sale

securities held by State Street at December 31, 2012? Be sure to note whether the

amount is a net gain or loss.

The net unrealized gains or losses in 2012 for available-for-sale securities is a gain of

$1,119 million. The calculation for this unrealized holding gain is $2001 million - $882

million.

iii. What was the amount of net realized gains (losses) from sales of available-for-

sale securities for 2012? How would this amount impact State Street’s statements

of income and cash flows for 2012?

The net realized gains or losses in 2012 for available for sale securities is a gain of $55

million. On the top of page 119, in note 4, there are two rows titled “gross realized gains

from sales of available-for-sale securities” and “gross realized losses from sales of

available-for-sale securities”. Therefore, the net amount is found by subtracting losses

from gains ($101 million -$46 million = $55 million). This would be on the income

statement because it is realized. It also appears on the statement of cash flows for 2012 as

a subtraction from net income as it is already included in proceeds.

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 G. State Street’s statement of cash flow for 2012 (not included) shows the

following line items in the “Investing Activities” section relating to available-for-

sale securities (in millions): Proceeds from sales of available-for-sale securities

$5,399 Purchases of available-for-sale securities $60,812

i. Show the journal entry State Street made to record the purchase of available-

for-sale securities for 2012.

Equity Investments in AFS 60,812 million

Cash 60,812 million

ii. Show the journal entry State Street made to record the sale of available-for-sale

securities for 2012. Note 13 (not included) reports that the available-for-sale

securities sold during 2012 had “unrealized pre-tax gains of $67 million as of

December 31, 2011.” Hint: be sure to remove the current book-value of these

securities in your entry.

Cash 5,399 million

Unrealized Holding Gain 67 million

Investment in AFS 5,411 million

Realized Gain on AFS 55 million

iii. Use the information in part g. ii to determine the original cost of the available-

for-sale securities sold during 2012.

The original cost of the available-for-sale securities sold during 2012 is $5,344,000,000.

Since proceeds minus book value equals the gain, the known information can be plugged

79
in to solve for the book value. The calculation looks like this $55 million = $5,399,000 –

Book Value. Thus, the book value is $5,344,000.

80
CASE 11: DEFERRED INCOME TAXES
ZAGG Inc.

81
 Introduction

Case #11 zooms in on Deferred Income Taxes by analyzing the financial

statements of ZAGG Inc. First, defining the various terminology forced me to strengthen

my understanding of the journal entries and accounting for income taxes. In addition,

providing examples for temporary vs. permanent differences and deferred tax assets vs.

deferred tax liabilities helped make the concepts more concrete. Moreover, part C in the

concepts section required research of the FASB Codification. It required diving into ASC

740 to discover the purpose of deferred income taxes. This was the hardest part of the

case because it was asking the “why” question: why a company reports deferred income

taxes as part of their total income tax expense and why don’t companies simply report

their current tax bill as their income tax expense. I learned what causes the disparities

between income tax expense and income taxes payable. Finally, part F brought the

concepts section full circle with application of the terms.

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 Concepts

A. Describe what is meant by the term book income? Which number in ZAGG’s

statement of operation captures this notion for fiscal 2012? Describe how a

company’s book income differs from its taxable income.

The term book income refers to the income measured in accordance with generally

accepted accounting principles. It is measured for the use of present and future investors

and creditors. ZAGG has a book income of $23,898,000 for fiscal 2012. It is labeled as

“income before provision for income taxes” on the consolidated statements of operations.

A company’s book income can differ in numerous ways from its taxable income. This

gap is a result of inconsistent regulations required by GAAP and the tax code. As an

example, a company may compute depreciation on a straight-line basis for financial

reporting and on an accelerated basis for tax purposes.

B. In your own words, define the following terms:

i. Permanent tax differences (also provide an example)

A permanent tax difference is a difference between income tax expense and income taxes

payable that will never reverse. Often, the two will eventually line up. However, with a

permanent difference, the book income and taxable income will be different forever. An

example of a permanent difference is interest received on state and municipal obligations

which is tax exempt to provide incentive to investment in the government.

ii. Temporary tax difference (also provide an example)

A temporary tax difference arises in one period and reverses in another subsequent

period. Temporary tax differences mean the tax basis of an asset or liability and its

reported amount differ. As the asset is recovered or the liability is satisfied, this

83
difference reverses to result in taxable or deductible amounts in years to come. To

illustrate, assume a company uses the full accrual method to report revenues and a

modified cash basis for tax purposes. This will result in a temporary difference between

income tax expense and income taxes payable. It will either be in the form of a deferred

tax asset or a deferred tax liability.

iii. Statutory tax rate

The statutory tax rate is the tax rate mandated by law. This is the rate where is the

company is headquartered.

iv. Effective tax rate

The effective tax rate is the calculated rate. It is the total income tax expense for the

period divided by the pretax financial income. This rate rarely matches the statutory rate

as it accounts for deduction, exemptions, and more. It is the percentage of income

actually paid by a company.

C. Explain in general terms why a company reports deferred income taxes as part

of their total income tax expense. Why don’t companies simply report their

current tax bill as their income tax expense?

The FASB Accounting Standards Codification #740 is known as Accounting for Income

Taxes. It comprises the reporting standards for the effects of income taxes resulting from

activities during the current and previous years. As defined in the ASC Master Glossary,

taxable income is the “excess of taxable revenues over tax deductible expenses and

exemptions for the year as defined by the governmental taxing authority.” Thus, ASC

740 establishes standards for reporting of currently payable income taxes as well as

deferred income taxes payable at some point in the future. Companies report deferred

84
income taxes as part of their total income tax expense. Measuring income tax expense

this way allows the company to match the income tax expense with the amount of pre-tax

book income. Inclusion of deferred income taxes clarifies the effects of income taxes that

result from a company’s activities during the current and preceding years. Therefore, the

after-tax financial position on the balance sheet is reflected in the most fair and honest

way. A deferred tax liability or asset represents the increase or decrease in taxes payable

or refundable as a result of temporary differences at the end of the current year. Thus, this

expense must be acknowledged in the current year. The main objective is matching.

Overall, the goal is to acknowledge an asset or liability for the tax effects of the events

that have occurred but have not yet appeared in the tax return (or the other way around).

The temporary differences take into account the total tax that would be payable or

receivable if all of the company’s assets and liabilities were realized at their carrying

value at a point in time. The tax provision includes the amount of expense or benefit

stemming from the income, expense and events that are portrayed in the current periods

financial statements. Moreover, the current tax bill only reflects the statutory rate. It does

not account for the deferred income taxes applicable.

D. Explain what deferred income tax assets and deferred income tax liabilities

represent. Give an example of a situation that would give rise to each of these

items on the balance sheet.

Deferred tax assets and deferred tax liabilities are deferred tax consequences attributable

to the temporary differences between pretax income from the income statement and the

taxable income on the tax return. A deferred tax asset will never, under any

circumstances, become a deferred tax liability. This applies vice versa. They will never

85
switch characteristics. A deferred income tax asset represents a future tax benefit. It is the

deferred tax consequence due to deductible temporary differences existing at the end of

the current year. As a result, there is an increase in taxes saved in future years. It has a

normal debit balance. Warranty expenses will cause a deferred tax asset on the balance

sheet. This is because warranty expenses are recognized in the period incurred for

financial reporting purposes. However, for tax purposes those same warranty expenses

are recognized when they are paid. This means the reporting company will have a future

deductible amount. Contrary, a deferred income tax liability arises from future taxable

amounts. Taxable amounts increase taxable income in future years whereas deductible

amounts decrease taxable income in future years (in the case of a deferred tax asset). A

deferred income tax liability is the deferred tax consequence caused by taxable temporary

differences. It represents the increase in taxes payable in future years because of the

current year taxable temporary difference. It has a normal credit balance. The most

common example of a deferred tax liability is the difference in treatment of depreciation

expense. To illustrate, assume a company depreciates an asset over 10 years. In the

second year, it records $1,000 straight-line depreciation for financial reporting and

$1,800 depreciation to the IRS. This $800 difference between the two is a temporary

difference that will reverse by the 10th year.

E. Explain what a deferred income tax valuation allowance is and when it should

be recorded.

A deferred income tax valuation allowance is the portion of a deferred tax asset for which

it is more likely than not that a tax benefit will not be realized. More likely than not

means greater than 50 percent likelihood. It is a contra asset account. To record the

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reduction in asset value, credit allowance to reduce deferred tax asset to expected

realizable value and debit income tax expense.

Process

F. Consider the information disclosed in Note 8 – Income Taxes to answer the

following questions:

i. Using information in the first table in Note 8, show the journal entry that ZAGG

recorded for the income tax provision in fiscal 2012?

Note: entry is in thousands.

Income tax expense 9,393

DTA, net of DTL 8,293

Income tax payable 17,686

The notes indicate it is a net deferred tax asset instead of a reversal of a deferred tax

liability.

ii. Using the information in the third table in Note 8, decompose the amount of

“net deferred income taxes” recorded in income tax journal entry in part f. i. into

its deferred income tax asset and deferred income tax liability components.

Note: entry is in thousands.

Income tax Expense 9,393

DTA, net of VA 8,002

DTL 291

Income Taxes Payable 17,686

The net deferred income taxes recorded in income tax journal entry is split into two

components: 8,002 in deferred tax assets and 291 in deferred tax liabilities.

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 iii. The second table in Note 8 provides a reconciliation of income taxes computed

using the federal statutory rate (35 percent) to income taxes computed using

ZAGG’s effective tax rate. Calculate ZAGG’s 2012 effective tax rate using the

information provided in their income statement. What accounts for the difference

between the statutory rate and ZAGG’s effective tax rate?

Effective tax rate is computed by dividing the total income tax expense by the pretax

financial income. The calculation as follows, 9,393/23,898 yields an effective tax rate of

39.3 percent. The difference between the statutory rate and ZAGG’s effective rate can be

a result of many factors. The effective rate takes into consideration rates from other

countries, deductions, and credits.

iv. According to the third table in Note 8 – Income Taxes, ZAGG had a net

deferred income tax asset balance of $13,508,000 at December 31, 2012. Explain

where this amount appears on ZAGG’s balance sheet.

On the balance sheet, this appears as two separate components: a current amount of 6,912

and a noncurrent balance of 6,596. Both amounts are listed as deferred income tax assets

and together these amounts equal 13,508.

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CASE 12: REVENUE RECOGNITION
Apple Inc.

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 Introduction

The final case looks at Apple Inc.’s treatment of revenue recognition. This case

proved interesting as FASB’s new standard, Revenue from Contracts with Customers

(Topic 606), has recently come into effect. This standard analyzes revenue based on the

asset or liability arising from contracts with customers. It is a result of unsatisfactory

guidance from the FASB and the IASB in various areas of revenue recognition. The new

standard aims to increase comparability, simplicity, and better understanding of the

amount, timing and uncertainty of the revenue recognized. Comparing Apple’s disclosure

and requirements of revenue recognition to the required criteria in the ASC 606 helped

solidify my understanding of the concepts.

I found it fascinating to see how changes in standards can greatly impact the ease

(or burden) of reporting. Even more, the changes can impact the financial performance of

a company. There are so many factors that fit into revenue recognition and this case

helped to break those factors down to become more manageable. Revenue is relatively

simple when selling one product. However, for example, revenue becomes more difficult

when adding software updates at the discretion of the customer that improve the

hardware. Situations like this make revenue recognition complex and interesting which is

why I enjoyed this case. Overall, revenue is an extremely important component of a

company’s financials and thus demands careful recognition.

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 Concepts

A. In your own words, define “revenues.” Explain how revenues are different

from “gains.”

Revenue is one of the leading measures of financial performance. It is the amount

recognized to reflect the consideration received in exchange for the transfer of goods or

services to customers. Revenues result from normal operations whereas gains are a result

of peripheral transactions. Furthermore, revenue increases equity (through net income).

Overall, the objective is to match revenues to the period when it is earned.

B. Describe what it means for a business to “recognize” revenues. What specific

accounts and financial statements are affected by the process of revenue

recognition? Describe the revenue recognition criteria outline in the FASB’s

Statement of Concepts No. 5.

The asset-liability approach measures revenue based on changes in assets and liabilities.

The new standard, Revenue from Contracts with Customers, outlines a five-step process

for revenue recognition. The process begins with identifying the contract with customers.

Next, the company must identify the separate performance obligations in the contract.

The company determines the transaction price in the third step. Finally, the company

should recognize revenue when each performance obligation is satisfied. A change in

control decides if the performance obligation is truly satisfied. There are certain

indications of control. These indications are as follows: 1. The company has a right to

payment for the asset. 2. The company has transferred legal title to the asset. 3. The

company has transferred physical possession of the asset. 4. The customer has significant

risks and rewards of ownership. 5. The customer has accepted the asset.

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 C. Refer to the Revenue Recognition discussion in Note 1. In general, when does

Apple recognize revenue? Explain Apple’s four revenue recognition criteria. Do

they appear to be aligned with the revenue recognition criteria you described in

part b, above?

As specified in the case, Apple recognizes revenue when significant evidence of an

arrangement exists, delivery has occurred, the sales price is fixed or determinable and

collection is probable. “Delivery” in this context means it has been shipped and the risk

of loss has been transferred. For online sales, Apple defers recognition of revenue until

the customer receives the product. These criteria closely align to the revenue recognition

criteria outlined above. Apple’s most recent 10-K indicates the new revenue standards

may be applied retrospectively to each prior period presented or as a cumulative effect.

Apple will begin applying this standard in the first quarter of 2019. They do not expect

the new revenue standard to have a material impact on the revenue recognized.

D. What are multiple-element contracts and why do they pose revenue recognition

problems for companies?

Multiple-element contracts include more than just one product. For Apple, hardware

products contain software and updates vital to the functionality. Thus, the company must

allocate the revenue to all deliverables based on their relative selling prices. Two

deliverables pose revenue recognition problems of when to defer and when to recognize

the unspecified “when-and-if available” software upgrades and features.

E. In general, what incentives do managers have to make self-serving revenue

recognition choices?

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Recognizing revenues earlier than they actually occur is a simple way to boost earnings

on the income statement. These fraudulent timing gaps are unethical and must be

watched. Managers have incentives to boost revenue in order to receive bonuses.

Process

F. Refer to Apple’s revenue recognition footnote. In particular, when does the

company recognize revenue for the following types of sales?

i. iTunes songs sold online.

Apple recognizes revenue from iTunes songs sold online when the customer receives

(aka downloads) the song. In this online sales case, the customer receives it almost

immediately by download. Apple recognizes revenue on a net basis by recognizing only

the commission it retains from each sale. This is because each song, movie or app in the

iTunes store have been developed by another party. Apple includes this commission in

the net sales in consolidated statements of operations.

ii. Mac-branded accessories such as headphones, power adaptors, and backpacks

sold in the Apple stores. What if the accessories are sold online?

Apple recognizes revenue of Mac-branded accessories such as headphones, power

adaptors, and backpacks sold in the Apple stores immediately. This is because passage of

control and risk to the customer. If the accessories are sold online, Apple recognizes

revenue once the customer receives the product.

iii. iPods sold to a third-party reseller in India.

Apple often sells products to third-party licensed resellers. However, Apple still

establishes their own pricing and retains risk of credit and inventory. Therefore, the

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corporation recognizes revenue for the sale of products obtained from other companies

based on the gross amount billed.

iv. Revenue from gift cards

When Apple sells a gift card, they record deferred revenue upon the sale of the card. This

is relieved upon redemption of the card by the customer. This is because the customer has

not accepted the asset (they only have the gift card that entitles them to an asset).

Moreover, the customer does not have risks and rewards of ownership of the product they

may use the gift card for.

On my honor, I pledge that I have neither given, received, nor witnessed any
unauthorized help on this case. Signed: Sarah Caswell

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