GENERAL

CHEMISTRY
2
WEEK 3
TYPES OF SOLIDS, PHASE CHANGES AND DIAGRAMS

Lesson 1: CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS and

AMORPHOUS SOLIDS

Lesson 2: PHASE CHANGES AND PHASE

DIAGRAM
Flow chart for
the summary
on the
classification
of solid
They can be classified as CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS and
AMORPHOUS SOLIDS.

Amorphous solids are any noncrystalline solid

in which the atoms and molecules are not
organized in a definite pattern.

In contrast, crystalline solids, or crystals, have

distinctive internal structures that lead to
distinctive flat surfaces or faces. The faces
intersect at angles that are characteristic of the
substance.
TYPES OF SOLIDS, PHASE CHANGES AND DIAGRAMS

Lesson 1: CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS and

AMORPHOUS SOLIDS

Lesson 2: PHASE CHANGES AND PHASE

DIAGRAM
 The illustration shows the
different phase changes of
matter. You even have already
encountered some of these
processes in the lower grade
levels.
 Evaporation and melting
processes absorb heat in order
to change material from one
phase to another.

On the other hand,

condensation and freezing
involve the release of heat to
change the phase of the
material.
 Sublimation is the process
of changing the phase of a
substance from solid to gas
without passing the liquid phase.
It involves the absorption of
heat.
Deposition is the
process of changing the
phase of a substance from
gas to solid, and the
change involves the
release of heat.
HEATING AND COOLING CURVES
ACTIVITY 1: SOLUTION VOCABULARY
Direction: Form the scrambled letters into words that are associated with a solution. Refer to
the words listed below.

1. CONCENTRATION
TNACROOITNENC _____________________________________
2. TNVELOS SOLVENT
_____________________________________
3. CONCENTRATED
ANERDNCTTOCE _____________________________________
4. ISLOTNUO _____________________________________
SOLUTION
5. TULSOBILIY _____________________________________
SOLUBILITY
6. ITULDE _____________________________________
DILUTE
7. TIVUIANETQTA _____________________________________
QUANTITATIVE
SOLUTION CONCENTRATION AND STOICHIOMETRY

Lesson 1: CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION

Lesson 2: SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY

Lesson 3: EFFECTS OF CONCENTRATION ON

THE COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION
OBJECTIVES:
a. use different ways of expressing the
concentration of solutions: percent by mass,
mole fraction, molarity, molality, percent by
volume, percent by mass, ppm;
b. perform stoichiometric calculations for
reactions in solution; and
c. perform stoichiometric calculations for
reactions in solution.
SOLUTION CONCENTRATION AND STOICHIOMETRY

Lesson 1: CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION

Lesson 2: SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY

Lesson 3: EFFECTS OF CONCENTRATION ON

THE COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION
SOLUTION CONCENTRATION AND STOICHIOMETRY

Lesson 1:
CONCENTRATION OF
SOLUTION
 Quantitative
CONCEPT MAP
“SOLUTE
CONCENTRATION”
Concentrated Molarity/Normality Molality

% m/v
 The concentration of solution refers to
the amount of solute present in a
given amount of solvent or solution.
A solution can be qualitatively described as:

• DILUTE: a solution that contains a small

proportion of solute relative to solvent,
or

• CONCENTRATED: a solution that

contains a large proportion of solute
relative to the solvent.
Quantitatively, one type of solution may be
prepared and expressed in different concentrations.
Ex: One teaspoon of sugar in a cup of water is a
different solution from a cup of water with five
teaspoons of sugar. The amount of solute in a
solution may be expressed in several ways.

These include percent concentration - by mass, by

volume or by mass-volume, mole fraction, molality,
molarity, and part per million.
A. Percent Concentration
(by Mass, by Volume and by Mass-Volume)
I. PERCENT BY MASS
This expresses the mass of solute per 100g of solution. In most
applications, “percent concentration” means weight/weight percent (%
weight/weight) which is equal to the number of grams of solute per 100
grams of solution.

A solution that contains 30% by mass sugar means that the solution
contains 30g of sugar dissolved in 70g of water. It also means that there
are 30g of sugar per 100g of solution.
A. Percent Concentration
(by Mass, by Volume and by Mass-Volume)

I. PERCENT BY MASS The formula for percent by mass is:

A. Percent Concentration
(by Mass, by Volume and by Mass-Volume) I. PERCENT BY MASS

Sample Problem: • If 7.5 g of sodium nitrate is dissolved in 85 ml of

water, calculate the concentration of sodium
nitrate in the solution.

Solution: To find the total mass

of solution, we must add the
mass of solute, 7.5 grams, and
the mass of water. Since the
density of water is 1.0 g/ml, 85
ml of water is equivalent to 85
grams of water. Therefore, the
total mass of the solution is 92.5
grams
A. Percent Concentration
(by Mass, by Volume and by Mass-Volume)
II. Percent by Volume, Volume/Volume Percent or % (vol/vol)

When both solute and solvent are liquids, it is sometimes convenient for
you to describe the concentration as percent by Volume (%vol/vol)
which is the number of Volume of the solute in 100 volume of solution.
“Volume” may be any volume unit provided you use the same unit for
both solute and solution.
A. Percent Concentration
(by Mass, by Volume and by Mass-Volume)

II. Percent by Volume, Volume/Volume Percent or % (vol/vol)

The formula for Percent by Volume is:

A. Percent Concentration II. Percent by Volume, Volume/Volume
(by Mass, by Volume and by Mass-Volume) Percent or % (vol/vol)

Sample Problem: • A 40% (vol/vol) solution of ethylene glycol in water

is used to give protection to a car’s cooling
system. What Volume of ethylene glycol would
you use to make five liters of this solution?
Solution: a) You can translate the label 40% (vol/vol) ethylene glycol as:

In these factors, “vol” may be any volume unit you want – mL, liter, or
whatever is required. The problem specified liters, therefore you can use the
second factor and compare the required volume as:
A. Percent Concentration II. Percent by Volume, Volume/Volume
(by Mass, by Volume and by Mass-Volume) Percent or % (vol/vol)
• A 40% (vol/vol) solution of ethylene glycol in water is used to give protection to a car’s
Sample Problem: cooling system. What Volume of ethylene glycol would you use to make five liters of this
solution?
Solution:
b) You can calculate the needed Volume of ethylene glycol
using the first conversion factor

or you may solve it this way:

A. Percent Concentration
(by Mass, by Volume and by Mass-Volume)
III. Weight/Volume Percent or % (wt/vol)
When it is impractical to express both the solute and solvent in
mass or volume units, a hybrid expression for percent is to be used.
Hybrid because their units do not cancel as they ought to.
A. Percent Concentration
(by Mass, by Volume and by Mass-Volume) III. Weight/Volume Percent or % (wt/vol)

Sample Problem: • A solution is prepared by dissolving 5.0 grams of

glucose in enough water to make 250 mL of
solution. Calculate % (wt/vol) glucose.
Solution:
Fill in the given to the equation,
B. MOLE FRACTION, X
• The variation in some physical and/or chemical properties of a solution
especially those containing only two components is sometimes
described over the entire range of concentration. The concentration of
the solution is best described by mole fraction or mole percent.

Mole fraction is usually designated as X that relates to the number of

moles of a particular solute to the total number of moles in the solution.
B. MOLE FRACTION, X
Sample Problem: • Compute the mole fraction of acetone X (acetone) and
of chloroform (X chloroform) in a solution prepared by
mixing 50.0 g each of acetone (Molar Mass = 58.0) and
chloroform (Molar Mass = 119.5)
Solution: a. The first step is for you to compute the number of moles (n) of
each substance as well as the total number of moles. (solute:
acetone; solvent: chloroform)

= 0.418 mole of acetone

B. MOLE FRACTION, X
• Compute the mole fraction of acetone X (acetone) and of chloroform (X
Sample Problem: chloroform) in a solution prepared by mixing 50.0 g each of acetone (Molar
Mass = 58.0) and chloroform (Molar Mass = 119.5)

Solution: b. Compute the X of acetone and X of chloroform

0.418 mol
0.862 mole

0.327
C. Molar Concentration or Molarity, M
• Molarity is the ratio of the moles of solute to the volume of solution in
liters.
C. Molar Concentration or Molarity, M
Sample Problem: • Calculate the molar concentration of the solution that
contains 15 grams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) in 225
ml of solution. (Molar mass of KOH = 56 g/mol)
Solution:
1. Convert 15 grams of KOH to moles (n) using conversion
factor, 1 mol KOH = 56 g (the molar mass of KOH).
C. Molar Concentration or Molarity, M
Sample Problem: • Calculate the molar concentration of the solution that
contains 15 grams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) in 225
ml of solution. (Molar mass of KOH = 56 g/mol)
Solution:
2. Convert 225 ml of solution to Liter of solution using the
conversion factor:
1L = 1000 ml.
C. Molar Concentration or Molarity, M
Sample Problem: • Calculate the molar concentration of the solution that
contains 15 grams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) in 225
ml of solution. (Molar mass of KOH = 56 g/mol)
Solution:
3. Use the formula in computing molarity and substitute the
values obtained from the first few slides.
D. Molal Concentration or Molality, m
• Solutions may also be expressed in molality. The molality of a solution is
the ratio of moles of solute to the mass of solvent in kilograms.
D. Molal Concentration or Molality, m
Sample Problem: • Determine the molal concentration, m of a solution that
contains 18 grams of NaOH in 100 ml of water. The molar
mass of NaOH is 40 g/mole.
Solution:
a. Convert 18 grams of NaOH into moles using the molar mass of
NaOH
D. Molal Concentration or Molality, m
Sample Problem: • Determine the molal concentration, m of a solution that
contains 18 grams of NaOH in 100 ml of water. The molar
mass of NaOH is 40 g/mole.
Solution:
b. Convert 100 ml of water into grams using the density of water,
1.0g/ml. Then convert the grams to kilograms using the
conversion factor, 1Kg = 1000 g.
D. Molal Concentration or Molality, m
Sample Problem: • Determine the molal concentration, m of a solution that
contains 18 grams of NaOH in 100 ml of water. The molar
mass of NaOH is 40 g/mole.
Solution:
c. Use the formula in computing molality and substitute the
values obtained above.
E. Parts per Million, ppm
• For a very dilute solution where the concentration of the solute is very
low like pesticide residue in water or heavy metal like Hg2+
concentration in effluents, or even hardness of water, it is convenient to
express concentration in terms of parts per million, ppm.
 Parts per million (ppm) expresses the number of parts of
solute per one million parts of the solution.
E. Parts per Million, ppm

• The last expression is approximately true for water as a solvent because

the density of water is 1.0 g/ml. Also, for a very dilute solution, the
amount of the solution could be equated to the amount of the solvent,
water.
While these concentrations are very small, but we should not
neglect their importance. Some of the industrial pollutants that are
being released daily into the water we drink and the air we
breathe can be extremely harmful in concentrations as small as 1
ppm.
E. Parts per Million, ppm
Sample Problem: A water sample was reported to contain 250 ppm CaCO3.
How many grams of CaCO3 is present in 4 liters of water.

Solution: Solution: 250 ppm CaCO3 can be translated as 250 mg/liter of

solution. Since this is a very dilute solution and the solvent is
water, the liter of solution could be equated to the Volume of
water. So, we can use the expression below,
E. Parts per Million, ppm
Sample Problem: A water sample was reported to contain 250 ppm CaCO3.
How many grams of CaCO3 is present in 4 liters of water.

Solution: The problem asks for the mass in grams of CaCO3 present in 4
liters of water:
SOLUTION CONCENTRATION AND STOICHIOMETRY

Lesson 2:
SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY
• Recalling important concepts and laws related to chemical equations plays
significant role in this lesson. Mass relations are based on the three important
laws. If you keep these laws in mind, you'll be able to make valid predictions
and calculations for chemical reactions including those that involve
solutions.
• Law of Conservation of Mass - It states that the mass of the products is
equal to the mass of the reactants.
• Law of Multiple Proportion - It states that the mass of one element
combines with a fixed mass of another element in a ratio of whole
numbers
• Law of Constant Composition - It states that all samples of a given
chemical compound have the same elemental composition
• Recalling important concepts and laws related to chemical equations plays significant role in this lesson. Mass
relations are based on the three important laws. If you keep these laws in mind, you'll be able to make valid
predictions and calculations for chemical reactions including those that involve solutions.

• For a chemical equation to be correct, it must be balanced.

• Coefficient - A number written before the symbol of an element or

formula of a compound.
STOICHIOMETRY INVOLVING SOLUTION
In General Chemistry 1, you have done several calculations using a
balanced chemical equation. Stoichiometry deals with solving quantitative
problems using a balanced chemical equation. Recall that in these types
of calculations, we used the following steps:

• Convert from the given units to moles, if not given in moles;

• Convert from moles of the given quantity to moles of the desired
quantity, using the balanced equation; and
• Convert from moles to any other desired units

 The number of moles of a substance can be related to its molar mass

and number of molecules. It can also be related to the volume at
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP).
Sample Problem: What volume of 0.556 M HCl has enough HCl to combine
exactly with 25.4 mL of 0.458 M NaOH? The equation for
the reaction is,
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Solution:
1. Find the moles of NaOH in 25.4 mL of 0.458 M NaOH
2. From the expression of molarity, M = n of solute / L of solution
3. The molarity of the solution gives you two conversion factors:
Sample Problem: What volume of 0.556 M HCl has enough HCl to combine
exactly with 25.4 mL of 0.458 M NaOH? The equation for
the reaction is,
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Solution:
4. When you use the first conversion factor, you can get the
moles of NaOH as:
Sample Problem: What volume of 0.556 M HCl has enough HCl to combine
exactly with 25.4 mL of 0.458 M NaOH? The equation for
the reaction is,
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Solution:
5. Use the coefficients of NaOH and HCl from the balanced equation to
calculate how much 0.0116 mole NaOH is equivalent to in mole of HCl
From the balanced equation, the ratio of coefficients of NaOH and HCl is 1:1
Sample Problem: What volume of 0.556 M HCl has enough HCl to combine
exactly with 25.4 mL of 0.458 M NaOH? The equation for
the reaction is,
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Solution:
6. Find the Volume of HCl using 0.556 M, the given molarity of HCl aqueous
solution.
SOLUTION CONCENTRATION AND STOICHIOMETRY

Lesson 3:
EFFECTS OF CONCENTRATION
ON THE COLLIGATIVE
PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION
 Colligative properties of solutions are
properties that depend upon the
concentration of solute molecules or ions, but
not upon the identity of the solute.
Colligative
properties include vapor
pressure lowering,
boiling point elevation,
freezing point
depression, and osmotic
pressure.
1. LOWERING THE VAPOR PRESSURE
Vapor pressure is the pressure of
a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium
with its condensed phase in a closed
container.
When a non-volatile solute is
dissolved in a solvent, the vapor
pressure of the solvent is lowered. The
presence of solute decreases the rate
of escape of solvent molecules
resulting in lower vapor pressure.
2. BOILING POINT ELEVATION
The boiling point of a liquid is defined
as the temperature at which the vapor
pressure of that liquid equals the
atmospheric pressure (760mm Hg).

The addition of the solute increases the boiling point of

the solution. The atmospheric pressure remains the same while
the vapor pressure of the solution is lowered resulting in the
increase of the difference in atmospheric pressure and vapor
pressure of the solution. Therefore, a higher temperature is
required to boil the solution.
 3. FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION
Normal freezing or melting point is
the temperature at which solid and liquid
are in equilibrium under 1 atm. The
addition of solute will decrease the vapor
pressure and so will decrease the freezing
point.
For a liquid to freeze it must achieve a very ordered state that
results in the formation of a crystal. If there are impurities in the liquid,
i.e. solutes, the liquid is inherently less ordered. The presence of
impurities in a liquid or a substance makes a variation in the freezing
point by making them low or high. Therefore, a solution is more difficult
to freeze than a pure solvent so a lower temperature is required to
freeze the liquid.
 4. OSMOTIC PRESSURE
This is the external pressure that must be
applied to the solution to prevent it from
being diluted by the entry of solvent via
osmosis. Osmosis is the movement of solvent
particles across a semipermeable membrane
from a dilute solution (low concentration) into
a concentrated solution. The solvent moves to
dilute the concentrated solution and equalize
the concentration on both sides of the
membrane.

Osmotic pressure is directly proportional to the concentration of

the solution. Therefore, doubling the concentration will also double the
osmotic pressure. The osmotic pressure of two solutions having the
same molal concentration is identical.