Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Geo Informatics and

Nano Technology for
Precision farming

Summarized by:

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 1

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

We have summarized these notes by using standard source of agriculture so that

students can learn each and every subject in precise manner. These notes will help you
to cover all the syllabus of B.Sc. Agriculture as well as allied stream. If someone is
preparing for state exam, UPSC or any entrance exam can use these books/notes for
their effective preparation.
Sources used to create these notes:
https://angrau.ac.in/
http://eagri.org/
https://ecourses.icar.gov.in/
https://agrimoon.com/agriculture-icar-ecourse-pdf-book/

Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Sco-3, Sector-127, Kharar (Mohali)
Contact Number: 95-200-90-200
www.agricoaching.in

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 2

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Join us on Social medial platform:

Telegram: Telegram: https://t.me/agricoaching

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=agri+coaching+chandigarh
Android App: https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.agri.coaching
Website: https://agricoaching.in/
Facebook: https://m.facebook.com/search/top/?q=agri+coaching+chandigarh
Instagram: https://instagram.com/agricoaching_chandigarh?igshid=YmMyMTA2M2Y=
Contact Number: 98288-22277, 95200-90200

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 3

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Index

S.No. Topic Name Page

No.
1. Precision Agriculture 5
2. Geo-informatics in Precision Agriculture 10
3. Crop Discrimination and Spectral Features for Crop 14
Classification
4. Yield monitoring and Soil Mapping 17
5. Site Specific Nutrient Management (SSNM) 20
6. Spatial data and its management in GIS 25
7. Geodesy and its Basic principles 28
8. Remote sensing and its applications in Agriculture 32
9. Image processing and Interpretation 36
10. Global positioning system, components and its functions 39
11. Simulation and crop Modeling 42
12. Soil Test Crop Response(STCR) 48
13. Nano-Technology and Nano-Scale effects 51
14. Nano-pesticides, Nano-fertilizers and Nano-sensors 54
15. Nano-biosensors 57
16. Use of Nano-technology in Agriculture 60

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 4

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Precision Agriculture

1.1 Definition

➢ Precision farming is the technology which involves the targeting of inputs to arable
crop production according to crop requirement on the localized basis (Stafford, 1996).
➢ Precision agriculture can be defined as the application of principles and technologies
to manage spatial and temporal variability associated with all aspects of agricultural
production for the purpose of improving crop performance and environmental quality
(Pierce and Nowak, 1999).
➢ Precision Farming is generally defined as an information and technology-based farm
management system to identify, analyze and manage variability within fields by doing
all practices of crop production in right place at right time and in right way for optimum
profitability, sustainability and protection of the land resource. Precision agriculture is
a systems approach to farming for maximizing the effectiveness of crop inputs.

1.2 Objectives of precision farming

➢ To develop a methodology for identifying the causes of within field variation in
crop performance.
➢ To develop practical guidelines required to implement precision farming technology
to achieve best management.
➢ To explore the possibility of using remote-sensing methods and GIS to enable
management decisions to be made in real time during the growth of the crop
➢ To determine the potential economic and environmental benefits of using
precision farming technology in cropping system.

1.3 Need of precision farming

➢ To increase production efficiency
➢ To improve product quality
➢ Use of chemicals more efficiently
➢ Energy conservation
➢ To increase input use efficiency
➢ Soil and ground water protection
➢ Improve soil structure

1.4 Components of precision farming

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 5
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

➢ Information or data base

✓ Soil: Soil Texture, Structure, Physical Condition, Soil Moisture; Soil Nutrients, etc.
✓ Crop: Plant Population; Crop Tissue Nutrient Status, Crop Stress, Weed patches
(weed type and intensity); Insect or fungal infestation (species and intensity), Crop
✓ Yield; Harvest Swath Width etc.
✓ Climate: Temperature, humidity, rainfall, solar radiation, wind velocity, etc.
➢ Technology: Technologies include a vast array of tools of hardware, software and
equipment’s.
✓ Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers: GPS provides continuous position
information in real time, while in motion. Having precise location information at any
time allows soil and crop measurements to be mapped. GPS receivers, either carried
to the field or mounted on implements allow users to return to specific locations to
sample or treat those areas.
✓ Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS): A technique to improve GPS
accuracy that uses pseudo range errors measured at a known location to improve the
measurements made by other GPS receivers within the same general geographic
area.
✓ Geographic information systems (GIS): Geographic information systems (GIS)
are computer hardware and software that use feature attributes and location data to
produce maps. An important function of an agricultural GIS is to store layers of
information, such as yields, soil survey maps, remotely sensed data, crop scouting
reports and soil nutrient levels.
✓ Remote sensing: It is the collection of data from a distance. Data sensors can simply
be hand-held devices, mounted on aircraft or satellite-based. Remotely-sensed data
provide a tool for evaluating crop health. Plant stress related to moisture, nutrients,
compaction, crop diseases and other plant health concerns are often easily detected
in overhead images. Remote sensing can reveal in-season variability that affects crop
yield and can be timely enough to make management decisions that improve
profitability for the current crop.
✓ Variable Rate Applicator:

The variable rate applicator has three components:

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 6

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

a. Control computer

b. Locator and

c. Actuator
✓ Combine harvesters with yield monitors: Yield monitors continuously measure
and record the flow of grain in the clean grain elevator of a combine. When linked
with a GPS receiver, yield monitors can provide data necessary for yield maps.
➢ Management
✓ Information management: The adoption of precision agriculture requires the joint
development of management skills and pertinent information databases. A farmer
must have clear idea of objectives of precision farming and crucial information
necessary to make decisions effectively. Effective information management
requires many more than just keeping analysis tools. It requires an
entrepreneurial attitude toward education and experimentation.
✓ Decision support system (DSS): Combination of information and technology into a
comprehensive and operational system gives farmers a decision to treat the field.
For this purpose, DSS can be developed, utilizing GIS, agronomic, economic and
environmental software, to help farmers manage their fields.
✓ Identifying a precision agriculture service provider: It is also advisable for
farmers to consider the availability of custom services when making decisions about
adopting precise/site specific crop management. Purchasing the equipment’s0 and
learning the necessary skills for precision farming is a significant up-front cost that
cannot be affordable for many farmers.

1.5 Steps in precision farming

➢ Identification and assessment of variability
✓ Grid soil sampling: Grid soil sampling uses the same principles of soil sampling
but increases the intensity of sampling compared to the traditional sampling. Soil
samples collected in a systematic grid also have location information that allows
the data to be mapped. The goal of grid soil sampling is to generate a map of
nutrient/water requirement, called an application map.
✓ Crop scouting: In-season observations of crop conditions like weed patches (weed
type and intensity); insect or fungal infestation (species and intensity); crop tissue

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 7

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

nutrient status; also, can be helpful later when explaining variations in yield maps.
✓ Use of precision technologies for assessing variability: Faster and in real time
assessment of variability is possible only through advanced tools of precision
agriculture.
➢ Management of variability
✓ Variable rate application: Grid soil samples are analyzed in the laboratory, and
an interpretation of crop input (nutrient/water) needs is made for each soil sample.
Then the input application map is plotted using the entire set of soil samples. The
input application map is loaded into a computer mounted on a variable-rate input
applicator. The computer uses the input application map and a GPS receiver to
direct a product-delivery controller that changes the amount and/or kind of input
(fertilizer/water), according to the application map.
✓ Yield monitoring and mapping: Yield measurements are essential for making
sound management decisions. However, soil, landscape and other environmental
factors should also be weighed when interpreting a yield map. Used properly, yield
information provides important feedback in determining the effects of managed
inputs such as fertilizer amendments, seed, pesticides and cultural practices
including tillage and irrigation.
✓ Quantifying on farm variability :Every farm presents a unique management
puzzle. Not all the tools described above will help determine the causes of
variability in a field, and it would be cost prohibitive to implement all of them
immediately. An incremental approach is a wiser strategy, using one or two of the
tools at a time and carefully evaluating the results and then proceeding further.
✓ Flexibility: All farms can be managed precisely. Small scale farmers often have
highly detailed knowledge of their lands based on personal observation and could
already be modifying their management accordingly. Appropriate technologies
here might take this task easier or more efficient. Larger farmers may find the
more advanced technologies necessary to collect and properly analyze data for
better management decisions.

1.6 Advantages of precision farming

➢ Overall yield increase

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 8

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

➢ Efficiency improvement

➢ Reduced production costs

➢ Better decision making in Agricultural management

➢ Reduced environmental impact

➢ Accumulation of farmer’s knowledge for better management with time

1.7 Drawbacks of Precision Farming

➢ High costs

➢ Lack of technical expertise knowledge and technology

➢ Not applicable or difficult/costly for small land holdings

➢ Heterogeneity of cropping systems and market imperfections

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 9

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Geo-informatics in Precision Agriculture

2.1 Introduction

➢ Geo-informatics is defined as the combination of technology and science dealing by

means of the spatial information, its acquisition, its qualification and classification, its
processing, storage and dissemination.
➢ It is an integral tool to collect process and generate information from spatial and non-
spatial data.

2.2 Tools and techniques in Geo-informatics

2.2.1 Global positioning system

➢ The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that can
be used to locate positions anywhere on the earth.
➢ GPS provides continuous (24 hours/day), real-time, 3-dimensional positioning,
navigation and timing worldwide in any weather condition.
➢ As a tool of precision Agriculture, Global Positioning System satellites broadcast
signals that allow GPS receivers to calculate their position. This information is
provided in real time, meaning that continuous position information is provided while
in motion. Having precise location information at any time allows crop, soil and water
measurements to be mapped
➢ GPS makes use of a series of satellites that identify the location of farm equipment
within a 3 meter of an actual site in the field.
➢ The most common use of GPS in agriculture is for yield mapping and variable rate
fertilizer/pesticide applicator.
➢ GPS are important to find out the exact location in the field to assess the spatial
variability and site-specific application of the inputs
➢ The positional (horizontal) accuracy of the GPS can be of the order of 20 m
➢ In order to achieve the required accuracies, especially needed for precision agriculture,
the GPS has to be operated in a differentially corrected positioning mode, i.e., DGPS.
In the DGPS

2.2.2 Remote Sensing Technique

➢ Remote sensing (RS) is the science of making inferences about material objects from

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 10

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

measurements, made at distance, without coming into physical contact with the
objects under study
➢ A remote sensing system consists of a sensor to collect the radiation and a platform –
an aircraft, balloon, rocket, satellite or even a ground-based sensor-supporting stand -
on which a sensor can be mounted
➢ Currently a number of aircraft and spacecraft imaging systems are operating using
remote sensing sensors. Some of the current image systems from spacecraft platform
include Indian Remote Sensing Satellites (IRS), French National Earth Observation
Satellite (SPOT), IKONOS etc.
➢ Detection, identification, measurement and monitoring of agricultural phenomena are
predicted on assumption that agricultural landscape features have consistently
identifiable signatures on the type of remote sensing data.
➢ These identifiable signatures are reflection of crop type, state of maturity, crop density,
crop geometry, crop vigor, crop moisture etc.
➢ The detection of features to a large extent depends on the type of sensor used and the
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum used in sensing

2.2.3 Geographical Information System

➢ GIS is a computerized data storage and retrieval system, which can be used to manage
and analyze spatial data relating crop productivity and agronomic factors
➢ GIS can display analyzed information in maps that allow better understanding of
interactions among yield, fertility, pests, weeds and other factors, and decision-making
based on such spatial relationships
➢ Many farm information systems (FIS) are available, which use simple programs to
create a farm level database. One example of such FIS is LORIS. LORIS (Local
Resources Information System) consists of several modules, which enable the data
import; generation of raster files by different gridding methods; the storage of raster
information in a database; the generation of digital agro-resource maps; the creation of
operational maps etc.
➢ A comprehensive farm GIS contains base maps such as topography, soil type, N, P, K
and other nutrient levels, soil moisture, pH, etc. Data on crop rotations, tillage, nutrient
and pesticide applications, yields, etc. can also be stored.

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 11

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

➢ GIS is useful to create fertility, weed and pest intensity maps, which can then be used
for making maps that show recommended application rates of nutrients or pesticides

2.2.4 Application of Geo-informatics in precision Agriculture

1. Precision farming employs a system engineering approach to crop production
where inputs are made on an "as needed basis," and was made possible by recent
innovation in information and technology such as microcomputers, geographic
information systems, remote sensing, positioning technologies (Global
Positioning System), and automatic control of farm machinery.
2. It is a holistic approach to manage spatial and temporal variability in agricultural
lands at micro level based on integrated soil, plant, information, and engineering
management technologies as well as economics.
3. It is well known that soil resources and weather vary across space and over time.
Given this inherent variability, management decisions should be specific to time
and place rather than rigidly scheduled and uniform.
4. Precision agriculture provides tools for tailoring production inputs to specific
plots within a field, thus potentially reducing input costs, increasing yields, and
reducing environmental impacts by better matching inputs applied to crop needs.
5. Modern technologies used in precision agriculture cover three aspects of
production: (a) data collection or information input, (b) analysis or processing of
the precision information, and (c) recommendations or application of the
information.
6. Data collection for soil is done basically to understand inherent variability factors
controlling crop growth and yield.
7. Conventional approach for soil variability mapping is commonly done through
manual grid sampling and interpolation through geo-statistical techniques for
whole agricultural landscape.
8. The inherent variability can be correlated with the variability map of yield to
develop cause and effect relationships. This may help to develop relatively
homogenous management zones. Such samplings are costly and time consuming.
9. The scope of remote sensing data has been widely studied and looking more
closely at how the spectral response of soil can be linked to various soil properties

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 12

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

and characteristics.
10. As an alternate to conventional laboratory soil analysis, hyper spectral remote
sensing, which is non-destructive, cost effective and capable of spatial prediction
has been investigated for surface soil characterization.
Hyper spectral image data or imaging spectrometry technique, which many
narrow and contiguous bands, provides near-laboratory-quality reflectance
information, has the capability to obtain non-visible information over a spatial
view in large scales.

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 13

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Crop Discrimination and Spectral Features for Crop Classification

3.1.1 Feature Extraction

➢ Feature extraction is the process of defining image characteristics or features which
effectively provides meaningful information for image interpretation or classification.
➢ The ultimate goals of feature extraction are:
✓ Effectiveness and efficiency in classification.
✓ Avoiding redundancy of data.
✓ Identifying useful spatial as well as spectral features.
✓ Maximizing the pattern discrimination.

➢ For crop type discrimination, spatial features are useful. Crops are planted in rows.
either multiple or single rows, as per the crop types for convenience and to maximize
yields
➢ Different spatial arrangement of the crops gives better spatial information, but it
requires high spatial resolution images.
➢ In spatial image classification, spatial image elements are combined with spectral
properties in reaching a classification decision. Most commonly’ used elements are
texture, contexture and geometry (shape).
3.1.2 Role of texture in classification

➢ As it is possible to distinguish between regular textures manifested by man man-made

objects hence, this texture characteristic is used to discriminate between divergent
objects
➢ Grey value relationship is obtained from segmentation both by conventional texture
analysis and grey level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM)
➢ GLCM method analyses within GLCM space not from original grey values
3.1.3 Grey Level Co-occurrence Matrix (GLCM)

➢ The GLCM can be viewed as two-dimensional histogram of the frequency with which
pairs of grey level pixels occur in a given spatial relationship, defined by specific inter-
pixel distance and a given pixel orientation

➢ Hence this segmentation of urban objects , texture analysis are usually performed by
GLCM
Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 14
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

3.1.4 Local Binary Pattern (LBP)

➢ It is a simple yet very efficient texture operator which labels the pixels of an image by
thresholding the neighborhood of each pixel and considers the result as a binary
number.

➢ Due to its discriminative power and computational plainness, LBP texture operator
become a popular approach

➢ Spatial feature extraction for crop type discrimination works well if we have high
spatial resolution satellite imagery. Rather than this spatial information is also useful
in spectral based classification for visual interpretation in supervised learning
3.2 Spectral Features for Crop Classification

➢ Band selection

➢ Narrow band vegetation indices

3.2.1 Band Selection

➢ Band selection is one of the important steps in hyper spectral remote sensing.

➢ There are to conceptually different approaches of band selection like Unsupervised and
supervised.

➢ Due to a availability of hundreds of spectral bands, there may be same values in several
bands which increase the data redundancy,

➢ To avoid the data redundancy and to get distinct features from available hundreds of
bands, we have to choose the specific band by studying the reflectance behavior of
crops.

3.2.2 Narrow Band Vegetation Indices

➢ Spectral indices assume that the combined interaction between a small number of
wavelengths is adequate to describe the biochemical or biophysical interaction
between light and matter.

➢ The simplest form of index is a simple ratio (SR). a potentially greater contribution of
hyper spectral systems is their ability to create new indices that integrate not sampled
Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 15
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

by any broadband system and to quantify absorptions that are Specific to important
biochemical and biophysical quantities of vegetation.

➢ Vegetation properties measured with hyper spectral vegetation indices (HVIs) can be
divided into three main categories. (1) Structure, (2) biochemistry and (3) plant
physiology/stress.

3.2.3 Importance of Hyper spectral Remote Sensing

➢ Spectrum allows us to study very specific characteristics of agricultural crops

➢ Non-imaging sensors gave spectral signatures with approximate 1-10 nm sampling rate
which is very effective for distinct feature identification

➢ Narrow band vegetation indices play an important role for mapping plant biophysical
and biochemical properties of agricultural crops

➢ It gives detailed information about crops, but it is necessary to select appropriate bands

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 16

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Yield Monitoring and Soil Mapping

4.1 Introduction on Yield Monitoring

➢ To enable decision makers and planners to predict the amount of crop import and
export yield estimation well before harvest is imperative

➢ But conventional methods are expensive, time consuming and are prone to large errors
due to incomplete and inaccurate ground observations

➢ Data captured through remote sensing has the prospective, capacity and the potential
to exhibit spatial information at global scale

➢ Different approaches include

✓ Aerial photography
✓ Multispectral scanners
✓ Radar
✓ Satellite Data

4.1.1. Aerial Photography

➢ This is used for optimized use of resources for agriculture and crop inventory

➢ Black and white photography has been used for crop identification, primarily based on
ground appearance and the equivalent aerial photographic form of selected fields at
nine intervals during growing season

4.1.2. Multispectral Scanners

➢ It uses pattern recognition techniques using a computer format to differentiate specific

crop from other agricultural crops

➢ It also helps in species identification

4.1.3. Radar

➢ It helps in monitoring the yield concentrating on seasonal change between the crops
and numerous variables which are considered in making simplest determinations

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 17

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

4.1.4. Satellite Data

➢ Predicting crop yields with conventional models proved to be unsuccessful in present

day World

➢ Remote sensing has proved effective in predicting crop yield and provide
representative and spatially exhaustive information on the development of the model

➢ India’s marked the beginning of remote sensing with the launch of IRS satellite in
1988.

➢ Yield estimates through remote sensing is indirect in nature

➢ Recently, researchers are using course resolution data as a sampling tool to estimate
the yield through remote sensing for increased precision

4.2 Soil Mapping

➢ Soil maps are required on different scales varying from 1:1 million to 1:4,000 to meet
the requirements of planning at various levels.

➢ As the scale of a soil map has direct correlation with the information content and field
investigations that are carried out, small scale soil maps of 1:1 million are needed for
macro-level planning at national level.

➢ Soil maps at 1:250,000 scale provide information for planning at regional or state level
with generalized interpretation of soil information for determining the suitability and
limitations for several agricultural uses and requires less intensity of soil observations
and time.

➢ Soil maps at 1:50,000 scale where association of soil series are depicted, serve the
purpose for planning resources conservation and optimum land use at district level and
require moderate intensity of observations in the field.

➢ Large scale soil maps at 1:8,000 or 1:4,000 scale are specific purpose maps which can
be generated through high intensity of field observations based on maps at 1:50,000
scale of large-scale aerial photographs or very high resolution satellite data.

➢ Similarly, information on degraded lands like salt affected soils, eroded soils,

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 18

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

waterlogged areas, jhum lands (shifting cultivation) etc is required at different scales
for planning strategies for reclamation and conservation of degraded lands.

4.3 Applications of soil mapping through remote sensing

➢ Remote Sensing for Soil and Land Degradation Mapping

✓ Conventional surveys are subjective, time consuming and laborious
✓ Remote sensing speeded up the conventional soil survey programmes
✓ Aerial photography and satellite data reduced the field work with respect to locating
soil types and boundaries owing to synoptic view

➢ Soil Mapping methods

✓ Topographic variations as the base for depicting soil variability
✓ Multispectral satellite data is being used for mapping soil up to family association
level (1:50000)

➢ Visual Image Interpretation

✓ It is based on shape, size, tone, shadow, texture, pattern, site and association
✓ This is relatively simple and inexpensive
✓ Several workers have concluded that remote sensing technology provides better
efficiency at 1:50000 and detailed at 1:10000 scale of mapping

➢ Computer Aided Approach

✓ Numerical analysis of remote sensing data utilizing the Computers has been
developed because of requirement to analyze faster and extract information from
the large quantities of data
✓ Computer aided techniques utilize the spectral variations for classification
✓ Pattern recognition in remote sensing assists in identification of homogeneous
areas, which can be used as a base for carrying out detailed field investigations and
generating models between remote sensing and field parameters
✓ Major problem with conventional soil survey and soil cartography is accurate
delineation of boundary. Field observations based on conventional soil survey are
tedious and time consuming
✓ Remote sensing data in conjunction with ancillary data provide the best alternative,
with a better delineation of soil mapping units.
Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 19
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Site Specific Nutrient Management (SSNM)

5.1 Introduction

➢ Site specific nutrient management (SSNM) approach, relatively new approach of

nutrient recommendations, is mainly based on the indigenous nutrient supply from the
soil and nutrient demand of the crop for achieving targeted yield.

➢ The SSNM helps in improving NUE as it provides an approach for feeding crops like
rice, maize, wheat, etc. with nutrients as and when needed.

➢ The major benefit for farmers from improved nutrient management strategy is an
increase in the profitability.

➢ The SSNM eliminates the wastage of fertilizers by preventing excessive rates of

fertilization and by avoiding fertilizer application when the crop does not require
nutrient inputs.

5.2 Importance of SSNM

➢ Optimal use of existing indigenous nutrient sources such as crop residues and
measures.

➢ Application of N, P and K fertilizers is adjusted to the location and season-specific

needs of the crop.
✓ Use of the leaf color chart ensures that nitrogen is applied at the right time and
in the amount needed by the crop which prevents wastage of fertilizer.
✓ Use of nitrogen omission plots to determine the P & K fertilizers required to meet
the crop needs. This ensures that P and K are applied in the ratio required by the
rice crop.

➢ Local randomization for application of Zn, S and micronutrients are followed.

➢ Selection of most economic combination of available fertilizer sources.

➢ Integration with other integrated crop management (ICM) practices such as the use of
quality seeds, optimum plant density, integrated pest management and good water
management.

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 20

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

5.3 SSNM Approaches

➢ The relatively new approach of nutrient recommendations is mainly based on the

indigenous nutrient supply from the soil and nutrient demand of the crop for achieving
targeted yield

➢ The SSNM recommendations could be evolved on the basis of solely plant analysis or
soil cum plant analysis

5.4 Plant Analysis Based SSNM

➢ It is considered that the nutrient status of the crop is the best indicator of soil nutrient
supplies as well as nutrient demand of the crops. Thus, the approach is built around
plant analysis. Initially, SSNM was tried for low-land rice, but subsequently, it proved
advantageous to several contemporary approaches of fertilizer recommendations in
rice, wheat and other rice-based production systems prevalent in Asian countries

➢ Five key steps for developing field-specific fertilizer NPK recommendations are
1) Selection of the Yield Goal

✓ A yield goal exceeding 70–80% of the variety-specific potential yield (Y max) has
to be chosen.
✓ Y max is defined as the maximum possible grain yield limited only by climatic
conditions of the site, where there are no other factors limiting crop growth.
✓ The logic behind selection of the yield goal to the extent of 70–80% of the Y max
is that the internal NUEs decrease at very high yield levels near Y max.
✓ Crop growth models (eg. DSSAT) can be used to work out Y max of crop variety
under a particular climatic condition.

2) Assessment of Crop Nutrient Requirement

✓ The nutrient uptake requirements of a crop depend both on yield goal and Y max.
✓ In SSNM, nutrient requirements are estimated with the help of quantitative
evaluation of fertility of tropical soils (QUEFTS) models.
✓ The nutrient requirements for a particular yield goal of a crop variety may be
smaller in a high yielding season than in a low yielding one.

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 21

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

3) Estimation of Indigenous Nutrient Supplies

✓ Indigenous nutrient supply (INS) is defined as the total amount of a particular
nutrient that is available to the crop from the soil during the cropping cycle, when
other nutrients are non-limiting.
✓ The INS is derived from soil incorporated crop residues, water and atmospheric
deposition.
✓ It is estimated by measuring plant nutrient uptake in an omission plot embedded in
the farmers’ field, wherein all other nutrients except the one (N, P or K) in question,
are applied in sufficient amounts.

4) Computation of Fertilizer Nutrient Rates

✓ Field-specific fertilizer N, P or K recommendations are calculated on the basis of
above steps (1–3) and the expected fertilizer recovery efficiency (RE, Kg of
fertilizer nutrient taken up by the crop per Kg of the applied nutrient).
✓ Studies indicated RE values of 40–60% for N, 20–30% for P and 40–50% for K in
rice under normal growing conditions, when the nutrients are applied as water
soluble fertilizer sources.

5) Dynamic Adjustment of N Rates

✓ Whereas fertilizer P and K, as computed above, are applied basally i.e., at the time
of sowing/planting, the N rates and application schedules can be further adjusted
as per the crop demand using chlorophyll meter (popularly known as SPAD) or leaf
color chart (LCC).

5.5 Soil-cum-Plant Analysis Based SSNM

➢ In this case, nutrient availability in the soil, plant nutrient demands for a higher target
yield (not less than 80% of Y max), and RE of applied nutrients are considered for
developing fertilizer use schedule to achieve maximum economic yield of a crop
variety.

➢ Total nutrient requirement for the targeted yield and RE are estimated with the help of
documented information available for similar crop growing environments.

➢ Field-specific fertilizer rates are then suggested to meet the nutrient demand of the crop

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 22

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

(variety) without depleting soil reserves.

➢ These soil–test crop response-based recommendations are now in practice to achieve

desired yield targets in many field crops

➢ Thus, recent studies with intensive cropping systems have shown that fertilizer
recommendations with above approach offer greater economic gains as compared with
NPK fertilizer schedules conventionally prescribed by soil testing laboratories

5.6 Decision Support Systems

➢ Nutrient Expert (NE) is an easy-to-use, interactive, and computer-based decision

support tool that can rapidly provide nutrient recommendations for an individual
farmer field in the presence or absence of soil testing data.

➢ NE is nutrient decision support software that uses the principles of SSNM and enables
farm advisors to develop fertilizer recommendations tailored to a specific field or
growing environment.

➢ NE allows users to draw required information from their own experience, farmers’
knowledge of the local region and farmers’ practices.

➢ NE can use experimental data, but it can also estimate the required SSNM parameters
using existing site information.

5.7 Decision Rules to Estimate Site-Specific Nutrient Management Parameters

➢ NE estimates the attainable yield and yield response to fertilizer from site information
using decision rules developed from on-farm trials.

➢ Specifically, NE uses characteristics of the growing environment—water availability

(irrigated, fully rain fed and rain fed with supplemental irrigation) and any occurrence
of flooding or drought; soil fertility indicators—soil texture, soil color and organic
matter content, soil test for P or K (if available), historical use of organic materials (if
any) and problem soils (if any); crop sequence in farmer’s cropping pattern; crop
residue management and fertilizer inputs for the previous crop; and farmers’ current
yields.

➢ Data for specific crops and specific geographic regions are required in developing the
Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 23
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

decision rules for NE.

➢ The datasets must represent diverse conditions in the growing environment

characterized by variations in the amount and distribution of rainfall, crop cultivars
and growth durations, soils and cropping systems

5.8 Current Versions of Nutrient Expert

➢ NE has been developed for specific crops and geographic regions. Nutrient Expert for
Hybrid Maize (NEHM) for favorable tropical environments (e.g., South-East Asia)
was developed in late 2009 and underwent field evaluation in Indonesia and the
Philippines.

➢ Using NEHM as a model, the NE concept has been adapted to other crops and
geographic regions or countries. In 2011, beta versions of NE for maize were
developed for South Asia, China, Kenya and Zimbabwe.

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 24

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Spatial data and its management in GIS

6.1 What is a GIS

➢ A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and

analyzing things that exist and events that happen on earth.

➢ GIS technology integrates common database operations such as query and statistical
analysis with the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by
maps

➢ These abilities distinguish GIS from other information systems and make it valuable
to a wide range of public and private enterprises for explaining events, predicting
outcomes and planning strategies.

➢ Mapmaking and geographic analysis are not new, but a GIS performs these tasks better
and faster than do the old manual methods.
6.2 Importance of GIS

➢ Perform Geographic Queries and Analysis

➢ Improve Organizational Integration

➢ Make Better Decisions

➢ Making Maps much more

6.3 How GIS works

➢ A GIS stores information about the world as a collection of thematic layers that can be
linked together by geography.

➢ This simple but extremely powerful and versatile concept has proven valuable for
solving many real-world problems from tracking delivery vehicles, to recording details
of planning applications, to modeling global atmospheric circulation
6.4 Geographic References

➢ Geographic information contains either an explicit geographic reference, such as a

latitude and longitude or national grid coordinate or an implicit reference such as an
address, postal code, census tract name, forest stand identifier or road name.
Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 25
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

➢ An automated process called geo-coding is used to create explicit geographic

references (multiple locations) from implicit references (descriptions such as
addresses).

➢ These geographic references allow location of features, such as a business or forest

stand and events, such as an earthquake, on the earth’s surface for analysis.
6.5 Vector and Raster Models

➢ Geographic information systems work with two fundamentally different types of

geographic models - the “vector” model and the “raster” model.
➢ The vector model is extremely useful for describing discrete features, but less useful
for describing Continuously varying features such as soil type or accessibility costs
for hospitals.

➢ The raster model has evolved to model such continuous features. A raster image
comprises a collection of grid cells rather like a scanned map or picture. Both the vector
and raster for storing geographic data have unique advantages and disadvantages
6.6 Components of GIS

A working GIS integrates five key components: Hardware, software, data, people and
methods.

Hardware

It is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software runs a

wide range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop
computers used in stand-alone or networked configurations.

Software

The GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze
and display geographic information. Key software components are:

✓ Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information.

✓ A database management system (DBMS).

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 26

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

✓ Tools that support geographic query, analysis and visualization.

✓ A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools.

Data

Possibly, the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data
and related tabular data cm be collected in-house or purchased from a commercial
data provider. A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data resources and can
even use a DBMS, used by most organizations to organize and maintain their data, to
manage spatial data.

People

The GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the
system and develop plans for applying it to real-world problems The GIS users
range from technical specialists who design and maintain the System to those who
use it to help them perform the everyday work.

Methods

A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business

rules, are the models and operating practices Unique to each organization

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 27

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Geodesy and its Basic principles

7.1 Introduction

➢ Geodesy also known as geodetics, geodetic engineering or geodetics engineering- a

branch of applied mathematics and earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals
with the measurement and representation of the earth (or any planet), including its
gravitational field

➢ Geodesy is defined as the science of measurement and mapping of the earth’s surface.

7.2 Principles of Geodesy

➢ Coordinates and Coordinate Reference Systems

➢ Earth and the Geoid

➢ Ellipsoids (Spheroids)

➢ Geodetic Datum’s

➢ Geographical Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)

➢ Latitude and Longitude are not Unique

➢ Global Positioning System (GPS)

➢ Coordinate Transformations

7.3 Coordinates and Coordinate Reference Systems

➢ Coordinates belong to a coordinate system

➢ A coordinate system (CS) describes the mathematical rules governing the Co- ordinate
space including: the number of axes, their name, their direction, their units and their
order

➢ A coordinate reference system (CRS) is a coordinate system which is referenced to the

earth.

➢ Surface of the earth is irregular and is therefore difficult to calculate on directly.

➢ Numerous models exist and any one model may have several variations in position or
Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 28
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

orientation relative to the earth. Each variation leads to a different CRS.

➢ Consequently, coordinates describe location unambiguously only when the CRS to

which they are referenced has been fully identified.
7.2.1 Ellipsoids (Spheroids)

➢ To simplify computing of position, the geoid is approximated by the nearest

mathematically definable figure, the ellipsoid. The ellipsoid is effectively a ‘best fit’
to the geoid.

➢ Approximation of the geoid by a reference ellipsoid could traditionally only be done

locally, not globally and this limitation led to the existence of many ellipsoids, each
with different size and shape

➢ Ellipsoids determine shape and provide a best fit of the geoid.

7.2.2 Geodetic Datum’s

➢ A geodetic datum defines the position and orientation of the reference ellipsoid relative
to the center of the earth and the meridian used as zero longitude - the prime meridian

➢ Size and shape of the ellipsoid are traditionally chosen to best lit the geoid in area of
interest. A local best fit will attempt to align the minor axis of the ellipsoid with the
earth’s rotational axis.

➢ It will also ensure that the zero longitude of the ellipsoid coincides with a defined prime
meridian.

➢ The prime meridian is usually that through Greenwich, England, but historically,
countries used the meridian through their national astronomic observatory.

➢ A geodetic datum is inextricably linked to the generation of geographical coordinates.

7.2.3 Geographical Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)

➢ Position of a point relative to a geographical coordinate reference system is described

the CRS ellipsoid and is generally expressed by means of geographical coordinates

➢ It is very important to appreciate that latitude and longitude are not unique and are
therefore entirely dependent on the chosen geodetic datum. Conversely, any given

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 29

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

values of latitude and longitude can refer to any geodetic datum

➢ Each of the many models (ellipsoids) may have several determinations of its reference
to the earth, each resulting in a different geodetic datum.

➢ Because of the irregularities of the geoid, a point has coordinates referenced to

European datum that differ by several meters from coordinates referenced to Monte
Mario datum, despite both data using the same ellipsoid

➢ Similarly, if the model is changed (a different ellipsoid adopted), even when the
reference point is retained, coordinates of positions away from the reference point will
differ
7.2.4 Latitude and Longitude are not unique

➢ Latitude and longitude are not unique without the associated CRS being identified.
7.2.5 Global Positioning System (GPS)

➢ The OPS is a worldwide navigation system operated by the US Department of Defense

and formed by a constellation of 24 satellites and their ground stations.
➢ Its receivers use these satellites as reference points to calculate positions accurate to a
matter of meters, on or above the earth’s surface.
➢ These “black box” units generate a 3D coordinate, which can be used for navigation
(amongst other numerous purposes) and ultimately determine your position in terms
of a latitude and longitude.
➢ The coordinate reference system used by the GPS system is known as WGS 84. The
WOS 84 CRS has its own ellipsoid, confusingly also known as WGS 84.
➢ There is no single datum origin point for the WGS 84 datum and geographic co-
ordinates are derived from a world adjustment of several geodetic markers surveyed
by OPS
7.2.6 Coordinate Transformations

➢ In order to merge points such as surface well locations (whose geographical

coordinates are referenced to one particular CRS) with other points based on a different
CRS, one of the two datasets must be transformed it is possible to measure and
calculate the displacements, rotations and scale differences between them.

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 30

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

➢ There are numerous different methods of transforming coordinates Various E&P

companies adopt different CRS to store geo-referencing data in their corporate
databases

➢ It is therefore quite common to have to transform data sets to suit the recipient’s
prescribed CRS, prior to sharing data with other operators or submitting information
to regulatory bodies.

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 31

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Remote sensing and its applications in Agriculture

8.1 Introduction
➢ Remote sensing is the science (and to some extent, art) of acquiring information about
the Earth's surface without actually being in contact with it. This is done by sensing
and recording reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing, and applying that
information

8.2 Components of Remote Sensing

➢ Energy Source or Illumination (A) – the first requirement for remote sensing is to
have an energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the
target of interest.
➢ Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) – as the energy travels from its source to the
target, it will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through.
This interaction may take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to
the sensor.
➢ Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to the target through
the atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the
target and the radiation.
➢ Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been scattered by, or
emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the target) to
collect and record the electromagnetic radiation
➢ Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by the sensor
has to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station
where the data are processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).
➢ Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or
digitally or electronically, to extract information about the target which was
illuminated.
➢ Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when
we apply the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the
target in order to better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving
a particular problem.

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 32

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

8.3 Types of Remote Sensing

➢ Active Remote Sensing: when remote sensing work is carried out with a man-made
source of radiations which is used to illuminate a body and to detect the signal
reflected form. eg. Radar and Lidar remote sensing
➢ Passive Remote Sensing: when remote sensing work is carried out with the help of
electromagnetic radiations (signals) reflected by a natural body (sun and earth). eg
visible, NIR and Microwave remote sensing.

8.4 Application of Remote Sensing in Agriculture

➢ Crop Identification:
✓ It is very important for a national government to know what crops the country is
going to produce in the current growing season
✓ This knowledge has financial benefits for the country, as it allows the budget
planning for importing and exporting of food products
✓ To identify the crop, we need to know in advance, how the crops reflect the near-
infrared at each of their various growth stages. Using the different near infrared
reflectance is one of the tools we have to discriminate between two crops.
✓ Having the knowledge of when each crop is planted and harvested, we can estimate
the percentage of vegetation cover through the growth period, assuming no
external factors (stress, disease, etc.) affect its growth.
✓ By using multi-date data (data from different dates) from one growing period, it is
possible to identify the different crop types, because the vegetation cover of each
crop changes at different rates.
✓ By combining this information with remote sensing data, we can discriminate
between different crops and also identify them. This information serves to predict
grain crop yield, collecting crop production statistics, facilitating crop rotation
records, mapping soil productivity, identification of factors influencing crop stress,
assessment of crop damage and monitoring farming activity
➢ Detection, diagnosis and control of plant diseases
✓ Remote sensing assist in protecting the plants from potential attacks of pests, fungi
or bacteria
✓ By combining agricultural knowledge with remotely sensed data, it is possible to

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 33

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

have early warning and prevent a pest or a disease from affecting the crops, by
taking appropriate action at an early stage.
✓ Detection of diseases at early stage is a lot easier less costly than currently used
impractical human scouting techniques. It is also possible to assess the extent of
the damage caused by pests and diseases, by using similar methods to those used
to identify stressed plants
✓ The symptoms of such attacks usually cause the break-down of chlorophyll, and
we can identify the reduction of chlorophyll concentration in the plants through
remote sensing.
✓ In addition to loss of chlorophyll, pest and diseases can cause the destruction of
whole leaves. This leads to a reduction in the total leaf area and as a result, the
reduction of the plant's capacity for photosynthesis
➢ Yield estimation
✓ Remote sensing has been used to forecast crop yields based primarily upon
statistical–empirical relationships between yield and vegetation indices
➢ Yield maps
✓ Yield maps created on the basis of satellite images acquired in many seasons
represent the spatial variability in crops yield regardless of plant species
➢ Soil Analysis
✓ A major breakthrough in these studies has been the use of visible-near infrared
spectroscopy to develop quantitative calibrations for rapid characterization of soil
nutrients and various physical properties of soils.
✓ The coupling of this technology with remote sensing data, geo-referenced ground
surveys, and new spatial statistical methods has resulted in the improved capability
for large area soil assessments
➢ Soil Mapping
✓ Soil maps are another type of maps developed using remote sensing data. These
maps can be compiled on the basis of airborne or satellite images acquired when
the degree of soil coverage by plants is less than 30-50%.
✓ Soil maps present homogeneous soil zones with similar properties and conditions
for plant growth. These maps are useful in determining soil sampling locations for
detailed studies of soil, soil moisture sensors location or developing irrigation
Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 34
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

plans
✓ Remote sensing is a good method for mapping and prediction of soil degradation.
Soil layers that rise to the surface during erosion have different color, tone and
structure than non-eroded soils thus the eroded parts of soil can be easily identify
on the images. Using multi-temporal images, we can study and map dynamical
features – the, expansion of erosion, soil moisture.

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 35

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Image processing and Interpretation

9.1 Definition

➢ Image Processing and Interpretation can be defined as act of examining images

for the purpose of identifying objects and judging their significance
9.2 Common image processing functions

9.2.1 Pre-Processing

➢ These procedures include radiometric correction to correct for uneven sensor

response over the whole image and geometric correction to correct for geometric
distortion due to Earth's rotation and other imaging conditions (such as oblique
viewing).

➢ The image may also be transformed to conform to a specific map projection system.
Furthermore, if accurate geographical location of an area on the image needs to be
known, ground control points (GCP's) are used to register the image to a precise map
(geo-referencing).
9.2.2 Image Enhancement

➢ It is to improve the appearance of the imagery to assist in visual interpretation and

analysis.

➢ Examples of enhancement functions include contrast stretching to increase the tonal

distinction between various features in a scene, and spatial filtering to enhance (or
suppress) specific spatial patterns in an image

9.2.3 Image Classification

➢ Different land cover types in an image can be discriminated using some image
classification algorithms using spectral features, i.e., the brightness and "color"
information contained in each pixel. The classification procedures can be
"supervised" or "unsupervised".

➢ In supervised classification, the spectral features of some areas of known land cover
types are extracted from the image. These areas are known as the "training

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 36

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

areas". Every pixel in the whole image is then classified as belonging to one of the
classes depending on how close its spectral features are to the spectral features of
the training areas.

➢ In unsupervised classification, the computer program automatically groups the

pixels in the image into separate clusters, depending on their spectral features. Each
cluster will then be assigned a land cover type by the analyst.

➢ Each class of land cover is referred to as a "theme" and the product of classification
is known as a "thematic map".
9.2.4 Measurement of Bio-geophysical Parameters

➢ Specific instruments carried on-board the satellites can be used to make

measurements of the bio-geophysical parameters of the earth.

➢ Some of the examples are atmospheric water vapor content, stratospheric ozone,
land and sea surface temperature, sea water chlorophyll concentration, forest
biomass, sea surface wind field, tropospheric aerosol, etc.

➢ Specific satellite missions have been launched to continuously monitor the global
variations of these environmental parameters that may show the causes or the effects
of global climate change and the impacts of human activities on the environment.
9.2.5 Geographical Information System (GIS)

➢ Different forms of imagery such as optical and radar images provide

complementary information about the land cover.

➢ More detailed information can be derived by combining several different types of

images.

➢ For example, radar image can form one of the layers in combination with the visible
and near infrared layers when performing classification.

➢ The thematic information derived from the remote sensing images are often
combined with other auxiliary data to form the basis for a Geographic
Information System (GIS).

➢ A GIS is a database of different layers, where each layer contains information about a
Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 37
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

specific aspect of the same area which is used for analysis by the resource scientists.

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 38

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Global positioning system, components and its functions

10.1 Definition

➢ Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system consisting

of more than 20 satellites and several supporting ground facilities, which provide
accurate, three-dimensional position, velocity and time, 24 hours a day, everywhere in
the world and in all weather conditions
10.2 Components of GPS

➢ GPS Ground control stations.

✓ The ground control component stations send control signals to the GPS satellites,
The GPS satellites transmit radio signals and the GPS receivers, receive these
signals and use it to calculate its position.

✓ The control segment uses measurements collected by the monitor stations to

predict the behavior of each satellite's orbit and atomic clocks.

✓ The prediction data is linked up to the satellites for transmission to users.

✓ The control segment also ensures that GPS satellite orbits remain within limits and
that the satellites do not drift too far from nominal orbits.

➢ GPS satellites

✓ GPS satellites orbit in circular orbits at 17,440 km altitude, each orbit lasting 12
hours.

✓ The orbits are tilted to the equator by 55o to ensure coverage in polar regions. The
satellites are powered by solar cells to continually orientate themselves to point the
solar panels towards the Sun and the antennas towards the Earth.

✓ Each satellite contains four atomic clocks which measure time to a high degree of
accuracy.

✓ The time information is placed in the codes broadcast by the satellite so that a
receiver can continuously determine the time the signal was broadcast.
Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 39
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

✓ The signal contains data that a receiver uses to compute the locations of the
satellites and to make other adjustments needed for accurate positioning.

✓ The receiver uses the time difference between the time of signal reception and the
broadcast time to compute the range to the satellite

➢ GPS receivers

✓ When you buy a GPS, you are actually buying only the GPS receiver and get free
use of the other two main components.

✓ GPS receivers are smaller to carry, easier to handle, much more versatile and
updateable.

✓ Personal navigation with a GPS also means you can customize maps as you go
along - plotting points of interest and marking all those wonderful places in an
easy, neat and ordered manner.
10.3 Functions of GPS

➢ Giving a location:

✓ Its ability to accurately triangulate your position based on the data transmissions
from multiple satellites.

✓ It will give your location in coordinates, either latitude and longitude or Universal
Transverse Mercator’s (UTMs).

➢ Point to point navigation:

✓ This GPS navigation feature allows you to add waypoints to your trips. By using
a map, the coordinates of a trailhead or road or the point where you're standing,
you can create a point-to point route to the place where you're headed.

➢ Route navigation:

✓ By combining multiple waypoints on a trail, you can move point-to-point with

intermediate bearing and distance guides. Once you reach the first Pre-determined
waypoint, the GPS receiver can automatically point you to the next one or you can
manually do this.
Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 40
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

➢ Keep a Track:

✓ Tracks are some of the most useful functions of navigation systems. You can map
where you've already been. This virtual map is called a track, and you can program
the GPS system to automatically drop track-points as you travel, either over
intervals of time or distance. This can be done on land or in a nautical setting and
allows you to retrace your steps

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 41

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Simulation and Crop Modeling

11.1 Introduction

➢ Simulation is defined as a technique for studying real world dynamical systems by

imitating their behavior using a mathematical model of the system implemented on a
digital computer

➢ Modeling and Simulation is a discipline for developing a level of understanding of the

interaction of the parts of a system, and of the system as a whole.

11.2 TYPES OF MODELS

Depending upon the purpose for which it is designed the models are classified into
different groups or types. Of them a few are:

a. Statistical models: These models express the relationship between yield or yield
components and weather parameters. In these models relationships are measured in
a system using statistical techniques. Example: Step down regressions, correlation,
etc.
b. Mechanistic models: These models explain not only the relationship between
weather parameters and yield, but also the mechanism of these models (explains
the relationship of influencing dependent variables). These models are based on
physical selection.
c. Deterministic models: These models estimate the exact value of the yield or
dependent variable. These models also have defined coefficients.
d. Stochastic models: A probability element is attached to each output. For each set
of inputs different outputs are given along with probabilities. These models define
yield or state of dependent variable at a given rate.
e. Dynamic models: Time is included as a variable. Both dependent and independent
variables are having values which remain constant over a given period of time.
f. Static: Time is not included as a variable. Dependent and independent variables
having values remain constant over a given period of time.
g. Simulation models: Computer models, in general, are a mathematical
representation of a real- w o r l d system. One of the main goals of crop simulation

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 42

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

models is to estimate agricultural production as a function of weather and soil

conditions as well as crop management. These models use one or more sets of
differential equations, and calculate both rate and state variables over time,
normally from planting until harvest maturity or final harvest.
h. Descriptive model: A descriptive model defines the behavior of a system in a
simple manner. The model reflects little or none of the mechanisms that are the
causes of phenomena. But consists of one or more mathematical equations. An
example of such an equation is the one derived from successively measured weights
of a crop. The equation is helpful to determine quickly the weight of the crop where
no observation was made.
i. Explanatory model: This consists of quantitative description of the mechanisms
and processes that cause the behavior of the system. To create this model, a system
is analyzed, and its processes and mechanisms are quantified separately. The model
is built by integrating these descriptions for the entire system. It contains
descriptions of distinct processes such as leaf area expansion, tiller production, etc.
Crop growth is a consequence of these processes.

11.3 Model Development

➢ Model Calibration:

Calibration is the adjustment of the system parameters so that simulation

results reach a pre-determined level, usually that of an observation. In many
instances, even if a model is based on observed data, simulated values do not exactly
comply with the observed data and minor adjustments have to be made for some
parameters

➢ Model Validation

The model validation stage involves the confirmation that the calibrated model
closely represents the real situation. The procedure consists of a comparison of
simulated output and observed data. Ideally, all mechanistic models should be
validated. However, validation of all the components is not possible due to lack of
detailed datasets and the option of validating only the determinant ones is adopted.

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 43

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

11.4 Steps of Modeling Process

The modeling process is cyclic and closely parallels the scientific method and
the software life cycle for the development of a major software project. The steps of
the modeling process are as follows:

➢ Analyze the problem We must first study the situation sufficiently to identify the
problem precisely and understand its fundamental questions clearly. At this stage, we
determine the problem’s objective and decide on the problem’s classification, such
as deterministic or stochastic. Only with a clear, precise problem identification can
we translate the problem into mathematical symbols and develop and solve the
model.
➢ Formulate a model In this stage, we design the model, forming an abstraction of the
system we are modeling. Some of the tasks of this step are as follows:
✓ Gather data We collect relevant data to gain information about the system’s
behavior.
✓ Make simplifying assumptions and document them In formulating a model we
should attempt to be as simple as reasonably possible. Thus, frequently we decide to
simplify some of the factors and to ignore other factors that do not seem as important.
Most problems are entirely too complex to consider every detail and doing so would
only make the model impossible to solve or to run in a reasonable amount of time
on a computer.
✓ Determine variables and units We must determine and name the variables. An
independent variable is the variable on which others depend. In many applications,
time is an independent variable. The model will try to explain the dependent
variables. For example, in simulating the trajectory of a ball, time is an independent
variable; and the height and the horizontal distance from the initial position are
dependent variables whose values depend on the time. To simplify the model, we
may decide to neglect some variables (such as air resistance), treat certain variables
as constants, or aggregate several variables into one.
✓ Establish relationships among variables and sub-models If possible, we should
draw a diagram of the model, breaking it into sub-models and indicating relationships

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 44

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

among variables. To simplify the model, we may assume that some of the
relationships are simpler than they really are. For example, we might assume that
two variables are related in a linear manner instead of in a more complex way
✓ Determine equations and functions While establishing relationships between
variables, we determine equations and functions for these variables. For example, we
might decide that two variables are proportional to each other, or we might establish
that a known scientific formula or equation applies to the model.
➢ Solve the model This stage implements the model. It is important not to jump to this
step before thoroughly understanding the problem and designing the model. Otherwise,
we might waste much time, which can be most frustrating. Some of the techniques
and tools that the solution might employ are algebra, calculus, graphs, computer
programs, and computer packages.
➢ Verify and interpret the model’s solution Once we have a solution, we should
carefully examine the results to make sure that they make sense (verification) and that
the solution solves the original problem (validation) and is usable. The process of
verification determines if the solution works correctly, while the process of validation
establishes if the system satisfies the problem’s requirements. Thus, verification
concerns “solving the problem right,” and validation concerns “solving the right
problem.” Testing the solution to see if predictions agree with real data is important
for verification. We must be careful to apply our model only in the appropriate ranges
for the independent data. For example, our model might be accurate for time periods
of a few days but grossly inaccurate when applied to time periods of several years. We
should analyze the model’s solution to determine its implications.
➢ Report on the model Reporting on a model is important for its utility. Perhaps the
scientific report will be written for colleagues at a laboratory or will be presented at a
scientific conference. A report contains the following components, which parallel the
steps of the modeling process:
✓ Analysis of the problem Usually, assuming that the audience is intelligent but
not aware of the situation, we need to describe the circumstances in which the
problem arises. Then, we must clearly explain the problem and the objectives of
the study.
✓ Model design The amount of detail with which we explain the model depends on
Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 45
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

the situation. In a comprehensive technical report, we can incorporate much more

detail than in a conference talk. For example, inthe former case, we often include
the source code for our programs. In either case, we should state the simplifying
assumptions and the rationale for employing them. Usually, we will present some
of the data in tables or graphs. Such figures should contain titles, sources, and labels
for columns and axes. Clearly labeled diagrams of the relationships among
variables and sub models are usually very helpful in understanding the model.
✓ Model solution In this section, we describe the techniques for solving the problem
and the solution. We should give as much detail as necessary for the audience to
understand the material without becoming mired in technical minutia. For a written
report, appendices may contain more detail, such as source code of programs and
additional information about the solutions of equations.
✓ Results and conclusions Our report should include results, interpretations,
implications, recommendations, and conclusions of the model’s solution. We may
also include suggestions for future work.

➢ Maintain the model: As the model’s solution is used, it may be necessary or desirable
to make corrections, improvements, or enhancements. In this case, the modeler again
cycles through the modeling process to develop a revised solution.

11.5 Principles of Successful simulation

➢ Simplicity

➢ Learn from the past

➢ Create a conceptual model

➢ Build a prototype

➢ Push the user’s desire

➢ Model to data available

➢ Separate data from software

➢ Trust your creative juices

➢ Fit universal constraints

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 46
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

➢ Distil your own principles

11.6 Model Uses

➢ Crop system management: to evaluate optimum management production for cultural

practice.
➢ Helps in evaluating weather risk.

➢ Investment decisions become qualitative

➢ These are resource conserving tools

11.7 Model Limitations

➢ Models and simulations can’t ever completely re-create real life situations

➢ Not every possible situation have been included in the model

➢ The equipment and software are expensive to purchase

➢ The result depends on how good the model is and how much data was used to create
it in the first place

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 47

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Soil Test Crop Response (STCR)

What is Soil Test Crop Response

➢ Soil testing is a rapid chemical analysis to access available nutrient status of the soil
and includes interpretation, evaluation and fertilizer recommendation based on the
result of chemical analysis and other considerations.

➢ A chemical method for estimating the nutrient supplying capacity of a soil.

➢ It can determine soil’s nutrient status before a crop (field, vegetable, ornamental) is
planted.
12.1 Objectives of STCR

➢ To study the relationship between soil test values for available N, P, K and yield
response to important crops.

➢ To derive yield targeting equations for important crops for making fertilizer
recommendations.

➢ To evaluate various soil test method for their suitability under field conditions.

➢ To evaluate the extent to which fertilizer needs of crop can be reduced in relation
with conjunctive use of organic manure
12.2 Targeted Yield Approach

➢ Targeted yield concept is an approach comes under STCR.

➢ For obtaining a given yield a definite quantity of the nutrients must be taken up by
the crop.

➢ Once this requirement is known for a given yield, the requirement of fertilizer can be
estimated by taking into account efficiency of the soil available nutrient pool and that
of fertilizer requirement.
12.3 Concept of STCR

➢ ICAR established the AICRP on STCR in 1967 and the STCR concept was
developed by Ramamurthy in 1987.

➢ STCR approach is aiming at obtaining a basis for precise quantitative adjustment of

fertilizer doses under varying soil test values and response for targeted levels of crop
Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 48
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

production.

➢ STCR provides the relationship between a soil test value and crop yield.

➢ These are tested in follow up verification by field trials to back up soil testing
laboratories for their advisory purpose under specific soil, crop, and agro climatic
conditions
12.4 Methods of STCR

➢ Gradient experiment: in this phase artificial soil fertility gradient is created at

experiment site by following procedure:
✓ Divided the experiment field into 3 or 4 equal strips according to size of field.
✓ In 1st strip – no fertilization, 2nd strip -single fertilization, 3rd strip – double
fertilization likely increasing fertilizer dose with increase in number of strips
✓ Grow exhaustive crop like maize, sorghum fodder crops.
✓ Pre sowing and post-harvest soil samples were collected from each strips and
analysis.
✓ Plant analysis after harvest of exhaustive crop

➢ Test crop experiment: after confirming the establishment of fertility gradients in the
experiment field this phase of field experiment conducted with the following
procedure:
✓ Each strip is divided in number of plots which is equal to treatments
✓ Initial soil sample is collected from each plot and analyzed
✓ The experiment is layout as per statistical design
✓ Test crop experiment is taken with different level of fertilizers
✓ After maturity of crop to calculated yield from each plot
✓ Soil and plant sample is collected from each plot and analyzed
✓ Using the yield and nutrient uptake data, soil test values and applied fertilizer
doses of treated and control plots, the basic data viz. nutrient requirement (kg/q),
soil, fertilizer and organic manure efficiencies (%) for making fertilizer
recommendation can be worked out.
12.5 Conditions for yield targeting equation

➢ Used for similar soils of particular agro-eco region.

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 49

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

➢ Maximum targets should not exceed 75-80% of highest yield achieved for the crop in
the area.

➢ Fertilizer N recommendations for legumes should be same as general dose of the

crop of the area.

➢ Adjustment equations must be made within experimental range of soil test values.

➢ If the targeted yield was achieved within ± 10 per cent variation, then the equations
are found to be valid.
12.6 STCR Approach for Precision Agriculture

➢ Agricultural production system is an outcome of complex interaction of seed, soil,

water, fertilizers and other agrochemicals. Therefore, judicious management of all the
inputs is essential for sustainability of such a complex system

➢ Under normal conditions, recommended soil sampling procedure is to take samples

from portions of fields are no more than 20 acres in area

➢ Grid soil sampling uses the same principles of soil sampling but increases the
intensity of sampling

➢ The goal of grid soil sampling is to generate a map of nutrient requirement called an
application map

➢ Application map is loaded into the computer mounted on variable rate fertilizer
spreader

➢ Computer uses the application map and GPS receiver to direct a product delivery
controller that changes the amount and kind of fertilizer product according to
application map

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 50

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Nano-technology and Nano-scale effects

13.1 Introduction

➢ The word “Nano” comes from a Greek word that means “Dwarf”

➢ 1nm=10-9m

13.2 Definition

➢ Nano-science is the study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic,

molecular and macro-molecular scale, where properties differ significantly from
those at larger scale.

➢ Nano-technologies are the design, characterization, production and application of

structures, devices and systems by controlling shape and size at nanometer.

➢ Nanotechnology is a process that builds controls and restructures that are the size of
atoms and molecules.

➢ Nano-particle is defined as the small object that acts as a whole unit in terms of
transport and properties.

13.3 Concept

➢ The idea of nanotechnology was for the first time introduced in 1959 by the physicist
Richard Feynman.

➢ The term nanotechnology was first used in 1974 by Norio Taniguchi

➢ Nano-particles are having the following properties

✓ They are highly mobile in free state
✓ They have enormous surface areas
✓ They may exhibit the quantum effects

➢ Nano-technology is based on two main approaches

1. Bottom-up approach: Materials and devises are built from molecular components and
which assemble themselves chemically by molecular recognition
Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 51
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

2. Top- d o w n approach: Nano objects are constructed from large entities without
atomic level control

13.4 Nano scale effects

➢ Two principal factors cause the properties of Nano-material to differ significantly

from other materials
1. Increased relative surface area

2. Quantum effects

1. Increase relative surface area:

✓ Nano-scale materials have far larger surface areas than similar masses of larger area
✓ As surface area per mass of material increases, greater amount of material can come
into contact with surrounding materials, thus affecting reactivity.
Size of the cube Number of cubes Collective surface area

1m 1 6 m2
0.1m 1000 60 m2
0.01m 106 600 m2
0.001m 109 6000 m2
0.0-9m=1nm 1027 6×10-9 m2

✓ Quantum size effect = Electronic properties of solids are altered with reduction in
particle size
✓ When particle sizes of solid matter in visible scale are compared to what can be seen
in a regular optical micro-scope, there is a little difference in the properties of the
particle.
✓ When the particles are created with Nano dimensions the material properties change
significantly from those at larger scales
✓ Melting point, fluorescence, electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability and
chemical reactivity change as a function of size of the particle
✓ Materials reduced to Nano-scale can show different properties compared to that they
exhibit in macro-scale enabling unique application.

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 52

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Example:

✓ -Opaque substances become transparent (copper)

✓ -Stable materials turn combustible (aluminum)
✓ -Solids turn into liquids at room temperature (gold)
✓ -Insulators become conductors (silicon)

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 53

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Nano-pesticides, Nano-fertilizers and Nano-sensors

14.1 Definition:
➢ Nano-pesticides
✓ Nano-pesticides are defined as any formulation that includes elements of nm size
range and/or claims novel properties associated with these small size range
✓ Nano-pesticides are plant protection chemicals, in which either the active ingredient
or the carrier molecule is developed through nanotechnology
✓ The major aim in the development of Nano-pesticides is to lessen the environmental
hazards of a pesticide active ingredient through improving the efficacy of a chemical
✓ The size of a nanoparticle generally ranges 1-100 nanometers, and a nanometer
is one billionth of a meter. When the size gets this small, particles reach a very large
surface area, and thus more volume of pesticides get contact with the pests.
14.2 Formulations of Nano-pesticides
➢ Nano-pesticides are formulated according to their intended purpose as formulations
improving solubility, slow release of active ingredients, prevent degradation etc.
➢ Some foremost Nano-formulations are:
✓ Nano-emulsions: In this formulation active ingredient of the chemical is dispersed
as Nano sized droplets in water, with surfactant molecules confined at the pesticide-
water interface
✓ Nano-suspension: Nano-suspensions, also termed as Nano-dispersions, are
formulated by dispersing the pesticide as solid Nano sized particles in aqueous media
✓ Polymer based Nano-particles: Polymer-based pesticide Nano carriers are majorly
deployed in the slow and controlled release of active ingredients to the target site
✓ Nano-encapsulation: This confines the hydrophobic or hydrophilic activeingredient,
surrounded by a polymer coating or membrane.
✓ Nano spheres: These are homogeneous vesicular structures, in which the bioactive
ingredient is uniformly dispersed throughout the polymer matrix.
✓ Nano gels: These are also known also hydrogel nanoparticles. These are formulated
by cross linking of polymeric particles having hydrophilic groups
✓ Nano-fibers: Nano-fibers are developed through electro spinning, thermal induced
phase separation

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 54

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

14.3 Advantages of Nano-pesticides

➢ Improved solubility of active ingredients
➢ Better stability of formulation
➢ Slow release of active ingredient
➢ Improved mobility
➢ Higher surface area
➢ Uniform leaf coverage
➢ Improve pesticide utilization
➢ Nano-formulations improve adhesion of droplets to plant surface
➢ Eco-friendly approach
14.4 Definition
➢ Nano-fertilizers are nutrient carriers of Nano-dimensions capable of holding bountiful
of nutrient ions due to their high surface area and release it slowly and steadily that
commensurate with crop demand
➢ Nutrient use efficiencies of conventional fertilizers hardly exceed 30-35 %, 18-20 %
and 35-40 % for N, P and K respectively. The data remain constant for the past several
decades
➢ Nano particles have extensive surface area and capable of holding abundance of
nutrients and release it slowly and steadily such that it facilitates uptake of nutrients
matching the crop requirement without any associated ill effects of customized
fertilizer inputs.
➢ Encapsulation of fertilizers within a Nano particle is one of these new facilities which
are done in three ways :
✓ The nutrient can be encapsulated inside Nano porous materials
✓ Coated with thin polymer film
✓ Delivered as particle or emulsions of Nano scales dimensions
➢ In addition, Nano fertilizers will combine Nano devices in order to synchronize the
release of fertilizer-N and -P with their uptake by crops, so preventing undesirable
nutrient losses to soil, water and air via direct internalization by crops, and avoiding
the interaction of nutrients with soil, microorganisms, water, and air.

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 55

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

➢ Types of Nano devices available are:

✓ Nano-porous zeolites
✓ Controlled release Nano fertilizers
14.5 Advantages related to transformed formulation of Conventional fertilizer using
technology

Nano-sensors

14.6 Definition and Types

➢ Nano-sensors are any biological, chemical or surgical sensory points used to convey
information about nanoparticles to the macroscopic world.
➢ Different types include

✓ Sensors using semi-conductor nanowire detection elements

✓ Semi-conducting carbon Nano tubes
✓ Carbon nanotubes and nanowires detect bacteria and viruses
✓ Nano cantilevers

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 56

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Nano-biosensors

15.1 Introduction

➢ Nano-biosensor is a modified version of a biosensor which may be defined as a

compact analytical device/ unit incorporating a biological or biologically derived
sensitized element linked to a physico-chemical transducer
➢ Nano-sensors with immobilized bio receptor probes that are selective for target
analytic molecules are called Nano biosensors.
➢ A Nano biosensor is usually built on the Nano scale to obtain process and analyze the
data at the level of atomic scale
➢ Their applications include detection of analytic like urea, glucose, pesticides etc.,
monitoring of metabolites and detection of various microorganisms / pathogens.

15.2 Characteristics of ideal biosensor

➢ Highly specific for the purpose of the analyses i.e. a sensor must be able to distinguish
between analytic and any ‘other’ material.
➢ Stable under normal storage conditions.
➢ Specific interaction between analytic should be independent of any physical
parameters such as stirring, pH and temperature.
➢ Reaction time should be minimal.
➢ The responses obtained should be accurate, precise, reproducible and linear over the
useful analytical range and also be free from electrical noise.
➢ The Nano biosensor must be tiny, biocompatible, nontoxic and non- antigenic.
➢ Should be cheap, portable and capable of being used by semi-skilled operators.

15.3 Constituents of Nano biosensors

➢ A typical Nano biosensor comprises of 3 components: biologically sensitized
elements (probe), transducer and detector
1. The biologically sensitized elements (probe) including receptors, enzymes, antibodies,
nucleic acids, molecular imprints, lectins, tissue, microorganisms, organelles etc.,
which are either a biologically derived material or bio-mimic component that receives
signals from the analytic (sample) of interest and transmits it to transducer. And such
nano-receptor may play a vital role in the development of future Nano biosensors.
2. The transducer acts as an interface, measuring the physical change that occurs with the
Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 57
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

reaction at the bio receptor/sensitive biological element then transforming that energy
into measurable electrical output.
3. The detector element traps the signals from the transducer, which are then passed to a
microprocessor where they are amplified and analyzed; the data is then transferred to
user friendly output and displayed/stored

15.4 Types of Nano biosensors

➢ Mechanical Nano biosensors: Nano scale mechanical forces between biomolecules

provide an exciting ground to measure the bimolecular interaction. This helps in the
development of minute, sensitive and label free biosensors

➢ Optical Nano biosensors: Optical biosensors are based on the arrangement of optics
where beam of light is circulated in a closed path and the change is recorded in
resonant frequency when the analytic binds to the resonator

➢ Nanowire Biosensors: Nanowire biosensor is a hybrid of two molecules that are

extremely sensitive to outside signals: single stranded DNA, (serving as the ‘detector’)
and a carbon nanotube, (serving as the transmitter).

➢ Ion Channel Switch Biosensor Technologies: The Ion Channel Switch (ICS) is based
on a synthetic self-assembling membrane that acts as a biological switch for detecting
the signals i.e. the presence of specific molecules by triggering an electrical current
➢ Electronic Nano biosensors: Electronic Nano biosensors work by electronically
detecting the binding of a target DNA that actually forms a bridge between two
electrically separated wires on a microchip
➢ Viral Nano biosensors: Virus particles are essentially biological nanoparticles.
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) and adenovirus have been used to trigger the assembly
of magnetic Nano beads as a Nano sensor for clinically relevant viruses
➢ Nano shell Biosensors: Positioning gold Nano shells are used in a rapid immunoassay
for detecting analytics within complex biological media without any sample
preparation
➢ PEBBLE Nano biosensors: Probes Encapsulated by Biologically Localized
Embedding (PEBBLE) Nano biosensors consist of sensor molecules entrapped in a
chemically inert matrix by a micro emulsion polymerization process that produces
Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 58
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

spherical sensors in the size range of 20 to 200 nm. These Nano sensors are capable
of monitoring real-time inter- and intra-cellular imaging of ions and molecules.

15.5 Role of Nano-Biosensors in Agriculture

Presently, nanomaterial-based biosensors exhibit fascinating prospects over traditional

biosensors. Nano biosensors have marked advantages such as enhanced detection
sensitivity/ specificity and possess great potential for its applications in different
fields including environmental and bioprocess control, quality control of food,
agriculture, bio defense, and, particularly, medical applications. But here we are
concerned with the role of Nano biosensor in agriculture and agro-products. Some of
the potential applications of Nano biosensors are listed below:

➢ As Diagnostic Tool for Soil Quality and Disease Assessment

➢ As an Agent to Promote Sustainable Agriculture
➢ As a Device to Detect Contaminants and Other Molecule
➢ As Tool for Effective Detection of DNA and Protein

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 59

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Use of Nano-technology in Agriculture

16.1 Potential applications of Nanotechnology in Agriculture

➢ Increase the productivity using Nano pesticides and Nano fertilizers

➢ Improve the soil quality using Nano zeolites and hydrogels

➢ Stimulate crop growth using nanomaterial’s

➢ Provide smart monitoring using Nano sensors by wireless communication devises

16.2 Nanotechnology in tillage

➢ Mechanical tillage practices improve soil structure and increase porosity leading to
better distribution of soil aggregates and eventually modify the physical properties
of soil.

➢ Nanomaterial’s usage increase soil pH and soil structure

➢ It also reduces mobility, availability and toxicity of heavy metals besides reducing
soil erosion

➢ Nanoparticles in soil reduce cohesion and internal friction besides reducing the
shear strength of the soil. Reduction in adhesion of soil particles allows easy
crushing of lumps with less energy

16.3 Nanotechnology in Seed Science

➢ Seed is nature’s Nano-gift to man. It is self-perpetuating biological entity that is

able to survive in harsh environment on its own.

➢ Nanotechnology can be used to harness the full potential of seed.

➢ Seed production is a tedious process especially in wind pollinated crops.

➢ Detecting pollen load that will cause contamination is a sure method to ensure
genetic purity.

➢ Pollen flight is determined by air temperature, humidity, wind velocity and pollen
production of the crop.

➢ Use of Nano biosensors specific to contaminating pollen can help alert the possible

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 60

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

contamination and thus reduces contamination.

➢ The same method can also be used to prevent pollen from Genetically, modified
crop from contaminating field crops.

➢ Novel genes are being incorporated into /seeds and sold in the market.

➢ Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can also be used as new pores for water permeation by
penetration of seed coat and act as a passage to channelize the water from the
substrate into the seeds. These processes facilitate germination which can be
exploited in rain fed agricultural system.

16.4 Nanotechnology in Water Use

➢ Water purification using nanotechnology exploits nanoscopic materials such as

carbon nanotubes and alumina filters for Nano filtration
➢ It utilizes the existence of nanoscopic pores in zeolite filtration membranes, Nano
catalysts and magnetic nanoparticles
➢ Carbon nanotube membranes and Nano fibrous alumina filters can remove almost
all kinds of water contaminants including turbidity, oil bacteria, viruses and organic
contaminants

16.5 Nanotechnology in Fertilizers

➢ Fertilizers have played a pivotal role in enhancing the food grain production in India

➢ Despite the resounding success in grain yield, it has been observed that yields of
many crops have begun to stagnate as a consequence of imbalanced fertilization and
decline in organic matter content of soils.

➢ Excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizer affects the groundwater and also causes
eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems.

➢ A disturbing fact is that the fertilizer use efficiency is 20-50 per cent for nitrogen
and 10-25 per cent for phosphorus.

➢ Elimination of eutrophication and drinking water with possible buildup of nutrients

in soil is possible only by adopting Nano fertilizers an emerging alternative to
conventional fertilizers

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 61

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

➢ Additionally, Nano-technology has improved nutrient use efficiency, and minimize

costs of environmental protection.

➢ Slow-release of Nano-fertilizers and Nano composites are excellent alternatives to

soluble fertilizers. Nutrients are released at a slower rate throughout the crop growth;
plants are able to take up most of the nutrients without any waste.

➢ Fertilizer particles can be coated with Nano membranes that facilitate slow and
steady release of nutrients.

➢ The Nano-composites being contemplated to supply all the nutrients in right

proportions through the “Smart” delivery systems also needs to be examined closely.

➢ Currently, the nutrient use efficiency is low due to the loss of 50-70% of the nitrogen
supplied in conventional fertilizers.

16.6 Nanotechnology in Plant protection

➢ Persistence of pesticides in the initial stage of crop growth helps in bringing down
the pest population below the economic threshold level and to have an effective
control for a longer period. Hence, the use of active ingredients in the applied surface
remains one of the most cost-effective and versatile means of controlling insect
pests.

➢ To protect the active ingredient from the adverse environmental conditions and to
promote persistence, a nanotechnology approach, namely “Nano-encapsulation” can
be used to improve the insecticidal value.

➢ Nano encapsulation comprises Nano-sized particles of the active ingredients being

sealed by a thin-walled sac or shell (protective coating).

➢ Nano encapsulation of insecticides, fungicides or nematicides will help in producing

a formulation which offers effective control of pests while preventing accumulation
of residues in soil.

16.7 Nanotechnology in Weed Management

➢ In rain fed areas, application of herbicides with insufficient soil moisture may lead
to loss as vapor so controlled release of encapsulated herbicides is expected to take

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 62

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

care of the competing weeds with crops.

➢ Now a days, adjuvants for herbicide application are currently available that claim to
include nanomaterial’s.

➢ Excessive use of herbicides leave residue in the soil and cause damage to the
succeeding crops. continuous use of single herbicide leads to evolution of herbicide
resistant weed species and shift in weed flora.

➢ For example, Atrazine, an s-triazine-ring herbicide, is used globally for the control
of pre-and postemergence broadleaf and grassy weeds, which has high persistence
(half-life-125 days) and mobility in some types of soils. Residual problems due to
the application of atrazine herbicide pose a threat towards widespread use of
herbicide and limit the choice of crops in rotation.

➢ To remediate the atrazine residue from soil within a short span of time, application
of silver modified with nanoparticles of magnetite stabilized with Carboxy Methyl
Cellulose (CMC) nanoparticles recorded 88% degradation of herbicide atrazine
residue under controlled environment found to be a potential remedy

Geo Informatics and Nano Technology for Precision Agriculture 63