Material Science/Material Physics I+II

Chapter 6 – Mechanical Properties

Dr.-Ing. Zhuocheng Xie

Chapter Structure

• Introduction – Phenomenology and measurement procedures

• Elasticity
− Physical fundamentals & description of elastic properties
• Plasticity
− Theoretical strength
− Dislocation and resistance against their motion
− Strain hardening mechanisms
− Further aspects of deformation (Twins, dislocation sources)
− Crystal plasticity
− Temperature-, time- and rate-dependent plasticity
• Fracture mechanics
• Deformation of glasses and polymers
Chapter 6 - 260
Recap: Uniaxial Stress in Tensile/Compression Testing
Slip direction
Slip plane normal

Under tension:

Slip direction turns to the tensile axis

Normal turns away from the tensile axis

Under pressure: reversed!

load cell

strain gage

Boundary condition: specimen

both ends fixed

crosshead

Schematic from www.doitpoms.ac.uk Chapter 6 - 261

Recap: Super Plasticity

In fine-grain materials, there are determined strain rate

regions around 10-3 s-1 until m ≥ 0.3,

here 𝜎 = 𝐾𝜀ሶ𝑚

How does this in extreme cases affect a tensile test?

As a result of necking, a higher local stress and strain occur. The strain
rate increase is directly related to the consequently required strength
increase, so necking is stabilized and elongates along the sample
(Record ca. 8000%).

Fig. 6.74 Chapter 6 - 262

 Recap: Anelasticity
Stepwise Loading/Unloading
Elasticity
• Time-independent
• reversible

Plasticity
• Time-dependent
Strain in anelastic material • irreversible

Anelasticity
• Time-dependent
• reversible

Fig. 6.83 Chapter 6 - 263

 Recap: Creep

Creep: continuous deformation at constant load or stress

• Time-dependent deformation
• Plastic deformation, mostly at high homologous temperatures

Fracture

Time-
independent
portion

Chapter 6 - 264
Part VII

Chapter 6 - 265
 Fracture Mechanics
Until now: Elasticity
And plasticity

Now fracture

Plasticine

Fracture Mechanics Chapter 6 - 266

Fracture Mechanics: Desired and Undesired Fractures

Sudden, catastrophic fracture is often undesired, crack

propagation can, however, also take place gradually.

First only “perfect” brittle fracture

Chapter 6 - 267
 Fracture Mechanics: Atomic Crack Growth

• Force = − Potential gradient

Force = −𝒅𝜱/𝒅r

𝑭(𝒓)
Φ(𝑟)
𝑑Φ/𝑑r
𝑟
Assuming a whole plane of atoms
is broken simultaneously,
materials should have breaking
stresses of the order of 10 GPa,
but normally, i.e., glass breaks at
a stress of ~100 MPa.
-Φ 0
Chapter 6 - 268
Fracture Mechanics: Atomic Crack Growth

In reality, a whole plane of bonds will not break simultaneously.

Successive bonds will break as a crack propagates.
Chapter 6 - 269
 Fracture Mechanics: Critical Crack Length

http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/brittle_fracture/weaken.php

Chapter 6 - 270
Fracture Mechanics: Types of Loading

Types of Loading
• Mode I (purely opening load)

• Mode II (shearing in the crack plane)

• Mode III (shearing perpendicular to crack plane)

Chapter 6 - 271
 Fracture Mechanics: Crack Propagation

What drives crack propagation?

• Critical stress on the crack tip?

Inglis (1913): Stress on the tip of an elliptical crack

𝑐
2b
𝜎𝑇𝑖𝑝 = 𝜎 1+2 2c
𝑏

At c >> b there‘s a strong stress concentration

Chapter 6 - 272
 Fracture Mechanics: Stress on the Crack Tip

Crack in plexiglas under

monochromatic light
( Photoelasticity)

0.75 mm

3.1 mm

7.25 mm
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/brittle_fracture/additional_pics.php
Chapter 6 - 273
Fracture Mechanics: Crack Propagation

What drives crack propagation?

• Critical stress on the crack tip?
• Reduced cross-sectional area?

Until now: Stresses on the tip

(from the forces of atomic bonding)

Now: Consideration directly by means of the energies

Chapter 6 - 274
Fracture Mechanics: Crack Propagation under Tension

First proposed by Griffith 1920: Failure of glass fibers

F,x

2c

F,x

Chapter 6 - 275
Fracture Mechanics: Energy Consideration

Energy contributions:
• Work on the system through applied force:
F,x
𝑈𝐹 = F ∙ 𝑥 (Unit volume) = 0
Relaxed
(for fixed uniaxial stress)
volume

• Relaxation of elastic strain around the crack 2c

𝜋𝑐²𝜎²
𝑈𝐸 =
𝐸

• Creation of a new surface F,x

𝑈𝑆 = 2 ∙ 2𝑐 ∙ 𝛾 (Unit thickness)
𝛾 ∶ Surface energy
Chapter 6 - 276
Fracture Mechanics: Energy Consideration – Glass

Data for glass: g = 1.75 J m-2, E = 262 GPa, sA = 2.63 MPa.

200
US
100
Energy, mJ
Energy, mJ

-100
US + UE
-200
0 10
crack length, mm
20 UE
30
Crack length c, mm

Chapter 6 - 277
Fracture Mechanics: Energy Consideration under Tension

Energy minimum through derivative of the total energy

dU
=0
dc
d  c s
2 2

= − + 4 cg 
dc  E 
2 cs 2
=− + 4g
E

 2Eg 
 ccrit = 2
 s 
Chapter 6 - 278
Fracture Mechanics: Fracture in Front of a Wedge
30

mJ
20

Energy, mJ
Energy,
10

0
0 10 20 30
crack length, m m
Crack length c, mm

• Elastic energy in “splint” Ed 3 h 2

UE =
8c 3
• Work carried out by the upsetting force UF = 0

• Work carried out for the creation of a new surface US = 2cg

Chapter 6 - 279
Fracture Mechanics: General/Overall Consideration

U (c ) = −UF + U E + US
UM Mechanical Energy Portion

Equilibrium point:
d Corresponds to dUM dUS
(UM + US ) = 0 − =
dc dc dc
Under tension:
d US s 2 c
= 4g = 2g
dc E
dU M 2s 2
=−
G =R
c
dc E
Chapter 6 - 280
 Fracture Mechanics: Energy Release Rate G

G =R
Strain energy release rate G
= Resistance against fracture R

crit. Crack length stable

equilibrium length

G: strain energy release rate Chapter 6 - 281

Fracture Mechanics: Energy Release Rate G

Unstable d 2U (c) d 2U (c ) Stable

2
0 2
0
dc dc

dG dR dG dR
 
dc dc dc dc

Criteria for Crack Growth: G = R

Criteria for Failure:

Energy release rate G grows faster than R

Chapter 6 - 282
Alternative Calculation of G: Released Elast. Energy

Released mechanical energy

0
1
 UM = 2  s u dr
c 2

Chapter 6 - 283
 Alternative Calculation of G: Released Elast. Energy
Displacements around crack Stresses behind the crack
𝐾 1 𝐾
𝑢 ∝ − 𝑟2 K: Stress 𝜎∝ 1
𝐸 intensity factor 𝑟2

Crack in rubber plate Simulation of the stresses

K: stress intensity factor Chapter 6 - 284

Fracture Mechanics: Stress Field

Linear-elastic fracture mechanics

▪ Crack opening stress field s yy

Chapter 6 - 285 Arbitrary units

Fracture Mechanics: Alternative Calculation of G

Displacements around crack Stresses behind the crack

K K
u=− r s=
E r

0 Overall crack
1 dUM K 2
dUM =  s u dV − =
c 2 dc E

Chapter 6 - 286
 Fracture Mechanics: Alternative Calculation of G
2
dUM K dUM
− = G=−
dc E dc
2
K
Strain energy release rate G =
E
GC = R yields alternative and equivalent fracture criteria for

K = KC
Critical Fracture Toughness

The “critical” GC und KC are material-specific and are experimentally

determined. As a result, R must not be explicitly measure. For example, when
energy is dissipated through plastic deformation mechanisms as well.

Chapter 6 - 287
Fracture Mechanics: Comparing G and K

G:
Well suited for the derivation of failure from the geometry
and the load in a model case

K:
One can consider the overall case more easily through the
addition of stress intensity factors.

Applied stress, crack

s c 2 2 length, and K, or rather,

K
= 2g  G = =R
G, are directly related
and allow for easier
E E calculations!

Chapter 6 - 288
Fracture Mechanics: K as a Tabulated Function

Chapter 6 - 289
Fracture Mechanics: Typical Values of KI,C

Experimental material characteristic values

Chapter 6 - 290
Fracture Mechanics: Toughness and Strength
Why are solid materials mostly brittle?

From Ashby et al., Materials: Engineering, Science, Processing and Design

Chapter 6 - 291
Fracture Mechanics: Toughness and Strength

Plastic deformation at crack growth corresponds to

additional energy expenditure (flow in process zone)

Plastic zone
(general process zone)
Radius Rprocess zone

Deformed material along

frature surface

Growth of the
process zone
with falling
yield point

Chapter 6 - 292
Fracture Mechanics: Toughness and Strength
Temperature dependency Plastic zone
(general process
of fracture toughness and zone)
Radius Rprocess zone
strength Deformed material
along frature
surface
Or,

Growth of the
Fracture Toughness

process zone
Yield Point

𝐾𝐼𝑐 2
𝑅𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒 ∝
𝜎𝑦

Temperature
Pressure vessel steel
Chapter 6 - 293
Characteristic Fracture Value of Real Materials
Combinations bring Grain boundaries can also
about embrittlement become brittle through the
segregation of single
elements.

From Ashby et al., Materials: Engineering, Science, Processing and Design

Chapter 6 - 294
Application Example: Stop Crack Propagation

https://www.aircraftsystemstech.com/2020/01/transparent-
plastics-advanced-composite.html?utm_content=cmp-true

Chapter 6 - 295
 Statistical Fracture Mechanics

Real structure of ceramics (mostly sintered)

Statistically distributed imperfections
(Failure at weakest point)

Imperfection distribution and sample

volume yield scattering of the fracture
stress

Chapter 6 - 296
Statistical Fracture Mechanics
Number of Samples at

Ductile
Failure Stress σ

Brittle

Failure Stress (MPa)

Chapter 6 - 297
Statistical Fracture Mechanics
Weibull statistic (not described in detail here)
Example results of a measurement series of structurally
identical samples made of different materials
Qualitative: Metal
Probability of Failure

Stress at
63,2% Failure
probability
SiC

Weibull modulus m
Si3N4
AlN

Failure Stress (MPa)

Chapter 6 - 298
Statistical Fracture Mechanics

• Avoid tensile stresses

(higher “gain” of elastic energy through fracture)

• Small volume
(low probability of having a large imperfection)

 Ceramic structural elements are mostly small and loaded

compressively….

 Tabulated stresses depend strongly from the process

(imperfections and scattering) and are always practical for
pressure
 Why don’t we constantly break all of our bones?!

Chapter 6 - 299
 Toughness of Bones – Hierarchical Composite Material

Zimmermann E A et al. PNAS 2011;108:14416-14421

Figure 1: Each level of the hierarchical structure influences the deformation and fracture of human cortical bone; the smaller
levels affect the intrinsic toughness, whereas the higher length scales impact the extrinsic toughness. At the nanoscale, the
polymeric nature of the collagen molecules allows them to uncoil and slide with respect to one another by breaking sacrificial
bonds that absorb energy . Sacrificial bonding also exists within higher levels of the hierarchy through shearing/stretching of
the interfibrillar matrix and between fibrils (fibrillar sliding) . The process of microcracking can act as a plasticity mechanism by
dissipating energy at coarser length scales typically exceeding several micrometers. Extrinsic mechanisms primarily act at the
microstructural level by the interaction of growing cracks with the osteons; the weak boundaries in the secondary osteons
absorb energy by microcracking during crack growth to toughen the structure mainly via crack bridging and crack
deflection/twist.

Chapter 6 - 300
Composite Materials with Increased Toughness

From Ashby et al., Materials: Engineering, Science, Processing and Design

Chapter 6 - 301
Composite Materials with Increased Toughness

Glass fibers
(thin, solid fibers)

Epoxy resin
Glass

From Ashby et al., Materials: Engineering, Science, Processing and Design

Chapter 6 - 302
Dislocations as Carriers of Plasticity in Crystals

How does deformation take

place in other materials?!
Steel

Glass and plastics

Silicon wafer
Superalloy
(Turbine blades for high
pressures and temperatures)

Chapter 6 - 303
Plasticity in Glasses
Si4+
O2-
Fig. 2.23
O2- Si4+

crystalline
kristallin amorph
amorphous
(a) (b)

Fracture/Crack formation Fracture/Crack formation

dislocations Compression
Local rearrangement of atoms
(no dislocations!)

Chapter 6 - 304
 Compressing Glass – Indentation (Hardness Testing)

Overhead view Cross-section

∆𝑽
20%
C𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝑽
(in percent,
Raman-
0% Spectroscopy)
Kermouche et al.,
Acta Mater 56 (13) 2008,p. 3222-28 & IJAGS 3 (1) 2012, p.29-35
Chapter 6 - 305
Rearrangement of Atoms in Glasses
Resolution of Motion of Atoms in 2D Photochromic Lens
(Aberration corrected TEM)

Huang et al., Science 342, 224 (2013)

Chapter 6 - 306
Rearrangement of Atoms in Glasses
Resolution of Motion of Atoms in 2D Photochromic Lens
(Aberration corrected TEM)

Huang et al., Science 342, 224 (2013)

Chapter 6 - 307
 Mechanical Properties of Polymers

Thermoplastic Elastomer Thermoset

Degree of Cross- None 10-4 - 10-3 10-2 - 10-1

linking
Crystallinity Partial crystallinity Amorphous Amorphous
(where applicable)
Melting Point 100 - 300 °C Decomposition Decomposition
Glass Transition -100 - 150 °C -100 - 50 °C Not very pronounced
Elastic over Tg
Examples •Foils •Car tires •GFC/CFC Laminates
•Bottles •Rubber •Adhesives
•Airplane windows •Tanks
•Hot adhesives •Piston rings
Chapter 6 - 308
Elasticity of Polymers

• Amorphous or only partly crystalline

Amorphous polymer
• Strong bonding within chain and weak
bonding between chains

• Change in configuration with elastic

deformation

• Thermally activated processes play an

important role
Rearrangement of the chains
➔Time dependency, Viscoelasticity/Plasticity
under tension

Chapter 6 - 309
Elasticity of Polymers
Material Type

Thermoplast (for T < Tg)

Elastomer (for T > Tg)
Thermoset

Diamond

Chapter 6 - 310
 Elasticity of Polymers – Entropy
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/stiffness-of-rubber/contraction2.php

Chapter 6 - 311
Temperature Dependency

d 2U d2S
E −T
d 2 d 2

Energy Elasticity Entropy Elasticity

At low temperatures At high temperatures

(Stretching of the (Rearrangement of
intramolecular bonds) the molecule chains)

Thermoset and crystalline areas in

thermoplastics consisently display energy
elasticity
Chapter 6 - 312
Temperature Dependency - Thermoplastic

From: Ashby et al., Materials: Engineering, Science, Processing and Design

Chapter 6 - 313
Amorphous Thermoplastics Around Tg

Close to Tg
• Necking
• Stretching of the molecular chainsg local hardening
• Further necking is hindered
• Enlargement of the necking area

Molecular
chains
aligned
d
Molecular chains stretch
b c

a elastic
a b c d
Chapter 6 - 314
Partly Crystalline Thermoplastics

• Intermolecular bonds in the crystal areas stronger

• Higher strength also above Tg

Disintegration Formation of
in blocks microfibrils
Reorientation of
Stretching crystalline
of areas
amorphous
areas

Chapter 6 - 315
Plasticity of Polymers
Stresss-Strain curves at constant
deformation speed above the glass
temperature

➢ Thermoplastic (partly crystalline):

pronounced yield strength, constant
flow stress, subsequent strong
hardening

➢ Elastomer: largely reversible,high

stress before failure

➢ Thermoset: Predominantly irreversible,

anelastic portion, highest strengths for
polymers

Chapter 6 - 316