 IG 

S =    G  0.0155 
 Io  IG 
* Computing the length of the wire to make resistance of 0.155 
b) Observations for diameter of the wire:
(i) Pitch of screw gauge, p = 1 mm
(ii) No. of division of circular scale = 100
(iii) Least count, a = 0.01 mm
(iv) Zero error, e = 0.0 mm
(v) Diameter of the wire = 0.98 mm, Radius = 0.049 cm
c) Specific resistance of material of wire,   1.92 10 6 cm
d) Required length of the wire,
r 2 0.0155  3.14  (0.049) 2
l S = cm = 60.8 cm
 1.72 10 6
Verification: Checking the performance of the converted ammeter:
Current indicated by full scale deflection (No) of converted ammeter. Io = 3A
Io
Least count of converted ammeter, k’ =  0.1 A / div.
No
Result:
 Current IG for full scale deflection = 6.57 x 10-4 A
 Resistance of shunt required to convert the galvanometer into ammeter, S = 0.0155 
 Required length of wire, l = 60.8 cm
 As error l’ – l is very small, conversion is verified.
Precautions & Sources of Error:
(i) All connections should be neat & tight.
(ii) The diameter of the wire for making shunt resistance should be measured accurately for diameter is taken
in two mutually perpendicular directions.
(iii) The terminal of the ammeter marked positive should be connected to positive pole of the battery. Also
ammeter should be in series with circuit.

EXPERIMENT – 6
Aim: To find the value of v for different values of ‘u’ in case of a concave mirror & to find its focal length.
Apparatus: An optical bench with three uprights. Concave mirror, a mirror holder, two optical needles, a knitting
needle & a half – meter scale.

Formulae Used: The mirror formula is:

1 1 1
 
f u v
uv
We have, f =
uv
Where, f = focal length of concave mirror.
u = distance of object needle from pole of mirror.
v = distance of image needle from pole of mirror.

Observation:
Rough focal length of given concave mirror = 10.9 cm
Actual length of the knitting needle, x = 15 cm

Page 7 (PHYSICS)
Observed distance between the mirror & object needle when knitting needle is placed between them, y = 15.2 cm.
Observed distance between the mirror & image needle when knitting needle is placed between them, z = 15.8 cm.
Index error for u, e1 = y – x = – 0.2 cm
Index error for v, e2 = z – x = – 0.8 cm
Position Corrected Distance
Sr. 1/ u 1/v
Concave Object Image PO PI
No. (cm-1) (cm-1)
Mirror P (cm) Needle O Needle I u cm v cm
1 0.0 18 26 17.8 25.2 0.056 0.037
2 0.0 17 30.3 16.8 29.5 0.06 0.034
3 0.0 16 33.4 15.8 32.6 0.063 0.031
4 0.0 26 18 25.8 17.2 0.038 0.058
5 0.0 30.3 17 30.1 16.2 0.033 0.061
6 0.0 33.4 16 33.2 15.2 0.030 0.065

Calculations:
(i) u – v graph:
Explanation: from mirror formula applied to point A:
1 1 1
 
f u v
1 2 2 u v
As u = v,  or and f  or
f u v 2 2
 OD  21
Hence, f =   10.5 cm
2 2
Graph Scale: X’ axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of u
Y’ axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of v
 OB
Also f =  10.5cm
2
Mean value of f = -10.5 cm

1 1
(ii) and graph :
u v

1 1
The focal length, f =   10.47cm
OA OB
1
Graph Scale: X’ axis: 1 cm = 0.01 cm-1 of
u
1
Y’ axis: 1 cm = 0.01 cm-1 of
v
Result: The focal length of the given concave mirror:
(i) From u – v graph is : f = –10.5 cm
1 1
(ii) From  graph is: f = –10.47 cm
u v
Precautions:
(i) The uprights should be vertical.
(ii) Tip-to-tip parallax should be removed between the needle I and image of needle O.
(iii) To locate the position of the image the eye should be at least 30 cm away from the needle.
Sources of Error: * The uprights may not be vertical. * Parallax removal may not be perfect

Page 8 (PHYSICS)
 EXPERIMENT – 8
Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting a graph:

(i) between u and v

1 1
(ii) between and
u v

Apparatus: An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens, lens holder, two optical needles, a knitting needles &
a half-metre scale.

Formula Used:

The relation between u, v and f for convex lens is:

1 1 1
 
f v u

Where f: focal length of convex lens

u: distance of object needle from lens’ optical centre.

v: distance of image needle from lens’ optical centre.

Observations:

(i) Rough focal length of the lens = 10 cm

(ii) Actual length of knitting needle, x = 15 cm.
(iii) Observed distance between object needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, y = 15.2 cm.
(iv) Observed distance between image needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, z = 14.1 cm.
(v) Index correction for the object distance u, x – y = – 0.2 cm
(vi) Index correction for the image distance v, x – z = +0.9 cm

Page 10 (PHYSICS)
 Observation Table:

Position of: (cm)

S. No. Object Image u (cm) v (cm) 1/v (cm-1) 1/u (cm-1)
Lens
needle needle
1 66 50 26 16 24 0.041 0.062
2 67 50 27 17 23 0.043 0.058
3 68 50 28 18 22 0.045 0.055
4 70 50 30 20 20 0.05 0.05
5 75 50 33 23 17 0.058 0.043
6 80 50 34 24 16 0.062 0.041

Calculation of focal length by graphical method:

(i) u – v graph: The graph is a rectangular hyperbola:
Scale: X’ axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of u
Y’ axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of v
AB = AC = 2f or OC = OB = 2f
OB OC
f = and also f 
2 2

 Mean value of f = 10.1 cm.

1 1
(ii)  graph : The graph is a straight line.
u v
1
Scale; X’ axis: 1 cm = 0.01 cm-1 of
u
1
Y’ axis: 1 cm = 0.01 cm-1 of
v
1 1
Focal length, f =   10.2cm.
OP OQ
Result:

(i) From u-v graph is, f = 10.1 cm

1 1
(ii) From  graph is, f = 10.2 cm
u v
Precautions:

(i) Tips of object & image needles should be at the same height as the centre of the lens.
(ii) Parallax should be removed from tip-to-tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm. away from the needle.
(iii) The image & the object needles should not be interchanged for different sets of observations.

Page 11 (PHYSICS)
 EXPERIMENT – 10
Aim: (i) To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of
incidence & angle of deviation.
(ii) To determine the refractive index of the material (glass) of the prism.
Apparatus: Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half metre scale, office pins, graph
paper & protector.

Formulae Used:
The refractive index,  of the material of the prism is given by:
 A  Dm 
sin  
 
2  Where Dm is the angle of minimum deviation & A is the angle of prism.
 A
sin  
2
Calculations:
From graph between angle of incidence, i and angle of deviation, we get the value of Dm (angle of minimum
deviation): Dm = 37.8o

Thus,
 A  Dm 
sin   =

sin 97.8
o

2

 
2  o
 A
sin 30
sin  
2
  1.5077

Result:

(i) From i  D graph we see that as i increases, D first decreases, attains a minimum value (Dm) & then again
starts increasing for further increase in i .
(ii) Angle of minimum deviation = Dm = 37.8o
(iii) Refraction index of material of prism,   1.5077

Precautions:
(i) The angle of incidence should be between 30o – 60o.
(ii) The pins should be fixed vertical.
(iii) The distance between the two pins should not be less than 8 cm.

Sources of Error:
(i) Pin pricks may be thick.
(ii) Measurement of angles maybe wrong.
Page 13 (PHYSICS)
 EXPERIMENT – 12
Aim: To draw the I – V characteristics curve of p-n junction in forward bias & reverse bias.

Apparatus: A p-n junction semi-conductor diode, a three volt battery, a high resistance, a rheostat, a voltmeter
(0-3v), a milli ammeter (0-.30 mA), one – way key, connecting wires.

Observations:
Least count of voltmeter = 0.02 & 1 v/div Zero error = –
Least count of milli-ammeter = 0.2 mA/div Zero error = –
Least count of micro-ammeter = 2  A/div Zero error = –

Observation Table:

Forward Bias Voltage Forward Current Reverse bias Voltage Reverse Current
S. No.
(V) (mA) (V) (  A)
1 10 x 0.02 = 0.20 2 x 0.2 = 0.4 10 x 1 = 10 5 x 2 = 10
2 0.30 4 x 0.2 = 0.8 15 16
3 0.40 6 x 0.2 = 1.6 20 22
4 0.50 11 x 0.2 = 2.2 25 30
5 0.60 18 x 0.2 = 3.6 30 38
6 0.70 23 x 0.2 = 4.6 35 48
7 0.80 31 x 0.2 = 6.2 40 60
8 0.90 39 x 0.2 = 7.8 45 72

Page 15 (PHYSICS)
Calculations:

Graph is plotted between forward – bias voltage (VF) (on x-axis) and forward current, IF (on y – axis)
Scale: X – axis: 1 cm = V of VF Y – axis: 1 cm = mA of IF
Graph is plotted between reverse bias voltage, VR (along X’ axis) and reverse current, IR (along Y’ axis).
Scale: X’ axis = 1 cm = V of VR Y’ axis = 1 cm = A of IF

Result: The obtained curves are the characteristics curves of the semi-conductor diode.

Precautions:
(i) All connections should be neat, clean & tight. (ii) Key should be used in circuit & opened when the circuit is not
being used. (iii) Forward bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
Sources of error: The junction diode supplied maybe faulty.

NOTE: Beside Practical File ONE Activity file with SIX Activities (A-3, A-4, A-6 and B-8,
B-11, B-12 From Any Physics Practical File) and ONE Project Report has to be made by
each student from the Elite Manual.

Page 16 (PHYSICS)