October 10, 2024

Humanoid Robots
Humanoid robots are undergoing rapid development, led by firms in the United States and China.1 Recent advances
in artificial intelligence (AI) have improved the degree of autonomy in humanoid robots, allowing them to handle
more complex interactions with humans and their environment.* 2 These improvements are accelerating as robots
use generative AI to learn new tasks, replacing what was previously accomplished through manual programming.3
China has set a series of goals relating to the development of its humanoid robots sector, including having two to
three humanoid robot firms that are global leaders by 2025.4 Many other aspects of its stated goals, however, are
vague and susceptible to multiple interpretations. While China’s capacity to achieve these goals in the stated time
frames may be doubtful, if their overall efforts are successful, humanoid robots could have transformative
implications across commercial industries, including manufacturing, agriculture, and healthcare, and potentially for
military and law enforcement as well.5 The Chinese government has thrown its weight behind developing humanoid
robots, as it has previously for other critical emerging technologies, with the aim of expanding its role in the global
market.6

Humanoid robots are improving at navigating complex terrain and interacting with everyday objects. 7 Some
humanoid robots have also been equipped with speech and reasoning capabilities to enhance communication options
and help complete basic daily tasks.8 Humanoid robot firms globally face technical obstacles, however, including
the limited storage capacity of batteries that power the robots and the current technical limitations of components
like actuators that allow the robot to move itself and manipulate other objects.9 Far more progress is needed before
humanoid robots will be able to reason through an unexpected situation and then act on it.10

* A number of leading robotics firms have released advanced prototypes, including U.S.-based Figure AI’s Figure 01, Apptronik’s Apollo,
Boston Dynamics’ Atlas, Agility Robotics’ Digit, and Tesla’s Optimus, as well as China-based Unitree’s G1, UBTech’s Walker S, and
Fourier Intelligence’s GR-1. Currently, their demonstrated skills include tasks such as sorting objects, cleaning, lifting and placing boxes,
and walking, sometimes while interacting with humans. However, based on Commission analysis of company demonstration videos,
humanoid robots appear to be slower than average humans at performing some of these fairly simple tasks. For example, it takes Optimus
almost ten seconds to put an egg into an egg cooker and Figure 01 about four seconds to put a plastic cup in a drying rack. Rachel Cheung,
“China’s Robot Fever,” Wire China, July 14, 2024. https://www.thewirechina.com/2024/07/14/chinas-robot-fever-humanoid-robots-
chinese; Frédéric Schaeffer and Benoît Georges, “U.S. vs. China, Who Will Win the Race for Humanoid Robot Domination?”
Worldcrunch, May 5, 2024. https://worldcrunch.com/tech-science/humanoid-robots-china; Figure, “Figure Status Update – OpenAI
Speech-to-Speech Reasoning,” Video, March 2024. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sq1QZB5baNw; Tesla, “Optimus – Gen 2 | Tesla,”
Video, December 13, 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cpraXaw7dyc&t=23s.

Disclaimer: The U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission (USCC) was created by Congress to report on the
national security implications of the bilateral trade and economic relationship between the United States and the People’s
Republic of China. More: www.uscc.gov, @USCC_GOV.
This report is the product of research performed by USCC professional staff to support the ongoing research and deliberations
of the Commission. Publication of this report is intended to promote greater awareness and understanding of developing issues
for congressional staff and the public, in support of the Commission’s efforts to “monitor, investigate, and report” on U.S.-
China economic relations and their implications for U.S. national security, as mandated by its charter: uscc.gov/charter. The
public release of this document does not imply an endorsement of its contents by the Commission, any individual
Commissioner, or individual staff members of the Commission.

U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 1

There are no general-purpose, autonomous humanoid robots constituting viable products today, whether for
consumer, commercial, military,* or law enforcement purposes, and it is unclear when they will become available.
11
Select companies have announced that they are making humanoid robots commercially available now or in the
near future.† 12 However, these robots still appear to have major limitations.‡

Defining Humanoid Robots

Humanoid robots are differentiated by their physical resemblance to humans and unique combination of three
attributes: locomotion, dexterity, and intelligence.13 Locomotion, or gross motor skills, allows for movement around
human-oriented environments, such as navigating steps and uneven floors and avoiding obstacles.14 Dexterity, or
fine motor skills, allows humanoid robots to interact in useful ways with their environment to perform specific
tasks, like picking up fragile objects without crushing them. 15 Intelligence in humanoid robots allows them to
independently perceive and engage with the world around them and is increasingly powered by AI.16 Humanoid
robots increasingly employ machine learning techniques to learn from their interactions, which has put the industry
on a path to potentially exponential growth in capabilities.17 These robots use “embodied AI,” the integration of AI
software into physical hardware (such as robots), which allows them to sense, learn from, and interact with a
physical environment.§ 18

How China Stacks Up

In characteristics like robot weight, height, and speed, Chinese humanoid robot firms appear to be competitive with
non-Chinese firms.19 However, Chinese robotics firms more broadly lag behind non-Chinese firms in hardware
precision, durability, and reliability, according to a Chinese analyst.** 20 Furthermore, Chinese robotics firms have
trailed firms in the United States, Japan, and Germany in developing key sensor technology important for
movement.21

* Mobile robots in other forms, such as semiautonomous robot dogs, are being developed for these purposes as well. Robot dogs are being
tested for surveillance, reconnaissance, and combat, some with rifles and other weapons attached to their backs. Jared Keller, “Let Slip the
Robot Dogs of War,” Wired, June 16, 2024. https://www.wired.com/story/let-slip-the-robot-dogs-of-war.
† Chinese leadership has made reducing reliance on “chokepoint” technologies a central goal. Ben Murphy, “Chokepoints: China’s Self-

Identified Strategic Technology Import Dependencies,” Center for Security and Emerging Technology, May 2022.
https://cset.georgetown.edu/publication/chokepoints; Ryan Fedasiuk, Emily Weinstein, and Anna Puglisi, “China’s Foreign Technology
Wish List,” Center for Security and Emerging Technology, May 2021. https://cset.georgetown.edu/publication/chinas-foreign-technology-
wish-list.
‡ China-based Unitree has announced a “mass production” humanoid robot called the G1 for $16,000. Other Chinese sources indicate that

$16,000 is the price for a base model with delivery starting at the end of 2024. Its specifications include a carrying capacity of two to three
kilograms (four to seven pounds), and only the more advanced G1 EDU model, which has no listed price, includes the option for dexterous
hands. It is also unclear whether the G1 base model solely comprises the physical robot or if it also incorporates AI. Qin Sheng, “Humanoid
Robots in View: Facing Homogeneity Challenges, How Long Until They Enter the Home?” (被围观的人形机器人：面临同质化挑战
， 多 久 能 走 进 家 庭 ), Paper, July 8, 2024. Translation.
https://web.archive.org/web/20240708010343/https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_27977296; Unitree Robotics, “Unitree G1
Mass Production Version, Leap into the Future!” Video, August 19, 2024. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FuNFr7V7KFQ. Unitree,
“Unitree G1.” https://shop.unitree.com/products/unitree-g1.
§ Several US companies, such as NVIDIA and Tesla, are leaders in embodied AI software and hardware. As discussed further in the note

below, NVIDIA has introduced the Jetson Thor system-on-a-chip (Soc) hardware and a corresponding Gr00t AI foundational model for
the development of embodied AI. Meanwhile, Tesla is using advanced VR motion capture software to gather millions of hours of data for
the purpose of training its Optimus humanoid robot. Shubham Sharma, “Nvidia Shows Off Project GR00T, a Multimodal AI to Power
Humanoids of the Future,” VentureBeat, March 18, 2024; Jess Weatherbed, “Tesla is Hiring People to Do the Robot,” Verge, August 19,
2024. https://www.theverge.com/2024/8/19/24223626/tesla-optimus-humanoid-robot-motion-capture-training.
https://venturebeat.com/ai/nvidia-shows-off-project-gr00t-a-multimodal-ai-to-power-humanoids-of-the-future.
** Leading players in the humanoid robot industry tend to emphasize in-house design of core, specialized hardware components like actuators.

Tesla, “Tesla Bot | Actuators Team,” Video, January 21, 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xChD-gv_pc; Apptronik, “Meet
Apollo, the ‘iPhone’ of Humanoid Robots.” https://apptronik.com/news-collection/meet-apollo-the-iphone-of-humanoid-robots.

U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 2

Leading U.S. and Chinese AI firms are currently in a race to build out the hardware/software technology stack
required for humanoid robots. Based on limited on-the-ground reporting, NVIDIA appears to be the favored
technology company for Chinese humanoid robot firms. According to Pandaily reporter Ni Tao, NVIDIA’s AI stack
of GPUs and software “ha[s] largely underpinned the development work at many Chinese [humanoid robot]
startups.”* 22 However, Chinese companies are also rapidly building out their own hardware/software stack for
humanoid robots. In 2024, president of Huawei Cloud Zhang Pingan unveiled Huawei’s partnership with domestic
humanoid robot firm Leju.23 Zhang explained that Leju’s robot, Kuafu, was powered by Huawei’s foundational AI
model, Pangu, which itself is trained on Huawei’s proprietary Ascend AI chips.24 At an earlier conference, Leju
announced that it was planning to build an “open platform” called “Humanoid Robot+,” seeking “partners for joint
innovation.”25 Like Huawei and Leju, other leading Chinese AI companies (Baidu, iFlytek) are also combining their
AI models with the humanoid robot hardware of leading humanoid robot firms (UBTech Robotics, Zhiyuan
Robotics) to achieve embodied AI.26

China’s Playbook for Emerging Technology

China is deploying significant government support for the humanoid robot industry in the form of subsidies, tax
breaks, and development zones, while pushing domestic adoption and public-private research collaboration.27 China
has used a similar multi-faceted approach to promote the development of critical emerging technologies and
dominate the global supply of solar panels, electric vehicles, and commercial drones.28 In 2023, the Ministry of
Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) released a “Guiding Opinion on the Innovation and Development of
Humanoid Robots.”29 The Guiding Opinion identifies humanoid robots as a key area for technological competition
and calls for China to establish a world-class innovative ecosystem for humanoid robots by 2025.† 30 By 2027,
MIIT calls for integrating humanoid robots into manufacturing supply chains, building an internationally
competitive industrial environment, using them at scale, and expanding the use of humanoid robots throughout
society. 31 To spur growth in the humanoid robots sector, government subsidies have been made available for
Chinese robotics manufacturers, and local governments reportedly have played a role in brokering pilot programs
between humanoid robot firms and state-owned factories.32

* NVIDIA has become a key player in the development of humanoid robots, despite not manufacturing a full robot itself. NVIDIA has
developed tools including Isaac Sim, a virtual training ground for robots, GR00T, a general-purpose foundation model enabling humanoid
robots to understand and respond to language, video, and human interaction, and Jetson Thor, a new computing platform designed
specifically for humanoid robots and capable of performing complex tasks and interacting safely with people and machines. Both U.S. and
Chinese firms are using NVIDIA’s robotics development tools, including 1X, Boston Dynamics, Figure, Fourier, Galbot, and others.
NVIDIA, “NVIDIA Accelerates Humanoid Robotics Development,” July 29, 2024. https://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/nvidia-
accelerates-worldwide-humanoid-robotics-development; NVIDIA, “NVIDIA Announces Project GR00T Foundation Model for Humanoid
Robots and Major Isaac Robotics Platform Update,” March 18, 2024. https://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/foundation-model-isaac-
robotics-platform; NVIDIA, “NVIDIA Project GR00T.” https://developer.nvidia.com/project-gr00t.
† While China’s intention to be a global leader in the technology of humanoid robots is clear, some news outlets have indicated China intends

to achieve “mass production” of humanoid robots by 2025. See, for example, Rachel Cheung, “China's Robot Fever,” Wire China, July
14, 2024 (noting the MIIT Guiding Opinion states an “aim to mass produce humanoid robots by 2025”). This interpretation of China’s
time frame is flawed. The MIIT Guiding Opinion indicates that by 2025 China will have established a preliminary or early stage innovation
system for humanoid robots (“到 2025 年，人形机器人创新体系初步建立”). In elaborating on this goal, the Guiding Opinion states
China will by 2025 achieve international standards in humanoid robotics and implement what may be termed “batch production” or
“production at scale” (“实现批量生产”), meaning they hope to have the ability to manufacture humanoid robots at some volume by 2025,
not just create one-off laboratory prototypes, as part of developing the overall sector. The Guiding Opinion goes on to detail other basic
humanoid robot technology goals for 2027, making it clear the language about production at scale in 2025 is not meant to imply China
expects to have functioning humanoid robots rolling off assembly lines in mass by 2025. While “mass production” is a plausible
interpretation of piliang shengchan 批量生产 in other contexts (and “mass production” is how Google Translate and DeepL, two popular
machine translation tools, render 批量生产), it is not the most sensible translation of the Guiding Opinion in full context (Baidu’s
translation engine renders it as “volume production”).

U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 3

The exact scope of humanoid robot investment in China or, by comparison, the United States, is difficult to quantify
because such investment is not typically broken out from broader robotics sector investment. One source reported
that Chinese humanoid robot firms raised $769 million (RMB 5.4 billion) in 2023.* 33 In the first half of 2024, there
were more than 22 financing events globally for Chinese humanoid robot-related firms, raising more than $997
million (RMB 7 billion). 34 Investors include Chinese technology giants, private equity firms, state-owned
enterprises, and government funds.35 In July 2024, Shanghai announced a $1.4 billion fund to support its local
humanoid robots industry. 36 While large cross-industry tech firms like Huawei and Xiaomi are involved in
humanoid robots, since January 2023, an additional 29 companies in China have been founded to focus specifically
on humanoid robots (of which 22 have reportedly received funding from some source(s)).† 37 Among the most
successful at raising capital are Zhiyuan Robotics, which has completed eight funding rounds since 2023, and
UBTech Robotics, which has received $812 million (RMB 5.7 billion) in funding and was the first humanoid robot
company to be listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange.38
Besides offering funding, provincial governments have sponsored the creation of shared collaborative robotics
research facilities, often with a government-supported robotics research institute co-located with a host of Chinese
robotics companies.39 Since 2023, Beijing and Shanghai have both established new innovation centers focusing on
humanoid robots, providing access to open-source humanoid robot prototypes and corresponding AI software with
a goal to “further popularize the technology among enterprises to reduce development costs,” according to the
Shanghai center’s general manager Xu Bin. 40 Beijing’s high-tech Haidian District near Peking University and
Tsinghua University is formulating a three-year initiative to promote the development of embodied AI and
humanoid robots, bolstered by its ecosystem of universities, talent, research and development capabilities, and
experience with product iteration. 41 Furthermore, the government is encouraging robotics researchers at
universities, including at least one university supervised by China’s defense agency, to collaborate with robotics
companies.42 According to Chinese state media, top universities in China have already played a role in patenting
humanoid robot technologies.43
China is investing significant sums in the robotics sector more broadly, which China has identified as one of Xi
Jinping’s “new quality productive forces” sectors -- a slogan used to identify favored sectors for investment and
economic growth.44
· From 2015 to 2019, Japan’s RIETI think tank estimated that China’s government subsidies of robotics
increased over 200 percent, from $655 million (RMB 4.6 billion) to $2.2 billion (RMB 15.4 billion).45
· Provincial- and municipal-level governments have been a source of funding.
o In January 2024, Beijing announced a $1.4 billion fund to develop its local robotics industry.46
Outside of Beijing, Shenzhen allocated $71 million (RMB 500 million) yearly from 2014 to 2020
for funding robots and other intelligent technologies.47
o Guangxi Province and Chengdu’s Hi-Tech Zone have also pledged to support robotics. Guangxi
Province has promised to issue up to $140,000 (RMB 1 million) in subsidies (per company) to local
robotics companies. Meanwhile Chengdu has pledged $14.3 million (RMB 100 million) per major
project, with an additional $1.4 million (RMB 10 million) promised to the first companies that sell
an unspecified number of humanoid robots.48

* As discussed below, U.S. humanoid robot firms have also attracted significant investment. Joanna Glasner, “Robotics Startups on the Rise
in 2024,” Crunchbase, June 27, 2024. https://news.crunchbase.com/robotics/humanoid-startup-venture-ai-2024-figure; Harshita Mary
Varghese and Krystal Hu, “Robotics Startup Figure Raises $675 Mln from Microsoft, Nvidia, OpenAI,” Reuters, February 29, 2024.
https://www.reuters.com/technology/robotics-startup-figure-raises-675-mln-microsoft-nvidia-other-big-techs-2024-02-29.
† The underlying source does not identify from what entity or entities the funding originated.

U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 4

The U.S. government has also provided public sector support for robotics,* and Crunchbase reports that private
funding to U.S. robotics startups has been robust, at $6.8 billion in 2023 and $4.2 billion through June 27, 2024,
with at least $773 million of that figure going to startups working on humanoid robots.49 One report by Goldman
Sachs estimates the market for humanoid robots globally is expected to hit $38 billion by 2035, which suggests
interest in humanoid robot firms will likely continue for the foreseeable future.50
While Japan’s Fanuc, Germany’s Kuka,† and Switzerland’s ABB lead the industrial robotics market, China has a
significant presence.51 Many of the leading robotics firms have major production facilities in China, and since 2017
there have been over 3,400 robotics startups in China, many in Songshan Lake, an industrial development zone
south of Dongguan, China, that has hundreds of robotics companies.52 Moreover, China has robust domestic market
demand for robotics; it ranks as the world’s largest industrial robot market, accounting for 52 percent of robot
installations worldwide. 53 China also has the world’s fifth-highest robot density, at 392 robots per 10,000
employees, while North America ranks 10th globally in robot density, at 188 robots per 10,000 employees.‡ 54 This
density translates into China having more than 1.5 million robots operating throughout its factories.55

Future of Humanoid Robots in China

According to Chinese industry representatives, humanoid robots in China are undergoing limited deployment in
education, entertainment, healthcare, elder care, and manufacturing; these robots are primarily used for research,
and humanoid robot firms are not generating commercial sales yet. 56 However, the rapidly declining cost of
producing humanoid robots will allow for more widespread adoption.57 According to a global analysis by Goldman
Sachs, from 2023 to 2024 the manufacturing cost of humanoid robots has declined 40 percent.58 China’s goal for
the widespread deployment of humanoid robots in China could have transformative effects on China’s economy
and society, posing a potential solution to an aging population and increasing labor costs. For example, humanoid
robots could replace humans on manufacturing assembly lines, or in dangerous work environments involving
hazardous waste or mining.59
While humanoid robots are most often pitched by Chinese firms for their commercial uses, China’s policy of
military-civil fusion leverages commercial technologies for the advancement of China’s military, blurring the
boundaries of what constitutes a commercial enterprise or military product.60 Chinese military analysts have put
forth new theories of human-robot cooperation if the technology advances, such as replacing front-line soldiers with
humanoid robots while humans maintain control of command and decision making.§ 61

Considerations for Congress

 The development of humanoid robots has undergone significant progress in the past two years powered by
advances in AI. The newest generation of humanoid robots exhibit more advanced reasoning capabilities
in interactions with humans and their environments. Although humanoid robots are not currently

* Public Spend Forum estimates that the U.S. government spent over $6 billion on robotics, automation, and advanced manufacturing-related
research and development across all agencies during FY2018–FY2022. Public Spend Forum, “Robotics, Automation, and Advanced
Manufacturing.” https://www.publicspendforum.net/robotics-automation.
† Kuka is owned by Chinese consumer products firm Midea. Qiaoyi Li and Kevin Krolicki, “China’s Robot Makers Chase Tesla to Deliver

Humanoid Workers,” Reuters, August 23, 2024. https://www.reuters.com/technology/chinas-robot-makers-chase-tesla-deliver-

humanoid-workers-2024-08-23.
‡ Robot density is the number of operational industrial robots relative to the number of employees.
§ One analyst has described how humanoid robots could play a role in a Taiwan invasion scenario if the technology becomes sufficiently

advanced. Fu Qianshao, “The Rise of China’s Humanoid Robot Industry Will Replace the People’s Liberation Army in Performing Tasks,
Making the Great Task of Reunification Easier” (中国人形机器人产业崛起，代替解放军执行任务，让统一大业更轻松), Gaze into
the Sky [NetEase Blog], April 15, 2024. Translation.
https://web.archive.org/web/20240430181509/https:/www.163.com/dy/article/IVQR04OO0535T18G.html.
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 5
 commercially viable at scale, falling production costs and rapid technological advancements mean that the
industry could be approaching significantly wider deployment.
 Critical technology is concentrated in a handful of companies that specialize in creating in-house sensors
and actuators, advanced hardware such as GPUs, and relevant AI models. China is trying to innovate in its
domestic robotics market to eliminate its reliance on technology where U.S. and other non-Chinese firms
dominate.62 As they have in other industries, Chinese firms are rapidly catching up.63
 China is relying on a familiar playbook in which significant coordinated government support is funneled
into humanoid robot development to rapidly ramp up domestic technological development and
manufacturing, with the goal of becoming a dominant player in global markets. China’s broader domestic
robotics market indicates China is a fast adapter of robotics technologies.
 Once the technology is sufficiently advanced and affordable, humanoid robots could have serious
implications for a wide variety of commercial industries by resolving labor shortages and reducing costs.
In addition, when sufficiently advanced, humanoid robots could transform military conflict by replacing or
supplementing human personnel on the battlefield.

U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 6

Endnotes
1 Frédéric Schaeffer and Benoît Georges, “U.S. vs. China, Who Will Win the Race for Humanoid Robot Domination?” Worldcrunch, May
5, 2024. https://worldcrunch.com/tech-science/humanoid-robots-china.
2 Cristina Criddle, Madhumita Murgia, and George Hammond, “Artificial Intelligence Breakthroughs Create New ‘Brain’ for Advanced

Robots,” Financial Times, July 26, 2024. https://www.ft.com/content/bea9df71-371c-4045-9cb4-64c22789bf7b.

3 Cristina Criddle, Madhumita Murgia, and George Hammond, “Artificial Intelligence Breakthroughs Create New ‘Brain’ for Advanced

Robots,” Financial Times, July 26, 2024. https://www.ft.com/content/bea9df71-371c-4045-9cb4-64c22789bf7b.

4 Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Guiding Opinion on the Innovation and Development of Humanoid Robots (人形机器

人创新发展指导意见), November 2, 2023, 2. Translation.

https://web.archive.org/web/20231102145104/https://www.miit.gov.cn/zwgk/zcwj/wjfb/tz/art/2023/art_48fe01d562644aedb7ea3f4256df8
190.html.
5 Wang Huawei, “Discussing Criminal Liability in the Governance of Humanoid Robots” (论人形机器人治理中的刑法归责), May 20,

2024. Translation. https://web.archive.org/web/20241001193945/http://www.chv.org.cn/sjzk/1358.html; “The Rise of China’s

Humanoid Robot Industry Will Replace the People’s Liberation Army in Performing Tasks, Making the Great Task of Reunification
Easier” (中国人形机器人产业崛起，代替解放军执行任务，让统一大业更轻松), Gaze Into the Sky [NetEase Blog], April 15, 2024.
Translation. https://web.archive.org/web/20240430181509/https:/www.163.com/dy/article/IVQR04OO0535T18G.html; Ministry of
Industry and Information Technology, Guiding Opinion on the Innovation and Development of Humanoid Robots (人形机器人创新发
展指导意见), November 2, 2023, 2, 6. Translation.
https://web.archive.org/web/20231102145104/https://www.miit.gov.cn/zwgk/zcwj/wjfb/tz/art/2023/art_48fe01d562644aedb7ea3f4256df8
190.html.
6 Ji Siqi, “China Targets ‘Future Industries’ in 2024, Humanoid Robots and Biomedicines to Drive High-Quality Economic Growth,” South

China Morning Post, December 23, 2023. https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3246040/china-targets-industries-

future-2024-humanoid-robots-and-biomedicines-drive-high-quality-economic; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology,
Guiding Opinion on the Innovation and Development of Humanoid Robots (人形机器人创新发展指导意见), November 2, 2023, 9–10.
Translation.
https://web.archive.org/web/20231102145104/https://www.miit.gov.cn/zwgk/zcwj/wjfb/tz/art/2023/art_48fe01d562644aedb7ea3f4256df8
190.html.
7 Tadeusz Mikolajczyk et al., “Recent Advances in Bipedal Walking Robots: Review of Gait, Drive, Sensors and Control Systems,”

Sensors 22:12 (June 2022). https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/22/12/4440; Joshua Stewart, “This Robot’s Gentle Grip Can Harvest
Berries and Other Delicate Fruit,” Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, May 25, 2022.
https://bme.gatech.edu/bme/news/robots-gentle-grip-can-harvest-berries-and-other-delicate-fruit; Marc Raibert and Lex Fridman, Lex
Fridman Podcast, “Hydraulic vs Electric Actuation in Robotics,” Video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6r6KPuJ689o.
8 Paul Ridden, “Video: GPT-Enhanced Humanoid Speaks and Reasons as it Works,” New Atlas, March 13, 2024.

https://newatlas.com/robotics/figure-01-openai-humanoid-robot-real-time-conversations/.
9 Evan Ackerman, “Humanoid Robots Are Getting to Work,” IEEE Spectrum, December 30, 2023. https://spectrum.ieee.org/humanoid-

robots; Randal C. Nelson, “Robot Actuators,” University of Rochester,

https://www.cs.rochester.edu/u/nelson/courses/csc_robocon/robot_manual/actuators.html.
10 Charlie Kemp, “It Cooks, It Cleans! When Will Robots Be Doing Our Chores?” Wall Street Journal, Podcast, September 13, 2024.

https://www.wsj.com/podcasts/wsj-the-future-of-everything/it-cooks-it-cleans-when-will-robots-be-doing-our-chores/dd4b245a-7e26-
42bf-bfca-ebed68903433; Nick Huber, “‘Humanoid’ Robot Wave Signals Change on the Production Line,” Financial Times, March 26,
2024. https://www.ft.com/content/613cb2c6-7067-413f-a3cf-747519b407c2 .
11 Frédéric Schaeffer and Benoît Georges, “U.S. vs. China, Who Will Win the Race for Humanoid Robot Domination?” Worldcrunch, May

5, 2024. https://worldcrunch.com/tech-science/humanoid-robots-china.
12 East Money, “A Conversation with Unitree’s Wang Xingxing: Making Humanoid Robots Requires Restraint to Not Become a

Traditional Automation Company” (对话宇树王兴兴; 做人形机器人要克制一点 别变成传统自动化公司), August 21, 2024.

https://web.archive.org/web/20240918153312/https://finance.eastmoney.com/a/202408213161858289.html; Jennifer A. Kingson,
“Humanoid Robots Are Joining Mercedes’ Assembly Line,” Axios, March 15, 2024. https://www.axios.com/2024/03/15/humanoid-
robots-mercedes-apptronik-apollo-automakers; Jennifer A. Kingson, “The First Humanoid Robot Factory Is About to Open,” Axios,
December 5, 2023. https://www.axios.com/2023/12/05/humanoid-robot-factory-agility-bipedal-amazon.
13 Brian Heater, “Understanding Humanoid Robots,” TechCrunch, March 27, 2024. https://techcrunch.com/2024/03/27/understanding-

humanoid-robots; Matt O’Brien, “Humanoid Robots Are Here, But They’re a Little Awkward. Do We Really Need Them?” AP News,
November 29, 2023. https://apnews.com/article/humanoid-robots-figure-ai-agility-robotics-26f2cdcef4b923f0e44f91799686c8b2.
14 Brian Heater, “Understanding Humanoid Robots,” TechCrunch, March 27, 2024. https://techcrunch.com/2024/03/27/understanding-

humanoid-robots; Evan Ackerman, “Humanoid Robots Are Getting to Work,” IEEE Spectrum, December 30, 2023.
https://spectrum.ieee.org/humanoid-robots.
15 Robotics Tomorrow, “Humanoid Robot Developer Robot Era Debuts Dexterous, Versatile XHand for Object Manipulation,” May 20,

2024. https://www.roboticstomorrow.com/news/2024/05/20/humanoid-robot-developer-robot-era-debuts-dexterous-versatile-xhand-for-
object-manipulation/22602.
16 Brian Heater, “Large Language Models Can Help Home Robots Recover from Errors without Human Help,” TechCrunch, March 25,

2024. https://techcrunch.com/2024/03/25/large-language-models-can-help-home-robots-recover-from-errors-without-human-help.

U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 7

17 Cristina Criddle, Madhumita Murgia, and George Hammond, “Artificial Intelligence Breakthroughs Create New ‘Brain’ for Advanced
Robots,” Financial Times, July 26, 2024. https://www.ft.com/content/bea9df71-371c-4045-9cb4-64c22789bf7b; Nick Huber,
“‘Humanoid’ Robot Wave Signals Change on the Production Line,” Financial Times, March 26, 2024.
https://www.ft.com/content/613cb2c6-7067-413f-a3cf-747519b407c2.
18 Shaoshan Liu and Shuang Wu, “A Brief History of Embodied Artificial Intelligence, and Its Outlook,” Communications of the ACM,

April 29, 2024. https://cacm.acm.org/blogcacm/a-brief-history-of-embodied-artificial-intelligence-and-its-future-outlook.

19 Rachel Cheung, “China’s Robot Fever,” Wire China, July 14, 2024. https://www.thewirechina.com/2024/07/14/chinas-robot-fever-

humanoid-robots-chinese.
20 Rachel Cheung, “China’s Robot Fever,” Wire China, July 14, 2024. https://www.thewirechina.com/2024/07/14/chinas-robot-fever-

humanoid-robots-chinese; Zhang Jiaxing, “Overview of Sensors, a ‘Domestic Touch’ for Dumbed Down Robots” (传感器疏察，被愚
钝的机器人“国产触觉”), Xinhua, April 25, 2018. Translation. https://wayback-
api.archive.org/web/20240508212319/http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/2018-04/25/c_1122737255.htm.
21 Li Jianchao, “How Big Is the Gap between Chinese and U.S. Sensor Technology?” (中美在传感器方面的水平差距有多大?), Sohu,

June 1, 2023. Translation. https://web.archive.org/web/20240913170117/https://www.sohu.com/a/680853539_121719025; Zhang

Jiaxing, “Overview of Sensors, a ‘Domestic Touch’ for Dumbed Down Robots” (传感器疏察,被愚钝的机器人“国产触觉”), Xinhua,
April 25, 2018. Translation. https://wayback-api.archive.org/web/20240508212319/http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/2018-
04/25/c_1122737255.htm.
22 Ni Tao, “Nvidia’s Robotic Strengths Spell Blissful Uncertainty for Chinese Firms,” Pandaily, April 15, 2024.

https://pandaily.com/nvidias-robotic-strengths-spell-blissful-uncertainty-for-chinese-firms.
23 Emiko Matsui, “Kuafu Humanoid Robot Equipped with Pangu Model Appears at HDC 2024,” Huawei Central, June 22, 2024.

https://www.huaweicentral.com/kuafu-humanoid-robot-equipped-with-pangu-model-appears-at-hdc-2024/.
24 Emiko Matsui, “Kuafu Humanoid Robot Equipped with Pangu Model Appears at HDC 2024,” Huawei Central, June 22, 2024.

https://www.huaweicentral.com/kuafu-humanoid-robot-equipped-with-pangu-model-appears-at-hdc-2024/; Jefferey Ding, “ChinAI

#141: The PanGu Origin Story,” ChinAI, May 17, 2021. https://chinai.substack.com/p/chinai-141-the-pangu-origin-story.
25 Sina Shenzhen, “The Integration of "Pangu Big Model" and "Humanoid Robots" Promotes the Development of New Quality Productive

Forces” (“盘古大模型”与“人形机器人”大融合，推动新质生产力发展), Sina, March 22, 2024.

https://ghostarchive.org/archive/uRF8c.
26 Interface News, “The "Singularity" of Embodied Intelligence is Approaching, but How Many Hurdles Are There before It Can Be

Commercialized?” (具身智能“奇点”将至，商业化落地还有几道坎?), Sina, September 25, 2024.

https://ghostarchive.org/archive/sBFno.
27 China National Radio, “Mobilizing Robots; Tax Policies Help Guangzhou Speed Towards a New Era Intelligent Future” (机器人总动员

税助广州加速迈向智能未来新时代), August 15, 2024. Translation.

https://web.archive.org/web/20240916132319/https://guangdong.chinatax.gov.cn/gdsw/gznssw_swxw/2024-
08/15/content_1e9af09d78694b7db5ac8764caf03ee3.shtml; Ni Tao, “Robotic Revolution or Marketing Mirage? Inside China’s
Humanoid Robot Industry,” Interesting Engineering, June 27, 2024. https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/china-humanoid-
robotics-industry; Robert D. Atkinson, “How Innovative Is China in the Robotics Industry?” Information Technology and Innovation
Foundation, March 11, 2024. https://itif.org/publications/2024/03/11/how-innovative-is-china-in-the-robotics-industry; Ministry of
Industry and Information Technology, Guiding Opinion on the Innovation and Development of Humanoid Robots (人形机器人创新发
展指导意见), November 2, 2023. Translation.
https://web.archive.org/web/20231102145104/https://www.miit.gov.cn/zwgk/zcwj/wjfb/tz/art/2023/art_48fe01d562644aedb7ea3f4256df8
190.html.
28 Zeyi Yang, “Why China’s Dominance in Commercial Drones Has Become a Global Security Matter,” MIT Technology Review, June 26,

2024. https://www.technologyreview.com/2024/06/26/1094249/china-commercial-drone-dji-security; Bloomberg, “China’s EV Success

Story Built on Price Wars, Tesla Factor,” June 26, 2024. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-06-26/china-s-ev-success-
story-built-on-price-wars-tesla-factor?sref=mxbIZFb4; Jennifer A. Dlouhy, “How China Beat the U.S. to Become World’s Undisputed
Solar Champion,” Bloomberg, June 4, 2021. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-06-04/solar-jobs-2021-how-china-beat-u-
s-to-become-world-s-solar-champion?sref=mxbIZFb4.
29 Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Guiding Opinion on the Innovation and Development of Humanoid Robots (人形机器

人创新发展指导意见), November 2, 2023. Translation.

https://web.archive.org/web/20231102145104/https://www.miit.gov.cn/zwgk/zcwj/wjfb/tz/art/2023/art_48fe01d562644aedb7ea3f4256df8
190.html.
30 Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Guiding Opinion on the Innovation and Development of Humanoid Robots (人形机器

人创新发展指导意见), November 2, 2023, 1–2. Translation.

https://web.archive.org/web/20231102145104/https://www.miit.gov.cn/zwgk/zcwj/wjfb/tz/art/2023/art_48fe01d562644aedb7ea3f4256df8
190.html.
31 Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Guiding Opinion on the Innovation and Development of Humanoid Robots (人形机器

人创新发展指导意见), November 2, 2023, 2. Translation.

https://web.archive.org/web/20231102145104/https://www.miit.gov.cn/zwgk/zcwj/wjfb/tz/art/2023/art_48fe01d562644aedb7ea3f4256df8
190.html.
32 Ni Tao, “Robotic Revolution or Marketing Mirage? Inside China’s Humanoid Robot Industry,” Interesting Engineering, June 27, 2024.

https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/china-humanoid-robotics-industry; Robert D. Atkinson, “How Innovative Is China in the

U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 8

 Robotics Industry?” Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, March 11, 2024. https://itif.org/publications/2024/03/11/how-
innovative-is-china-in-the-robotics-industry.
33 Rachel Cheung, “China’s Robot Fever,” Wire China, July 14, 2024. https://www.thewirechina.com/2024/07/14/chinas-robot-fever-

humanoid-robots-chinese.
34 Liu Junhong, “Capital Believes in Humanoid Robots” (资本相信人形机器人), 21st Century Business Herald, August 26, 2024.

https://web.archive.org/web/20240916200558/https://www.21jingji.com/article/20240826/herald/9fea3ea77d1b5103793d712c5c4ce2ac.
html.
35 China Investment Securities Consultancy, “China Investment Securities Consultancy Viewpoint: Current Status and Trends of

Investment and Financing in China’s Humanoid Robot Industry” (中投顾问观点:中国人形机器人行业投资融资现状及趋势), July 4,

2024. Translation. https://web.archive.org/web/20240913182453/https://www.sohu.com/a/790298535_255580.
36 Qiaoyi Li and Kevin Krolicki, “China’s Robot Makers Chase Tesla to Deliver Humanoid Workers,” Reuters, August 23, 2024.

https://www.reuters.com/technology/chinas-robot-makers-chase-tesla-deliver-humanoid-workers-2024-08-23.
37 Liu Junhong, “Capital Believes in Humanoid Robots” (资本相信人形机器人), 21st Century Business Herald, August 26, 2024.

https://web.archive.org/web/20240916200558/https://www.21jingji.com/article/20240826/herald/9fea3ea77d1b5103793d712c5c4ce2ac.
html; Lauly Li and Cheng Ting-Fang, “Huawei Unveils New Harmony OS, AI Model in Race for Tech Self-Reliance,” Nikkei Asia, June
21, 2024. https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Technology/Huawei-unveils-new-Harmony-OS-AI-model-in-race-for-tech-self-reliance; Evan
Ackerman, “Xiaomi Builds a Humanoid Robot for Some Reason,” IEEE Spectrum, August 14, 2022.
https://spectrum.ieee.org/humanoid-robot-xiaomi-cyberone.
38 IT Home, “Zhihuijun’s ‘Zhiyuan Robot’ Completed the A++++++ Round of Financing, Valued at over 7 Billion Yuan” (稚晖君的“智

元机器人”完成 A++++++ 轮融资，估值已超 70 亿元), Sina, September 9, 2024.

https://web.archive.org/web/20240916201012/https://finance.sina.com.cn/tech/digi/2024-09-09/doc-incnqeri8577612.shtml; Qianzhan,
“Market Value of 38 Billion! UBTech Robotics Listed, Hong Kong Stock Exchange Welcomes First Humanoid Robot Stock [with
Additional Analysis of Global and Chinese Humanoid Robot Markets]” (市值 380 亿! 优必选上市, 港交所迎来人形机器人第一股
[附全球及中国人形机器人行业市场分析]), December 29, 2023.
https://web.archive.org/web/20240917190048/https://i.ifeng.com/c/8VuoRZxhUFq.
39 Robert D. Atkinson, “How Innovative Is China in the Robotics Industry?” Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, March

11, 2024. https://itif.org/publications/2024/03/11/china-is-close-to-leading-in-robotics-innovation-new-itif-analysis-finds.

40 Ye Zhanhang, “At Shanghai AI Expo, Humanoid Robots Turn Heads, Bake Bread,” Sixth Tone, July 5, 2024.

https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1015460; Jessie Wu, “Qinglong, China’s First Full-Sized General-Purpose Humanoid Robot, Unveiled
at World Artificial Intelligence Conference 2024,” Technode, July 5, 2024. https://technode.com/2024/07/05/qinglong-chinas-first-full-
sized-general-purpose-humanoid-robot-unveiled-at-world-artificial-intelligence-conference-2024.
41 Xinhua, “The First China Humanoid Robot Industry Conference Opens” (首届中国人形机器人产业大会开幕), April 10, 2024.

Translation.
https://web.archive.org/web/20240425022518/http:/big5.news.cn/gate/big5/www.xinhuanet.com/tech/20240410/4f611d6db9614505b1be
b2b132bb3f9b/c.html.
42 Zhao Yunfan, “The Robotics Industry Is Highly Competitive; Many Companies Test the Waters with Humanoid Robots” (机器人行业

仍处竞争涡旋 多公司向人形机器人“投石问路”) 21st Century Business Herald, August 31, 2024. Translation.
https://web.archive.org/web/20240912213911/https://m.21jingji.com/article/20240831/4a32f10b179e4045a9cd34758432f1bf.html;
Huazhong University of Science and Technology, “With the Help of the Huazhong University Team, Humanoid Robots Run onto the
Field” (华科大团队,助推人形机器人‘跑步’入场!), QQ, August 10, 2024. Translation.
https://web.archive.org/web/20240912213928/https://new.qq.com/rain/a/20240810A07ND800; Robert D. Atkinson, “How Innovative Is
China in the Robotics Industry?” Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, March 11, 2024.
https://itif.org/publications/2024/03/11/china-is-close-to-leading-in-robotics-innovation-new-itif-analysis-finds; Alex Joske, “The China
Defence Universities Tracker: Exploring the Military and Security Links of China’s Universities,” Australian Strategic Policy Institute,
November 2019, 25. https://www.aspi.org.au/report/china-defence-universities-tracker.
43 People’s Daily, “The Total Number of Technology Patents Ranks Among the Top, and China's Humanoid Robot Industry is Booming” (

技术专利总数居前列 中国人形机器人产业蓬勃发展), November 27, 2023. Translation.

https://web.archive.org/web/20240430144812/http:/finance.people.com.cn/BIG5/n1/2023/1127/c1004-40126768.html.
44 Qiaoyi Li and Kevin Krolicki, “China’s Robot Makers Chase Tesla to Deliver Humanoid Workers,” Reuters, August 23, 2024.

https://www.reuters.com/technology/chinas-robot-makers-chase-tesla-deliver-humanoid-workers-2024-08-23; Ministry of Industry and

Information Technology, Guiding Opinion on the Innovation and Development of Humanoid Robots (人形机器人创新发展指导意见),
November 2, 2023, 1. Translation.
https://web.archive.org/web/20231102145104/https://www.miit.gov.cn/zwgk/zcwj/wjfb/tz/art/2023/art_48fe01d562644aedb7ea3f4256df8
190.html.
45 Zhang Hongyong, “The Rise of Robots in China: Implications for Japan,” Research Institute of Economy, Trade, and Industry,

September 6, 2021. https://www.rieti.go.jp/en/columns/a01_0658.html.

46 Qiaoyi Li and Kevin Krolicki, “China’s Robot Makers Chase Tesla to Deliver Humanoid Workers,” Reuters, August 23, 2024.

https://www.reuters.com/technology/chinas-robot-makers-chase-tesla-deliver-humanoid-workers-2024-08-23.
47 Economic Observer, “Robot Subsidy Investigation” (机器人补贴调查),” Jiemian News, April 30, 2016. Translation.

https://archive.ph/VVNYs.

U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 9

48 Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Investment Promotion Bureau, Preferential Policies for Digital Economic Industries (数字经济产
业优惠政策), September 4, 2023. Translation. https://archive.ph/zlabT; Lai Fangjie, “Chengdu Hi-Tech Zone Plans to Issue 100 Million
Yuan of Computing Power Coupons Each Year, Provide Subsidies of up to 100 Million Yuan for Major Robot Industrialization
Projects” (成都高新区每年拟发放 1 亿元算力券 对机器人重大产业化项目给予最高 1 亿元补贴), Cover News, June 19, 2024.
Translation. https://archive.ph/yXuf6; Qiaoyi Li and Kevin Krolicki, “China’s Robot Makers Chase Tesla to Deliver Humanoid
Workers,” Reuters, August 23, 2024. https://www.reuters.com/technology/chinas-robot-makers-chase-tesla-deliver-humanoid-workers-
2024-08-23.
49 Joanna Glasner, “Robotics Startups on the Rise in 2024,” Crunchbase, June 27, 2024. https://news.crunchbase.com/robotics/humanoid-

startup-venture-ai-2024-figure; “Robotics Startup Figure Raises $675 Mln from Microsoft, Nvidia, OpenAI,” Reuters, February 29,
2024. https://www.reuters.com/technology/robotics-startup-figure-raises-675-mln-microsoft-nvidia-other-big-techs-2024-02-29; Public
Spend Forum, “Robotics, Automation, and Advanced Manufacturing.” https://www.publicspendforum.net/robotics-automation.
50 Goldman Sachs, “The Global Market for Humanoid Robots Could Reach $38 Billion by 2035,” February 27, 2024.

https://www.goldmansachs.com/insights/articles/the-global-market-for-robots-could-reach-38-billion-by-2035.
51 Qiaoyi Li and Kevin Krolicki, “China’s Robot Makers Chase Tesla to Deliver Humanoid Workers,” Reuters, August 23, 2024.

https://www.reuters.com/technology/chinas-robot-makers-chase-tesla-deliver-humanoid-workers-2024-08-23.
52 Robert D. Atkinson, “How Innovative Is China in the Robotics Industry?” Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, March

11, 2024. https://itif.org/publications/2024/03/11/how-innovative-is-china-in-the-robotics-industry; Zeyi Yang, “This Chinese city is

now the Silicon Valley of robotics startups,” Protocol, August
2021, https://web.archive.org/web/20240223134930/https://www.protocol.com/china/dongguan-robotics-startup.
53 Robert D. Atkinson, “How Innovative Is China in the Robotics Industry?” Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, March

11, 2024. https://itif.org/publications/2024/03/11/how-innovative-is-china-in-the-robotics-industry.

54 Assembly Magazine, “U.S. Ranks 10th in Robot Density,” January 17, 2024. https://www.assemblymag.com/articles/98270-us-ranks-

10th-in-robot-density; Xinhua, “Xinhua Headlines: Made-in-China Robots Empower Upgrading of Manufacturing Industry,” July 1,
2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240917160215/https://english.news.cn/20240701/db29358040f14ef1a0b38532a4701293/c.html.
55 Xinhua, “Xinhua Headlines: Made-in-China Robots Empower Upgrading of Manufacturing Industry,” July 1, 2024.

https://web.archive.org/web/20240917160215/https://english.news.cn/20240701/db29358040f14ef1a0b38532a4701293/c.html.
56 Che Pan, “Tesla Shows Its Humanoid Robot Optimus at China AI Conference, but Behind Glass,” South China Morning Post, July 5,

2024. https://www.scmp.com/tech/tech-trends/article/3269237/tesla-shows-its-humanoid-robot-optimus-china-ai-conference-behind-
glass.
57 Goldman Sachs, “The Global Market for Humanoid Robots Could Reach $38 Billion by 2035,” February 27, 2024.

https://www.goldmansachs.com/intelligence/pages/the-global-market-for-robots-could-reach-38-billion-by-2035.html.
58 Goldman Sachs, “The Global Market for Humanoid Robots Could Reach $38 Billion by 2035,” February 27, 2024.

https://www.goldmansachs.com/intelligence/pages/the-global-market-for-robots-could-reach-38-billion-by-2035.html.
59 Goldman Sachs, “The Global Market for Humanoid Robots Could Reach $38 Billion by 2035,” February 27, 2024.

https://www.goldmansachs.com/intelligence/pages/the-global-market-for-robots-could-reach-38-billion-by-2035.html.
60 Elsa B. Kania, “In Military-Civil Fusion, China is Learning Lessons from the United States and Starting to Innovate,” Strategy Bridge,

August 27, 2019. https://thestrategybridge.org/the-bridge/2019/8/27/in-military-civil-fusion-china-is-learning-lessons-from-the-united-

states-and-starting-to-innovate.
61 Wang Yonghua, “Pay Attention to the Military Application of Humanoid Robots” (关注人形机器人军事运用), China Military Online,

June 13, 2023. Translation. https://web.archive.org/web

/20240429133710/http:/www.81.cn/szb_223187/szbxq/index.html?paperName=jfjb&paperDate=2023-06-
13&paperNumber=07&articleid=908058; Guo Bingxin, Zhong Yuhang, and Lei Hongyu, “Popular Science on Chinese Military
Technology: Do the Ever-Changing Humanoid Robots Dream of Going to the Battlefield?” (科普中国军事科技]日新月异的类人机器
人会梦见上战场吗?), Guangming Science Popularization, March 28, 2023. Translation.
https://web.archive.org/web/20240429134657/https:/www.quanzhou.gov.cn/zfb/xxgk/zfxxgkzl/ztzl/kpzl/qykj/202303/t20230328_2862875.
htm; Luo Ling, “‘Smart Robot’ Improves Combat Effectiveness” (“灵巧机器人”提升战斗力), PLA Daily, March 8, 2019. Translation.
https://web.archive.org/web/20200623024514/http:/military.people.com.cn/n1/2019/0308/c1011-30964831.html.
62 Robert D. Atkinson, “How Innovative Is China in the Robotics Industry?” Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, March

11, 2024. https://itif.org/publications/2024/03/11/how-innovative-is-china-in-the-robotics-industry.

63 Robert D. Atkinson, “How Innovative Is China in the Robotics Industry?” Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, March

11, 2024. https://itif.org/publications/2024/03/11/how-innovative-is-china-in-the-robotics-industry.

U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 10