1.

1
Ecosystems
Objectives/EKs/Skills
Ecosystem Basics
● Community = all living
organisms in an area

● Individual = one organism (elk) ● Ecosystem = all living &

nonliving things in an
● Pop. = group of individuals area (plants, animals,
of same species (elk herd) rocks, soil, water, air)
⛰ Biome = large area with
similar climate conditions that
determine plant & animal
species there
Ex: (tropical rainforest)
Organism Interactions ● Mutualism:
relationship that
benefits both
organisms (coral
reef)
● Commensalism:
relationship that
benefits one
organism & doesn’t
● Competition: organisms fighting over a resource impact the other
like food or shelter; limits pop. size (birds nest in trees)
● Predation: one organism using another for energy
source (hunters, parasites, even herbivores)
Predation (+/-)
● Herbivores: (plant eaters) eat plants for energy
(giraffe & tree)
● True predators: (carnivores) kill and eat prey for
energy (leopard & giraffe)
● Parasites: use a host organism for energy, often
without killing the host & often living inside host
○ Ex: mosquitoes, tapeworms, sea lamprey
● Parasitoids: lay eggs inside a host organism; eggs
hatch & larvae eat host for energy
○ Ex: parasitic wasps, bot fly
Symbiosis sym = together | bio = living | osis = condition
⛰ Any close and long-term interaction between two organisms of
different species
○ Mutualism (+/+), commensalism (+/0), and parasitism (+/-) are all
symbiotic relationships
● Mutualism: Organisms of diff. species living
close together in a way that benefits both
● Coral (animals) provide reef structure &
CO2 for algae; algae provide sugars for
coral to use as energy
● Lichen = composite organism of fungi
living with algae; algae provide sugars
(energy) & fungi provides nutrients
Competition
⛰ Reduces pop. size since there are fewer resources
available & fewer organisms can survive
● Resource partitioning: different species using the
same resource in diff. ways to reduce competition
● Temporal partitioning: using resource @ different
times, such as wolves & coyotes hunting @
different times (night vs. day)
● Spatial partitioning: using diff. areas of a shared
habitat (diff. length roots)
● Morphological partitioning:
using diff. resources based
on diff. evolved body
features
Practice FRQ 1.1
Identify two organisms that
compete for a shared food
resource. Describe how
resource partitioning could
reduce the competition
between the two organisms
you identified.
 1.2
Terrestria
l (Land)
Biomes
Objectives/EKs/Skil
l
 ⛰ The community of
Biome: an area that org. (plants & animals)
shares a combination in a biome are uniquely
of avg, yearly temp. & adapted to live in that
precipitation (climate) biome
Examples Ex: camels & cacti have water
preserving traits for desert;
shrubs & wildflowers store
lots of energy in roots to
recover quickly from fire in
grasslands
 Biome ● Biome chart can also

Characteristics
predict where on earth
biomes are found
Tundra & Boreal =
higher lat. (60o +)
Temperate = mid
lat. (30o - 60o)
Tropical = closer to
equator
Biomes are defined by
annual temp & precip. avg
⛰ Latitude (distance from eq)
determines temp. & precip. which
is why biomes exist in predictable
pattern on earth
 Nutrient
Plants need soil nutrients to
Availability grow, so availability
determines which plants can
survive in a biome
● Tropical RF = nutrient-poor
soil (high competition from so ⛰ Ex: frozen soils of tundra
many diff. plant species) don’t allow nutrients in dead
org. matter to be broken down
● Boreal forest = nutrient-poor by decomposers
soil (low temp. & low decomp. - Low soil nutrients
rate of dead org. matter) - Low water availability
● Temp. forest = nutrient-rich - Few plants survive here
soil (lots of dead org. matter -
leaves & warm temp/moisture
for decomp.)
Shifting Biomes ⛰ Biomes shift in location on
earth as climate changes
- Ex: warming climate will shift
boreal forests further north as
tundra permafrost soil melts &
lower latitudes become too
warm for aspen & spruce
Practice FRQ 1.2
Identify one characteristic of a
biome and explain how that
characteristic determines the
community of organisms
found in the biome.
 1.3
Aquatic
Biomes
Objective/EKs/Skil l
 Characteristics of
Aquatic BiomesFlow
Determines which plants &
Salinity organisms can survive, how
How much salt there is in a body of much O2 can dissolve into water
water, determines which species
can survive & usability for drinking Temp.
(Fresh water vs. estuary vs. ocean)
Warmer water holds less dissolved O2
so it can support fewer aq. organisms
Depth
Influences how much sunlight
can penetrate and reach plants
below the surface for
photosynthesis
 Freshwater: Rivers & Lakes
● Rivers have high O2 due to flow mixing water & air, also carry
nutrient-rich sediments (deltas & flood plains = fertile soil)
● Lakes = standing bodies of fresh H2O (key drinking H2O source)
○ Littoral: shallow water w/emergent plants
○ Limnetic: where light can reach (photosynth)
■ No rooted plants, only phytoplankton
○ Profundal: too deep for sunlight (no phots.)
○ Benthic: murky bottom where inverts
(bugs) live, nutrient-rich sediments
 Freshwater: Wetlands
● Wetland: area with soil submerged/saturated in water for at least
part of the year, but shallow enough for emergent plants
⛰ Plants living here have to be adapted to living with
roots submerged in standing water (cattails, lily pads,
reeds)
Benefit$ of Wetland$
★ Stores excess water during storms, lessening floods
★ Recharges groundwater by absorbing rainfall into soil

★ Roots of wetland plants filter pollutants

from water draining through
★ Highly plant growth due to
lots of water & nutrients
(dead organic matter) in
sediments
 Marsh Reeds &
Swamp cattails

Spruce &
Cyprus sphagnum
Tree
Bog moss
Estuaries: areas where rivers empty into the ocean
⛰ Mix of fresh & salt water (species adapt to this ex: mangrove trees)
⛰ High productivity (plant growth) due to nutrients in sediments
deposited in estuaries by river

Salt Marsh:
● Estuary hab. along coast in temperate climates
● Breeding ground for many fish & shellfish species

Mangrove Swamps:
● Estuary hab. along coast of tropical climates

● Mangrove trees with long, stilt roots

stabilize shoreline & provide habitat for
many species of fish & shellfish
 Coral Reef
● Warm shallow waters beyond the shoreline; most diverse
marine (ocean) biome on earth
● Mutualistic relationship between coral (animals) & algae (plants)
● Coral take CO2 out of ocean to create calcium carbonate
exoskeleton (the reef) & also provide CO2 to the algae
● Algae live in the reef & provide sugar (energy) to the coral
through photosynthesis

⛰ Both species rely on the

other:
- Coral couldn’t survive
without energy from algae.
- Algae need the home of the
reef & CO2 from the coral
 Intertidal Zones
● Narrow band of coastline between high & low tide
● Organisms must be adapted to survive crashing waves & direct
sunlight/heat during low tide
Ex: Barnacles, sea stars, crabs that can attach themselves to rocks
● Shells & tough outer skin can prevent drying out (desiccation)
during low tides
⛰ Diff. organisms are adapted
to live in diff. Zones

Ex: Spiral wrack (type of

seaweed) curls up & secretes
mucus to retain water during
low tide
 Open Ocean
● Low productivity/area as only algae & phytoplankton can survive
in most of ocean
⛰ So large though, that algae & phytoplankton of ocean produce a
lot of earth’s O2 & absorb a lot of atmospheric CO2

● Photic zone = area where sunlight can reach (photosynthesis)

● Aphotic zone (abyssal) = area too deep
for sunlight
 Practice FRQ 1.3
Identify an organism found in
an aquatic biome and explain
how that organism is uniquely
adapted to live in that biome.
 1.4
Carbon
Cycle
Objectives/EKs/Skills
Carbon Cycle Overview
● Movement of molecules that contain Carbon (CO2,
glucose, CH4) between sources and sinks
⛰ Some steps are very quick (FF combustion);
some are very slow (sedimentation & burial)
⛰ Leads to imbalance in which reservoirs or
sinks are storing carbon
● Atmosphere is key C reservoir; increasing levels
of C in atm. Leads to global warming
● Carbon sink: a carbon reservoir that stores
more carbon than it releases
○ Ocean (algae & sediments), plants, soil
● Carbon source: processes that add C to atm.
○ Fossil fuel (oil, coal, nat gas) combustion
○ Animal ag. (cow burps & farts = CH4)
○ Deforestation, releases CO2 from trees
 Photosynthesis & Cellular Respiration
● Plants, algae, ● Done by plants & animals
phytoplankton to release stored energy
● Removes CO2 from ● Uses O2 to break glucose
the atmosphere & down & release energy
converts it to glucose
● Releases CO2 into
● Glucose = biological atmosphere
form of C & stored
(chemical) energy in ● CO2 source (adds CO2
form of sugar to atm.)

● CO2 sink

⛰ Both processes are very quick

⛰ Cycle C between biosphere & atmosphere in
balanced amount (no net C increase in atm.)
Ocean & Atmosphere
● Direct exchange: CO2 moves directly between atmosphere & the ocean
by dissolving into & out of ocean water at the surface
⛰ Happens very quickly & in equal directions, balancing levels of
CO2 between atm. & ocean
● B/c of direct exchange, increasing atm. CO2 also increases ocean
CO2, leading to ocean acidification
● Algae & phytoplankton: take CO2 out of the ocean & atm. through
photosynthesis
● Coral reef & marine org. with shells also take CO2 out of the
ocean to make calcium carbonate exoskeleton
● Sedimentation: when marine org. die, their bodies sink to ocean floor
where they’re broken down into sediments that contain C
● Burial: over, long, periods of time, pressure of water compresses
C-containing sediments on ocean floor into sedimentary stone
(limestone, sandstone) - long-term C reservoir
 Burial, Extraction, & Combustion
● Burial: slow, geological process that stores C in underground sinks like
sedimentary rock or fossil fuels
○ Sediments (bits of rock, soil, organic
matter) compressed into sed. rock, or FF,
by pressure from overlying rock layers
or water
● Fossil Fuels (FF): coal, oil, and Nat. gas are
formed from fossilized remains of org.
Matter. Ex: dead ferns (coal) or marine algae
& plankton (oil)
● Extraction & Combustion: digging up or mining
FFs & burning them as energy source; releases
CO2 into atm.
⛰Burial (formation of FFs) takes far longer than
extraction & combustion, which means they increase
concentration of CO2 in atmosphere
 Practice FRQ 1.4
Identify one process in the
diagram that happens quickly
and one process that happens
slowly.
Explain how the rate at which
fossil fuels are transferred into
the atmosphere, as shown in the
diagram, has altered the carbon
cycle during the past 250 years.
 1.5
Nitrogen Cycle
Objective/EKs/Skill
 Nitrogen Cycle Overview
⛰ Mvmnt of N containing molecules
between sources & sinks/reservoirs
Sources release N into atmosphere; sinks take N
out of the atmosphere in increasing amounts

⛰ N reservoirs hold N for relatively short period

of time compared to C cycle
- Ex: plants, soil, atmosphere

⛰ Atmosphere = main N reservoir

N in atm. exists mostly as N2 gas, not useable
by plants or animals

N = critical plant & animal nutrient

All living things need N for DNA & amino acids
to make proteins
 Nitrogen Fixation
⛰ Process of N2 gas being converted into
biologically available (useable by plants)
NH3 (ammonia) or NO3- (nitrate)
Bacterial fixation: certain bacteria
that live in the soil, or in symbiotic
relationship with plant root nodules
convert N2 into ammonia (NH3)
Rhizobacteria live in root nodules of legumes
(peas, beans) & fix N for them in return for
amino acids from the plant

Synthetic fixation: humans combust

FFs to convert N2 gas into nitrate
-
(NO
Nitrates)
3 are added to synthetic fertilizers like
miracle grow & used in agriculture
Other N Cycle Steps
Assimilation: plants & animals taking N in
and incorporating it into their body
Plant roots take in NO3- or NH3 from soil;
animals assimilate N by eating plants or other
animals
Ammonification: soil bacteria,
microbes & decomposers converting
waste & dead biomass back into NH3
and returning it to soil
Nitrification: conversion of NH4 into
nitrite (NO2-) & then nitrate (NO3) by
soil bacteria
Denitrification: conversion of soil N
(NO3) into nitrous oxide (N2O) gas
which returns to atmosphere
Human Impacts on N Cycle
Climate: N2O (nitrous oxide) = greenhouse gas which warm earthʼs climate
Produced by denitrification of nitrate in agricultural soils (especially when waterlogged/over watered)

Ammonia volatilization: excess fertilizer

use can lead to NH3 gas entering atm.
NH3 gas in atm = acid precipitation (rain) and
respiratory irritation in humans & animals
It also means less N stays in soil for crops to use
for growth (lost profit)

Leaching & Eutrophication: synthetic

fertilizer use leads to nitrates (NO3)
leaching, or being carried out of soil by
water
Nitrates runoff into local waters, causing algae
blooms that block sun & kill other aq. plants
Practice FRQ 1.5
Describe one chemical
transformation that occurs in the
natural nitrogen cycle and
explain the importance of that
transformation to an ecosystem.
1.6
Phosphorus
Cycle
Objective/EKs/Skill
 Phosphorus Cycle Basics
● Movement of P atoms & molecules b/w sources & sinks/reservoirs
⛰ Rocks & sediments containing P minerals = major reservoirs
P cycle is very slow compared to C/H 2
O/N cycles
⛰ Takes a long time for P minerals to be weathered out
of rocks & carried into soil/bodies of water
⛰ No gas phase of P (doesn’t enter atmosphere)
⛰ B/c it cycles so slowly, it is a limiting nutrient,
meaning plant growth in ecosystems is often limited
by P availability in soil/water

P is needed by all organisms for DNA,

ATP (energy), bone & tooth enamel in
some animals
 Phosphorus Sources
Major natural source of P is weathering of rocks that contain P
minerals.
Wind & rain break down rock & phosphate (PO4-3) is released
and dissolved into water; rain water carries phosphate into
nearby soils & bodies of water
⛰ Weathering is so slow that P is often a limiting nutrient in
aquatic & terrestrial ecosystems

Synthetic (human) sources of P = mining phosphate minerals &

adding to products like synthetic fertilizers & detergents/cleaners
Synthetic fertilizers containing phosphates
are added to lawns or ag. Fields; runoff
carries P into nearby bodies of water
Phosphates from detergents &
cleaners enter bodies of water via
wastewater from homes
 Assimilation & Excretion/Decomp.
Just like N, P is absorbed by plant roots & assimilate into tissues;
animals assimilate P by eating plants or other animals
Animal waste, plant matter & other biomass is broken down by
bacteria/soil decomposers that return phosphate to soil
⛰ Assimilation & excretion/decomp form a mini-loop within P cycle just like
assimilation & ammonification in N Cycle, photosynth & resp. in C cycle

Sedimentation & Geo. Uplift

Phosphate doesn’t dissolve very well into water; much of it forms solid bits
of phosphate that fall to the bottom as sediment (sedimentation )
P sediments can be compressed into sed. rock over long time periods by
pressure of overlying water
Geological uplift = tectonic plate collision
forcing up rock layers that form mountains;
P cycle can start over again with weathering
& release of phosphate from rock
Eutrophication **Can occur from fertilizer runoff,
human/animal waste

(too much N & P) contamination

B/c they’re limiting nutrients in aq. ecosystems, extra input of N & P

lead to eutrophication (excess nutrients) which fuels algae growth
Algae bloom covers surface of water, blocking sunlight & killing
plants below surface
Algae eventually die-off; bacteria that break down dead algae
use up O2 in the water (b/c decomp. = aerobic process)
Lower O2 levels (dissolved oxygen) in water kills aquatic
animals, especially fish
Bacteria use up even more O2 to
decompose dead aq. animals
Creates pos. feedback loop: less
O2 → more dead org. → more
bacterial decomposition → less O2
Eutrophication **Can occur from fertilizer runoff,
human/animal waste

(too much N & P) contamination

 Practice FRQ 1.6

Choose 2 reservoirs depicted in the

diagram above and describe how
phosphorus moves from one to the other
 1.7
Hydrologic
(Water)
Cycle
Objective/EKs/Skill
Water Cycle Movement of H2O (in different states) b/w
sources & sinks
⛰ State of matter (solid/liquid/gas) as well as
Overview where water is moving are key in H2O cycle
Ex: precipitation = atm. (gas) → land or
surface water (liquid)

⛰ Energy from sun drives the H2O cycle

Ex: heat from sun causes liquid water in
ocean to become a gas (evaporation) in atm.

⛰ Ocean = largest water reservoir

⛰ Ice caps & groundwater
are smaller reservoirs,
but contain fresh,
useable water for
humans
 Evaporation & 2 main sources of water (processes that cycle it
from liquid on earth back into the atmosphere)
Evapotranspiration Sometimes called “vaporization” since liquid
water becomes water vapor (gas) in atm.
Transpiration: process plants use to draw
groundwater from roots up to their leaves
Leaf openings called stomata open,
allowing water to evap. into atm. from leaf
Mvmnt of H2O out of leaf creates low H2O
potential in leaf, pulling H2O up from roots
Evapotranspiration: amount of H2O that enters
atm. from transpiration & evap. combined

⛰ Both processes
are driven by
energy from the
sun
 Precipitation (rain) either flows over earth’s
Runoff & Infiltration surface into a body of water (runoff) or trickles
through soil down into groundwater aquifers
(infiltration)
⛰Groundwater (aquifers) & surface waters
(lakes/rivers) are important freshwater
reservoirs for humans & animals
Precipitation recharges groundwater
through infiltration, but only if ground is
permeable (able to let water pass through)

Runoff recharges surface waters, but can

also carry pollutants into water sources
 Practice FRQ 1.7

Chose a processes from the diagram.

Identify the process and describe how water
is moving from one reservoir to another.
 1.8
Primary
Productivity
Objective/EKs/Skill
 PP Basics ⛰ Primary Productivity: rate that solar
energy is converted into org.
2
units: kcal/m /yr. compounds via photosynthesis over a
Energy area time unit of time
Aka: rate of photosynthesis of all
producers in an area over a given
High PP = high plant period of time
growth = lots of food &
Since photosynthesis leads to
shelter for animals
growth, you can also think of PP as
⛰ Ecosystems with high PP the amount of plant growth in an
are usually more biodiverse area over a given period of time
(more div. of species) than
ecosystems with low PP
 Calculating PP ⛰ Respiration loss (RL): plants use up

🖩 NPP = GPP - RL some of the energy they generate via

photosynthesis by doing cell. respiration
⛰ Net Primary Productivity (movement, internal transportation, etc.)
(NPP): The amount of energy
Think of RL as taxes plant needs to pay
(biomass) leftover for
Gross Primary Productivity (GPP): The
consumers after plants have
total amount of sun energy (light) that
used some for respiration
plants capture and convert to energy
Energy used (glucose) through photosynthesis
up by resp. Think of GPP as the total paycheck
(lost as heat) amount the plant earns

Energy left Think of NPP as the actual

after resp.
amount of the plant’s paycheck it
Total energy keeps after taxes
captured
 Ecological Efficiency
The portion of incoming solar energy that is captured
by plants & converted into biomass (NPP or food
available for consumers)

Generally, only 1% of all incoming sunlight is captured

& converted into GPP via photosynthesis

Of that 1%, only about 40% (or 0.4% of total incoming

solar energy) is converted into biomass/plant growth
(NPP)

⛰ Some ecosystems are more efficient

(higher NPP) than others
 Trends in Productivity
⛰ The more productive a biome is, the wider
the diversity of animal life it can support
(high. biodiv.)

***Try to predict the most & least productive

terrestrial and aquatic biomes ***

⛰ Water availability, higher temperature, and

nutrient availability are all factors that lead to
high NPP

Shortage of any of these three factors will lead

to decreased NPP
Ex: Desert (low H2O & nutrients)

Tundra (low temp & liquid H2O)

Open ocean (low nutrients)

Practice FRQ 1.8

Describe the process of

net primary productivity
(NPP).

Describe the relationship

between primary
productivity and
biodiversity.
1.9 & 1.10
Trophic Levels
& The 10% Rule
Objectives/EKs/Skills
 Conservation of Matter & Energy
⛰ Matter & energy are never created or destroyed; they only
change forms
Ex: Tree dies & the C/N/H2O/P are returned to the soil
& atmosphere
Ex: Sun rays (light energy) hit leaves & are converted
into glucose (chemical energy)
⛰ 1st law of thermodynamics: energy is never created or destroyed

Biogeochem. cycles demonstrate conservation of

matter (C/N/H2O/P)

⛰ Food webs demonstrate conservation of energy

Ex: When a rabbit eats a leaf, the energy from the
leaf (glucose) is transfered to the rabbit & stored as
body tissue like fat/muscle
 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
⛰ Each time energy is transferred, some of it is lost as heat 10% 90%
Applied to food webs: the amount of useable energy
decreases as you move up the food chain (organisms 10% 90%
use up most of it for movement, development, etc.)
10%
90%
⛰ Because *available* energy decreases with each step
up the food chain, a trophic pyramid (trohp =
nourishment or growth) is used to model how energy
moves through an ecosystem

⛰ 10% Rule: in trophic pyramids, only about 10% of the

energy from one level makes it to the next level; the
other 90% is used by the organism & lost as heat
 Trophic Levels & 10% Biomass
1 kg
Tertiary Consumers: animals that eat secondary consumers or
carnivores & omnivores (aka - top/apex predators)

Secondary Consumers: animals that eat primary

10 kg
consumers or herbivores (aka - carnivores & omnivores)

Primary Consumers: animals that eat plants (herbivores) 100 kg

Producers (plants) “produce”- really convert sun’s light

energy into chemical energy (glucose) 1000 kg

⛰ 10% rule also applies to biomass (or mass of all living things at each
trophic level)
Since energy is needed for growth & only 10% of energy
transfers from one level to the next, only 10% of the biomass
can be grown/supported
 Calculating Biomass & Energy
⛰ To calculate biomass or energy available at the next level up, move
the decimal place one spot to the left (or divide by 10)

95.00 J

950.00 J

9,500.00 J

95,000.00 J
Calculating Biomass & Energy
Try calculating biomass

8 kg

80 kg

800 kg

8,000 kg
Practice FRQs 1.9 & 1.10
Explain why a relatively large forest
can only support a small number of
wolves.

Calculate the amount of energy

available to a tertiary consumer in the
following ecosystem.

100,000 J of energy produced by plants

in the ecosystem (after respiration)
 1.11
Food Chains and
Food Webs
Objective/EKs/Skill
Food Web Basics
Shows how matter & energy flow through an ecosystem, from
organism to organism
When one organism preys on (eats) another, the
matter (C/N/H2O/P) and energy (glucose, muscle
tissue, etc.) are passed on to the predator

⛰ Arrows in food webs indicate direction of energy

flow (point to the org. taking in the energy)
Food Web vs. Chain
Food chains just show one, linear path of energy & matter

⛰ Food webs have at least 2 different,

interconnected food chains
Webs show that organisms can exist at
different trophic levels
grass → hare → owl (sec. cons.)
grass → grasshopper → robin →
owl (tert. cons.)
 Interactions &
Trophic Cascade
⛰ Food webs show how increase or decreases
in pop. size of a given species impact the
rest of the food web
Ex: Increase in python pop.
- Decrease in frog & rat pops.
- Increase in grasshopper pop.
- Decrease in corn
Trophic cascade: removal or addition of a top
predator has a ripple effect down through lower
troph. Levels
Ex: decline in wolf pop. = increase in deer pop.
which leads to overgrazing & decline in trees
 Practice FRQ 1.11

Describe one direct effect

that a decline in the frog
population would have on
the food web.
Identify an organism that
is both a secondary and
tertiary consumer