Thermodynamics - The science that deals with the transformation of heat into

other forms of energy and vice versa.

Some Conversion Factors to Remember

1 slug = 32.2 lb
1 kg = 2.2 lb = 9.81 N
1 g = 980.66 Dynes
1 m3 = 1000 L
1 m = 3.28 ft = 100 cm = 39.4 inches
1 gal = 3.785 L

Topic Formula Where Additional Info

F = force
Force F = ma m = mass
a = acceleration

Weight w = mg w = weight 𝒈 = 𝟗.𝟖𝟏 𝒎/𝒔𝟐 𝒐𝒓

g = gravitational force 𝟑𝟐.𝟐 𝒇𝒕/𝒔𝟐 @ sea
level

Density m 𝜌 = density 𝜌 of water @ 4𝑜 C

𝜌=
V v = volume = 1000 kg/m3
𝜌 is called 𝑟ℎ𝑜

1 V
V= =
𝜌 m
Specific Volume V is called 𝑢𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑛

F 𝑚𝑔
γ= = = 𝜌𝑔
V V
Specific Weight γ is called gamma

γ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁/m3 = 62.4 𝑙𝑏f/𝑚3 = 1 𝑘𝑔𝑓/𝐿 = 1000 𝑘𝑔𝑓/𝑚3 = 8.33 𝑙𝑏𝑓/𝑔𝑎𝑙 @sea level
Specific Gravity
or 𝜌 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠 Unitless
𝑹.𝑫. =
𝜌 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Relative Density
 F = force 𝑁
𝑜𝑟 Pa is the
Pressure 𝐹
P = = γh A = area 𝑚2
A SI unit for pressure
h = height (Pascal)

Pabs = Patm + Pg Pabs = Absolute pressure

Pressure Pabs = Patm – Pvac Patm = Atmospheric pressure
Pg = Gauge pressure
Pvac = Pressure Vacuum
𝒌𝒈
Patm = 101.325 kPa = 14.7 psi = 1.03 𝟐= 29.92 inHg = 760 mmHg = 33.9 ft H2O
𝒄𝒎
o 5 𝑜 𝑡o𝐶 = temperature degree Celcius
𝑡 𝐶 = (𝑡 𝐹−32)
9
o 9 𝑜 𝑡oF = temperature degree Fahrenheit
Temperature 𝑡 F = (𝑡 C) +32 T(K) = temperature Kelvin
5
o
T(K) = 𝑡 𝐶 + 273 T(oR) = temperature degree Rankine
o o
T( R) = 𝑡 F + 460

∆𝑡: 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑡2−𝑡1)

o
C =K o
∆𝑇: 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑇2−𝑇1)
Temperature Fo = Ro Co = Celcius degree; ex. (50o𝐶 - 5o𝐶 = 45Co)
5Co = 9Fo Fo = Fahrenheit degree; ex. (50oF - 5oF = 45Fo)
Ko = Kelvin degree; ex. (50K – 5K = 45Ko)
Ro = Rankine degree; ex. (50 oR - 5 oR = 45Ro)

Fb = Bouyancy Force
Bouyancy Force Fb = γliquidVsubmerged γliquid = Specific weight of Liquid
Vsubmerged = Volume submerged

Continuity 𝑚3 𝑓𝑡 3
Q = volume flow rate ( 𝑠 in SI, 𝑠 in English)
Equation or Q = AV A = cross sectional area m2 or ft2
“General Flow 𝑚 𝑓𝑡
Equation” V = fluid velocity 𝑜𝑟
𝑠 𝑠

Einstein’s E = energy
2
Theory of E = mc m = mass
Relativity c = speed of light (2.9979 x 108 m/s)

Potential Energy PE = mgh When we talk about Energy, the unit is N•m or
J (Joules)
Kinetic Energy 1
KE = m𝑉 2 V = velocity (m/s)
2

U = internal energy
Cv = specific heat of a substance at constant
Internal Energy U = mCvT 𝒌𝒋 𝑩𝑻𝑼
volume ( 𝑜𝑟 )
𝒌𝒈 𝑲 𝒍𝒃 𝒐𝑹
T = temperature
𝒌𝒋
Cv of air at constant volume = 0.718 ; Note: 1 kj = 1.055 BTU
𝒌𝒈 𝑲
Wf = Flow work
Flow Work Wf = PV V = volume
P = pressure

Wm = Mechanical
Mechanical Wm = Fd Work
Work F = force
d = distance

Power Energy W Fd
P= = =
Time t t

Qs = Sensible Heat
Sensible Heat Qs = mc∆T m = mass
c = specific heat capacity of the substance
∆T = change in temperature
Cwater = 1.0 Cal/g C° = 1.0 BTU/lb F° = 4.187 kJ/kg K
QL = ± mL Latent Heat of Fusion, Lf
Latent Heat Latent heat of Vaporization, Lv
(+) - heat entering Latent heat of Sublimation, Ls
(-) - heat leaving
Lf = 144 BTU/lb = 334 kj/kg = 80 Cal/g Lv = 970 BTU/lb = 2257 kj/kg = 540 Cal/g
Ls = Lf + Lv
h = enthalpy
U = internal energy
Enthalpy h = U + Wf = mCpt Wf = flow work
m = mass
Cp = specific heat at constant pressure
 t = temperature

Closed System ∆U = Ein - Eout

Open System
(Steady State Ein - Eout
Flow)

Open System
(Non-Steady ∆E = Ein - Eout
State Flow)

PV = nRoT P = absolute pressure of the gas

PV = mRT V = volume of the gas
P = 𝜌RT Mass
n = no. of moles of gas; Moles =
Molar Mass
Ideal Gas PV = RT
Ro = universal gas constant
Equation
T = absolute temperature
R = individual gas constant
𝜌 = density
V = specific volume

Ro R = individual gas constant

R=
𝑚𝑚
Individual gas Ro = universal gas constant
constant R = Cp – Cv 𝑚𝑚 = molar mass
R = Cv(k-1) Cp = specific heat at constant pressure
Cp(k−1)
R= Cv = specific heat at constant volume
k
k = specific heat ratio of a gas

Specific heat Cp
k=
ratio Cv

Combined Gas P1 V1 P2 V2
=
Law T1 T2
= mR
Processes of Fluids

1. Isobaric / Isopiestic Process – Pressure constant (P=C)

a. PTV Relationship
𝐓𝟏 𝐕
= 𝟏
𝐓𝟐 𝐕𝟐
b. Heat transferred
Qp = mCp∆T
c. Change of Enthalpy
∆h = Qp
d. Change of Internal Energy
∆U = mCv∆T
e. Change of Entropy
𝐓
∆S = mCp ln 𝟐
𝐓𝟏
f. Work non-flow
Wnf = P(V2-V1)
g. Work steady-flow
Wsf = 0

2. Isothermal Process – Temperature constant (T=C)

a. PTV Relationship
P1V1 = P2V2
b. Heat transferred
𝐕 𝐏
Q = P1V1 ln 𝟐 = mRT ln 𝟏 = Wnf
𝐕𝟏 𝐏𝟐
c. Change of Enthalpy
∆h = 0
d. Change of Internal Energy
∆U = 0
e. Change of Entropy
𝐏
∆S = mR ln 𝟏
𝐏𝟐
f. Work non-flow
𝑽
Wnf = P1V1 𝟐
𝐕𝟏
g. Work steady-flow
Wsf = Wnf
3. Isometric / Isochoric Process – Volume constant (V=C)

a. PTV Relationship
𝐓𝟏 𝐏
= 𝟏
𝐓𝟐 𝐏𝟐
b. Heat transferred
Qv = mCv∆T
c. Change of Enthalpy
∆h = mCp∆T
d. Change of Internal Energy
∆U = Qv
e. Change of Entropy
𝐓
∆S = mCv ln 𝟐
𝐓𝟏
f. Work non-flow
Wnf = 0
g. Work steady-flow
Wsf = V(P1-P2)

4. Adiabatic / Isentropic Process – Entropy constant (S=C)

a. PTV Relationship
𝐓𝟐 𝐕 𝐏
= ( 𝟏)𝐤−𝟏 = ( 𝟐 )(𝐤−𝟏)/𝐤
𝐓𝟏 𝐕𝟐 𝐏𝟏
b. Heat transferred
Q=0
c. Change of Enthalpy
∆h = mCp∆T
d. Change of Internal Energy
∆U = mCv∆T
e. Change of Entropy
∆S = 0
f. Work non-flow
𝐏 𝐕 −𝐏 𝐕 𝐦𝐑(𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 )
Wnf = 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 =
𝟏−𝐤 𝟏−𝐤
g. Work steady-flow
Wsf = k(Wnf)
5. General Polytropic Processes - PV n = C

a. PTV Relationship
𝐓𝟐 𝐕 𝐏
= ( 𝟏)𝐧−𝟏 = ( 𝟐 )(𝐧−𝟏)/𝐧
𝐓𝟏 𝐕𝟐 𝐏𝟏
b. Heat transferred
𝐂 (𝐤−𝐧)
Q = mCn∆T ; where Cn = 𝐯
𝟏−𝐧
c. Change of Enthalpy
∆h = mCp∆T
d. Change of Internal Energy
∆U = mCv∆T
e. Change of Entropy
𝐓
∆S = mCn ln 𝟐
𝐓𝟏
f. Work non-flow
𝐏 𝐕 −𝐏 𝐕 𝐦𝐑(𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 )
Wnf = 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 =
𝟏−𝐧 𝟏−𝐧
g. Work steady-flow
Wsf = n(Wnf)