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Contemporary Social Issues and Role of Psychology in Social Engineering

Module 1 Environmental issues & Hazards

Unit 1 Pollution related physical and mental health hazards

Definition of pollution

“Pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings that have harmful effects on
plants, animals and human beings”. Anything (solid, liquid or gas) that cause pollution is called
pollutant

Types of pollutants

● Degradable or non-persistent pollutants: These can be rapidly broken down by natural

processes. E.g.: domestic sewage, discarded vegetables, etc.
● Slowly degradable or persistent pollutants: Pollutants that remain in the environment for
many years in an unchanged condition and take decades or longer to degrade. Eg: DDT and
most plastics.
● Non-degradable pollutants: These cannot be degraded by natural processes. Once they are
released into the environment they are difficult to eradicate and continue to accumulate. Eg:
toxic elements like lead or mercury

Types of Pollution

Air Pollution

Types of pollutants

1. Primary Pollutants
● Carbon monoxide is produced when organic materials such as natural gas, coal or wood are
incompletely burnt. Vehicular exhausts are the single largest source of carbon monoxide
● Sulfur oxides are produced when sulfur containing fossil fuels are burnt. Nitrogen oxides are
found in vehicular exhausts. Nitrogen oxides are significant, as they are involved in the
production of secondary air pollutants such as ozone.
● Hydrocarbons evaporate from fuel supplies or are remnants of fuel that did not burn
completely.
● Particulates are small pieces of solid material (for example, smoke particles from fires, bits of
asbestos, dust particles and ash from industries) dispersed into the atmosphere. The effects of
particulates range from soot to the carcinogenic (cancer causing) effects of asbestos, dust
particles and ash from industrial plants that are dispersed into the atmosphere 2. Secondary
Pollutants
● Ground Level Ozone- The majority of tropospheric ozone formation occurs when nitrogen
oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), react in the
atmosphere in the presence of sunlight, specifically the UV spectrum. NOx, CO, and VOCs
are considered ozone precursors.
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● NO2, which is formed as NO combines with oxygen in the air

● Acid rain, which is formed when sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides react with water.

● Smog: Another most important secondary pollutant is the Smog, which has made up of
Smoke and Fog. Traditionally, the smog has resulted from large amounts of coal burning in an
area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulphur dioxide. Now-a-days, the Vehicle emissions
and Industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun
to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form
photochemical smog

Health Hazards of Air Pollution

● Cigarette smoking is responsible for the greatest exposure to carbon monoxide. Exposure to
air containing even 0.001% of carbon monoxide for several hours can cause collapse, coma
and even death.
● CO is attached to blood hemoglobin for a long time, it accumulates and reduces the oxygen
carrying capacity of blood. This impairs perception and thinking, slows reflexes and causes
headaches, drowsiness, dizziness and nausea and blurred vision.
● Prolonged smoking or exposure to air pollutants can overload or break down the natural
defenses such as hair in our nose, sticky mucus in the lining of the upper respiratory tract
causing diseases like lung cancer, asthma, chronic bronchitis etc. Sulphur dioxide irritates
respiratory tissues, chronic exposure causes a condition similar to bronchitis. It also reacts
with water, oxygen and other materials to form sulphur containing acids – The acids can
become attached to particles which when inhaled are very corrosive to the lung.

Water pollution
Definition - When the quality or composition of water changes directly or indirectly as a result
of man’s activities such that it becomes unfit for any purpose it is said to be polluted. Sources of
water pollution

● Industrial Effluents: Water is discharged from industries after having been used in production
processes. This wastewater may contain acids, alkalis, salts, poisons, oils and in some cases
harmful bacteria.
● Mining and Agricultural Wastes: Mines, especially gold and coal mines, are responsible for
large quantities of acid water. Agricultural pesticides, fertilizers and herbicides may wash into
rivers and stagnant water bodies.
● Sewage Disposal and Domestic Wastes: Sewage as well as domestic and farm wastes were
often allowed to pollute rivers and dams. Health Hazards of Water pollution

● Disease causing agents – bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms enter water from
domestic sewage and untreated human and animal wastes. Some of these water-borne
diseases are Typhoid, Cholera, Paratyphoid Fever, Dysentery, Jaundice, Amoebiasis and
Malaria. Many waterborne infectious diseases are linked with fecal pollution of water sources
and results in fecal-oral route of infection.
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● Oxygen depleting wastes- large populations of bacteria use up the oxygen present in water to
degrade wastes. The amount of oxygen required to break down a certain amount of organic
matter is called Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD). If too much organic waste is added, all
the available oxygen is used up causes organisms like fish to die.
● Eutrophication. Inorganic plant nutrients-water soluble nitrates and phosphates that cause
excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants-called eutrophication.
● Bio magnification- pesticides- reach water pass on to phytoplankton-herbivorous
fishcarnivorous fish- water birds-animals-human beings. At each stage the chemicals are
concentrated resulting bio magnification. Eg. DDT
● Health risk associated with polluted water includes different diseases such as respiratory
disease, cancer, diarrheal disease, neurological disorder and cardiovascular disease.
● Nitrogenous chemicals are responsible for cancer and blue baby syndrome.
● Mortality rate due to cancer is higher in rural areas than urban areas because urban
inhabitants use treated water for drinking while rural people don’t have facility of treated
water and use unprocessed water.
● Poor people are at greater risk of disease due to improper sanitation, hygiene and water
supply. Contaminated water has large negative effects in those women who are exposed to
chemicals during pregnancy; it leads to the increased rate of low birth weight as a result fetal
health is affected.
● Poor quality water destroys the crop production and infects our food which is hazardous for
aquatic life and human life.
● Pollutants disturb the food chain and heavy metals, especially iron affects the respiratory
system of fishes. An iron clog into fish gills and it is lethal to fishes, when these fishes are
eaten by human leads to the major health issue. Metal contaminated water leads to hair loss,
liver cirrhosis, renal failure and neural disorder.

Marine Pollution

Types of Marine pollution

Eutrophication
When there is an excess of chemical nutrients mainly nitrates and phosphates in the water, it leads to
eutrophication or nutrient pollution. Eutrophication decreases the level of oxygen, reduces the
quality of water, makes the water inhabitable for fish, affects the breeding process within the marine
life Acidification
Oceans act as a natural reservoir for absorbing the carbon dioxide from the Earth’s atmosphere. But,
due to rising level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the oceans across the world are becoming
acidic in nature, therefore, it leads to acidification of oceans. Researches and scientists have not been
able to uncover the potential damage ocean acidification may have on the Earth’s atmosphere. But
there is a strong concern that acidification might lead to dissolution of calcium carbonate structures,
that can affect the shell formation in shellfish and also the corals.
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Toxins
There are persistent toxins that do not get dissolved or disintegrate with the marine ecosystem
rapidly. Toxins such as pesticides, DDT, PCBs, furans, TBT, radioactive waste, phenols, and dioxins
get accumulated in the tissue cells of the marine lifeforms and lead to bioaccumulation hampering
the life underwater and sometimes leads to a mutation in aquatic life forms.
Plastics
The ever-growing dependence of human population on plastic has filled the oceans and the land, it
consists of 80 percent of the debris found in the oceans. Plastic dumped and found in the oceans are
dangerous for the marine life forms and wildlife, as sometimes it strangles and chokes them to death.
The rising levels of plastic dumps found in the oceans are suffocating, ingesting, and entangling the
life underwater as well as above it.

Sources of marine pollution

Direct discharge of waste, inflow of chemicals, solid waste – sewage

Washed off materials- industrial and agricultural effluents, fertilizers, pesticides

Petroleum, oils washed off from roads

Spill of Toxic substances from ships

Offshore oil exploration and extraction

discharge of radioactive elements

deep sea mining of natural resources

atmospheric pollution- Wind-blown dust and debris, including plastic bags, are
blown seaward from landfills and other areas Health Hazards Of Marine Pollution

1. Plastic in our food chain

All of the world’s oceans contain huge amounts of plastic, ranging in size from microscopic beads to
large pieces of trash. Since plastic doesn’t biodegrade, it usually just keeps breaking up into smaller
and smaller bits, eventually becoming microscopic sized pieces. As they are breaking up, plastics
also release a number of deadly chemicals into the environment, some of which are easily absorbed
by fish and shellfish. Tiny plastic beads are ingested by fish and marine mammals – intentionally or
not – and make their way up the food chain. These plastics can contain heavy metals such as lead,
mercury, and cadmium. Many also contain toxins which often linked to cancer, birth defects,
immune system problems, and childhood developmental issues.

2. Microbial Contamination
Microbial contamination by marine bacteria (and their toxins), viruses, parasites and other organisms
is an increasing worldwide problem. Microbial contamination occurs secondary to point source
sewage dumping, as well as from indirect contaminated run off; it is predominantly an issue in
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coastal areas. Humans are exposed to microbial contamination by consuming contaminated seafood,
and through recreational and occupational exposure to contaminated marine waters.

3. Industrial pollutants suffocating commercial fisheries

Many of our activities, especially around ports and other industrial areas, also have a direct impact
on human health. Port activities often result in the release of heavy metals and toxins directly into the
ocean, where they are absorbed by the sea-life. Filter feeding animals such as oysters and mussels
simply feed on whatever they filter from the water. Unfortunately, this also includes any toxins
which are present. They can then store these toxins – often heavy metals – in quite high
concentrations. This can cause problems if commercial fishing or aquaculture operations are
happening in the same area, as harvested seafood may be contaminated.

4. Algal blooms
● Agricultural runoff and sewage dumping can lead to major algal blooms, which in turn can
have terrible consequences on anyone who comes into contact with them.
● The high nutrient concentration in most agricultural runoff provides the perfect ingredients
for algal blooms, which produce nasty toxins and lower the oxygen concentration of the water
– particularly in protected areas such as bays and estuaries.
● People who go swimming or perform other water-related activities in the area can come into
contact with these toxins, which can make them very sick or cause long-term problems.
● Seafood harvested from the affected area can also contain high concentrations of toxins and
can cause food poisoning if they are consumed. For this reason, certain fisheries are often
closed when major algal blooms occur Soil Pollution

● Soil pollution is defined as the buildup in soils of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals,
salts, radioactive materials, or disease-causing agents, which have adverse effects on plant
growth and animal health.
● Soil is the thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that covers the Earth's rocky surface.
The organic portion, which is derived from the decayed remains of plants and animals, is
concentrated in the dark uppermost topsoil. The inorganic portion made up of rock fragments
was formed over thousands of years by physical and chemical weathering of bedrock.
● Productive soils are necessary for agriculture to supply the world with sufficient food.

Sources of soil pollution

1. Domestic and Municipal Wastes:

One of the main causes of land and soil pollution is the growing quantity of domestic and municipal
wastes. Household garbage includes food scraps, old newspapers, and a variety of plastic items,
bottles, discarded papers, wood, lawn trimmings, glass, canes, old appliances, tyres, worn-out
furniture, broken toys and a host of other items.

2. Industrial and Mining Wastes:

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The disposal of industrial solid wastes is the major source of soil pollution by toxic chemicals. The
industrial wastes are mainly discharged from coal and mineral mining industries, metal processing
industries and engineering industries. They contain toxic metals such as lead, copper and chemicals
having acids and are responsible for soil pollution.

3. Agricultural Wastes:
Agricultural practices also pollute the soil. According to an estimate, agricultural activities produce
more than 1.8 billion tones of waste, each year. About three-quarters of this is manure. Much of this
manure is piled in dumps where it pollutes streams and waterways.
In addition to fertilizers and pesticides, soil condi-tioners and fumigants are used in agriculture.
Organic compounds containing lead, mercury and arsenic, when applied to a land, accumulate on the
soil permanently and introduce these toxic metals into plant products.

4. Radioactive Materials:
The radioactive wastes produced by nuclear testing laboratories and industries reach the soil and
accumulate there. Wastes from nuclear reactors contain ruthenium-106 and rhodium-106, iodine-131,
barium-140, lanthanum-140, cerium-144, etc. All the radionuclides deposited on the soil emit gamma
radiations, and are harmful to soil as well as for plant growth.

5. Biological Agents:
The excreta of humans, animals and birds are also a source of soil pollution by biological agents.
Digested sewage sludge, which is used as manure, also causes soil pollution. In the developing
countries, intestinal parasites constitute the most serious soil pollution problems. Faulty sanitation,
waste water and wrong methods of agriculture also induce soil pollution.

6. Dispersion of acids and acid rain:

Acids that enter the soil along with heavy metals or acid rain harm soil properties. This polluted soil
becomes acidic in nature and becomes unproductive for crops, which require alkaline or neutral
soils. Acidic gases like SO2 and NOx when combine with atmospheric moisture form acids and fall
on the earth. They cause soil pollution by changing the pH of the soil. Health Hazards of soil
pollution

● Effect on Health of Humans- Considering how soil is the reason we are able to sustain
ourselves, the contamination of it has major consequences on our health. Crops and plants are
grown on polluted soil absorb much of the pollution and then pass these on to us. This could
explain the sudden surge in small and terminal illnesses.
● Long term exposure to such soil can affect the genetic make-up of the body, causing
congenital illnesses and chronic health problems that cannot be cured easily.
● In fact, it can sicken the livestock to a considerable extent and cause food poisoning over a
long period of time.
● Effect on Growth of Plants-- The soil pollution can even lead to widespread famines if the
plants are unable to grow in it. The ecological balance of any system gets affected due to the
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widespread contamination of the soil. Most plants are unable to adapt when the chemistry of
the soil changes so radically in a short period of time.
● Fungi and bacteria found in the soil that bind it together begin to decline, which creates an
additional problem of soil erosion.
● Decreased Soil Fertility-- The toxic chemicals present in the soil can decrease soil fertility
and therefore decrease in the soil yield. The contaminated soil is then used to produce fruits
and vegetables which lacks quality nutrients and may contain some poisonous substance to
cause serious health problems in people consuming them.
● Toxic Dust-- The emission of toxic and foul gases from landfills pollutes the environment and
causes serious effects on the health of some people. The unpleasant smell causes
inconvenience to other people.

Changes in Soil Structure

The death of many soil organisms (e.g. earthworms) in the soil can lead to alteration in soil structure.
Apart from that, it could also force other predators to move to other places in search of food.

Noise Pollution

Sources of noise pollution

• Industrial Sources

• Transport Vehicles

• Household

• Public Address System

• Agricultural Machines

• Defense Equipment

Health Hazards of Noise Pollution Hearing

Problems

● Hearing is one of the five senses that human beings have. As such, it is an essential part of the
life of any person. But in as much as the ear serves the purpose of receiving sound waves, it
can also do so to a certain limit. When it gets to the point termed as noise, it means it is
undesirable because it interferes with one’s hearing capacity.
● This is the reason people cover their years when there is really loud noise. Such loud noise
can cause hearing impairment, which can even result in permanent hearing loss. Hearing loss
due to noise pollution is attributed to prolonged exposure of noise levels above 85 decibels.

Difficulty in sleeping
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Noise can deter sleep because of its psychological effect. Having noise around can distort peaceful
sleep as it causes stress. Moreover, being in a noisy place means there is almost no chance of having
any sleep. Inadequacy of sleep in turn interrupts the normal functioning of the body, leading to
discomfort, fatigue, and general moodiness

Reduced cognitive functioning

The ear is connected to the brain, which coordinates the body’s stimulus responses. For this reason,
all the sound waves that hit the ear are sent to the brain for interpretation. This means too much noise
also gets to the brain and according to scientific reports, such kind of noise dulls the brain and
contributes to a lower response rate by the brain.
Cardiovascular problems
Noise ‘excites’ the heart. Too much noise means that the heart is also disturbed and ends up beating
faster; increasing blood pressure. In loud noise, stress hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol are
also released.
Therefore, blood pressure will definitely increase in noisy environments thus prompting faster flow
of blood which in turn leads to secretion of catecholamine, a hormone that further magnifies the
number of times the heart pumps blood. As much a there is no harm in this, regular exposure will
keep the body getting higher impulses leading to increased blood pressure.

Reproduction problems
Varying studies have been conducted to estimate the effect of noise pollution on reproduction in
human beings and surprisingly, most of these studies have posited that pregnant women exposed to
noise pollution during the course of their expectancy tend to give birth to children with less body
weight. The stress levels experienced by the expectant mother equally disturbs the unborn child.

Emotion and behavioral change

This is different from cognitive thinking. Too much noise means disturbance of peace which may
lead to annoyance or anger. People in this state tend to have constant headaches which may even
intensify if the noise is continuous. This may lead to an amplified stress levels and thus, emotions
take over and violence may ensue.

Thermal Pollution
The discharge of warm water into a river is usually called a thermal pollution. Thermal pollution is
the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature. A common
cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial
manufacturers.

Sources of Thermal Pollution

Water as Cooling Agent in Power, Manufacturing and Industrial plants: Production and
Manufacturing plants are biggest source of thermal pollution. These plants draw water from nearby
source to keep machines cool and then release back to the source with higher temperature. When
heated water returns to the river or ocean, the water temperature rises sharply.
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Soil Erosion: Soil erosion is another major factor that causes thermal pollution. Consistent soil
erosion causes water bodies to rise, making them more exposed to sunlight. The high temperature
could prove fatal for aquatic biomes as it may give rise to anaerobic conditions.
Deforestation: Trees and plants prevent sunlight from falling directly on lakes, ponds or rivers. When
deforestation takes place, these water bodies are directly exposed to sunlight, thus absorbing more
heat and raising its temperature. Deforestation is also a main cause of the higher concentrations of
greenhouse gases i.e. global warming in the atmosphere.
Runoff from Paved Surfaces: Urban runoff discharged to surface waters from paved surfaces like
roads and parking lots can make water warmer. During summer seasons, the pavement gets quite hot,
which creates warm runoff that gets into the sewer systems and water bodies.
Natural Causes: Natural causes like volcanoes and geothermal activity under the oceans and seas can
trigger warm lava to raise the temperature of water bodies. Lightening can also introduce massive
amount of heat into the oceans. This means that the overall temperature of the water source will rise,
having significant impacts on the environment.

Health Hazards of Thermal Pollution

Decrease in DO (Dissolved Oxygen) Levels: The warm temperature reduces the levels of DO
(Dissolved Oxygen) in water. The warm water holds relatively less oxygen than cold water. The
decrease in DO can create suffocation for plants and animals such as fish, amphibians and copepods,
which may give rise to anaerobic conditions. Warmer water allows algae to flourish on surface of
water and over the long term growing algae can decrease oxygen levels in the water.
Increase in Toxins: With the constant flow of high temperature discharge from industries, there is a
huge increase in toxins that are being regurgitated into the natural body of water. These toxins may
contain chemicals or radiation that may have harsh impact on the local ecology and make them
susceptible to various diseases.
Loss of Biodiversity: A dent in the biological activity in the water may cause significant loss of
biodiversity. Changes in the environment may cause certain species of organisms to shift their base
to some other place while their could be significant number of species that may shift in because of
warmer waters.
Ecological Impact: A sudden thermal shock can result in mass killings of fish, insects, plants or
amphibians. Hotter water may prove favorable for some species while it could be lethal for other
species
Affects Reproductive Systems: A significant halt in the reproduction of marine wildlife can happen
due to increasing temperatures as reproduction can happen with in certain range of temperature.
Increases Metabolic Rate: Thermal pollution increases the metabolic rate of organisms as increasing
enzyme activity occurs that causes organisms to consume more food than what is normally required,
if their environment were not changed. It disrupts the stability of food chain and alter the balance of
species composition.
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Migration: The warm water can also cause particular species of organisms to migrate to suitable
environment that would cater to its requirements for survival. This can result in loss for those species
that depend on them for their daily food as their food chain is interrupted.

Nuclear hazards

Sources of nuclear pollution

Nuclear weapons testing- Beginning

with the Second World War when

Japan was subdued after the use of

the nuclear bombs on the cities of

Hiroshima and Nagasaki, countries

have been in the race to develop

their own nuclear arms, in the name

of defense, but more to threaten

rival nations. Testing the weapons

involves explosions is the

atmospheric layer called

stratosphere. The exploded debris

emitting radiation then falls back to

the earth. Some of the radiation is

absorbed by our atmosphere. But

some of it reaches the earth falling

on areas that are far away from the

site where the weapon was released

initially. This is called Fallout.

When these particles settle on the

vegetation and are consumed by

animals they enter into the food

chain. When fallout settles over the

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sea, the ecosystem of the sea gets

affected and again entering the food

chain.

Nuclear Power Plants

Intense Nuclear energy from radioactive fuel is used to heat water to steam. The steam is then used to
turn the turbines that in turn work the generators to produce electricity. Small amounts of radiation
are released during this process into the water which may then dispose off indiscriminately causing
nuclear pollution.

Improper disposal of spent nuclear fuel.

Spent nuclear fuel contains very active radioactive atoms that remain so sometimes almost for 600yrs
or more. These must be disposed of in a very careful manner, with strict regulations in well
designated spaces. But the fact is many governments tend to approve of dumping nuclear fuel as far
from their country as possible. The favorite dumping ground of many countries was the Pacific
Ocean.

Accident/Damage to Nuclear power plants

This most famous of these was the Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster in Russia in 1986. The fallout of this
accident was felt over three countries- Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. The area surrounding the reactor
is still polluted and not suitable for inhabitation or farming. Health Hazards of Nuclear pollution

● The effect of nuclear pollution is seen on every organism in the environment from the
bacteria to plants to human beings. Nothing is spared.
● The immediate and closest to the source, experience Radiation Sickness. In small doses of
75-200 rems. One experiences vomiting, fatigue and loss of appetite. At higher exposures of
300 rem and more changes in the blood cells and bleeding occurs. Above 600 rems there is
loss of hair, loss of immunity usually resulting in death in a few days to weeks. Radiation
causes changes in the cell and gene structure of rapidly multiplying cells of the body, such as
bone marrow, skin, intestines, lymphoid tissue and embryo.
● Those exposed from a distance may not show any immediate symptom. But the tendency to
develop various forms of cancers and have a shortened life span is seen. Radiation also causes
cell mutations which can be transferred to the next generation.
● Fetuses are affected with birth defects and cancers. They may also have a shorter life span.
● Plants die and some show genetic changes and stunted growth. Animals are also affected and
do not survive for too long. The radiation in the atmosphere will not dissipate quickly. Every
water source will also be affected. In fact it may take years or centuries to reach a point where
such a space may become habitable.
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● An average person will be exposed to about 180 milli rem of radiation in a year from
exposure to natural radiation, medical and dental X rays, Colour TVs, airport baggage X rays
etc.

Pollution and mental health hazards

Water pollution and mental health hazards: The three possible channels through which unsafe
arsenic levels in drinking water may affect mental health: physiological, social, and psychological.

● The physiological channel can occur due to two reasons. First, drinking arsenic-contaminated
water may affect certain brain functions and in turn directly increase the probability of
depression (Martinez et al. 2008). Second, individuals affected by arsenicosis may actually
feel sick, which has been shown to be related to worse mental health (Dolan et al. 2008).
● Arsenic may affect individuals socially if arsenicosis patients suffer from discrimination and
social exclusion. There is some evidence showing that arsenicosis is sometimes falsely
believed to be contagious and that victims are socially stigmatised (e.g. Brinkel et al. 2009).
Suffering from arsenicosis symptoms should therefore lead to a decrease in mental health.
● The psychological channel is somewhat connected to the other two channels, but refers to a
different mechanism. Individuals may start worrying about their health, future or family
(Schwartz and Melech 2000) when they or one of their family members have arsenicosis
symptoms.

We find that suffering from symptoms of arsenicosis, even more so than from other illnesses, is
strongly negatively related to mental health. Living with an individual who suffers from arsenicosis
also worsens mental health, more so than living with an individual suffering from a different illness.

Noise pollution and mental health hazards: Noise pollution is not believed to be a cause of mental
illness, but it is assumed to accelerate and intensify the development of latent mental disorders.
Noise pollution may cause or contribute to the following adverse effects: anxiety, stress,
nervousness, nausea, headache, emotional instability, argumentativeness, sexual impotence, changes
in mood, increase in social conflicts, neurosis, hysteria, and psychosis. Children, the elderly, and
those with underlying depression are particularly susceptible to these effects.

Impaired Task Performance: The effects of noise pollution on task performance have been
wellstudied. Noise pollution impairs task performance, increases errors, and decreases motivation.
Reading attention, problem solving, and memory are most strongly affected by noise. Noise
produces negative after-effects on performance, particularly in children; it appears that the longer the
exposure, the greater the damage.

Negative Social Behavior and Annoyance Reactions: Annoyance is defined as a feeling of

displeasure associated with any agent or condition believed by an individual to adversely affect him
or her. Annoyance increases significantly when noise is accompanied by vibration or by low
frequency components. The term annoyance does not begin to cover the wide range of negative
reactions associated with noise pollution; these include anger, disappointment, dissatisfaction,
withdrawal, helplessness, depression, anxiety, distraction, agitation, or exhaustion. Social and
behavioral effects are complex, subtle, and indirect. These effects include changes in everyday
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behavior (closing windows and doors to eliminate outside noises), changes in social behavior
(aggressiveness or disengagement), and changes in social indicators (residential mobility, hospital
admissions, drug consumption, and accident rates), and changes in mood (increased reports of
depression). Noise above 80 dB is consistently associated with decreased helping behavior and
increased aggressiveness.
Unit 2: Importance of protecting bio- diversity. Realistic risk perception in dealing with
environmental issues.

DEFINITION:

According to the World Resources Institute-

"Biodiversity is the variety of the world's organisms, including their genetic diversity and the
assemblage they form.”

Importance of Biodiversity

1.Biodiversity is a fundamental component of life on Earth

Humans depend on the services ecosystems provide, such as fresh water, pollination, soil fertility and
stability, food and medicine. Ecosystems weakened by the loss of biodiversity are less likely to
deliver those services, especially given the needs of an ever-growing human population. Biodiversity
creates complex ecosystems that could never be reproduced by humans. We continue harming the
natural environment without realizing the impact.

2. Keeping biodiverse ecosystems intact helps humans stay healthy.

Research indicates that there is a close link between disease outbreaks and the degradation of nature.
Seventy percent of emerging viral diseases have spread from animals to humans. As the global
wildlife trade continues and development projects expand deeper into tropical forests, humans are
increasing their exposure to wild animals — and the diseases they may carry. For example, the
COVID-19 . Deforestation is also accelerating climate breakdown, which in turn may boost the
spread of disease by allowing disease carriers like mosquitoes to extend their geographic ranges and
infect new populations of humans. Permafrost thawing

3. Biodiversity is an essential part of the solution to climate change.

In a landmark study published in 2017, a group of researchers led by Bronson Griscom, who
researches natural climate solutions discovered that nature can deliver at least 30 percent of the
emissions reductions needed by 2030 to prevent climate catastrophe. Protecting biodiversity plays a
crucial part in achieving these emissions reductions. Mangrove, bamboo

4. Biodiversity is good for the economy.

At least 40 percent of the world’s economy and 80 percent of the needs of the poor are derived from
biological resources. Altogether, the food, commercial forestry and ecotourism industries could lose
US$ 338 billion per year if the loss of biodiversity continues at its current pace. Around 75 percent
of global food crops rely on animals and insects such as bees to pollinate them, but many of these
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pollinator populations are in decline — which could put more than US$ 235 billion of agricultural
products at risk.

5. Biodiversity is an integral part of culture and identity.

Species are frequently integral to religious, cultural and national identities. All major religions
include elements of nature and 231 species are formally used as national symbols in 142 countries.
Unfortunately, more than one-third of those species are threatened, Ecosystems such as parks and
other protected areas also provide recreation and a knowledge resource for visitors, and biodiversity
is a frequent source of inspiration for artists and designers.

Protecting Biodiversity

1.Government legislation
Governments have the power to control what is done to the habitats within their country. Legislation
that protects natural habitats by outlawing development, harvesting of natural resources, or other
human exploitation has a huge impact on maintaining natural biodiversity.

2.Nature preserves
Nature preserves are a form of government regulation and are often known as National Parks. They
protect a region and the organisms that live there from certain forms of development and provide
access for people to visit them. This is excellent because it protects the natural habitat and is a place
where people can view the ecosystem.

3.Reducing amount of invasive species

Invasive species are sometimes introduced to an area on purpose, but also sometimes by accident. To
limit the number of invasive species moved by accident planes, ships, and cargo must be thoroughly
checked before it is offloaded in a new country. Eg water hyacinth. Additionally, people should not
bring new species of animals or plants to an area without consulting ecologists knowledgeable on the
region.

4.Reduce climate change

As we know, climate change has disastrous consequences for all living things on earth. We use huge
amounts of fossil fuels, which directly cause climate change.
We need to move away from fossil fuels and towards alternative energy sources and natural or
sustainable products. Reducing the effects of climate change requires a worldwide effort.

5.Habitat restoration
After an area is damaged by human impacts we can try to return it to its natural state. This means
bringing back the plants and animals that are naturally found there. This has been shown to be a
promising way of returning biodiversity to a region.

6. Captive breeding and seed banks

 15

Captive breeding is when animals in captivity (often at zoos) are bred. This is seen as somewhat
controversial, as it requires the capture of animals that are often near extinction. On the positive side
it provides the opportunity to increase the population of the species, so they can be reintroduced into
the wild. Seed banks are areas where huge varieties of plant seeds are stored. This provides a failsafe
if a species goes extinct in nature. The plant can be grown from a saved seed and reintroduced back
into its habitat.
Realistic risk perception (taken from BELL Environmental Psychology textbook)

Environmental changes and pollution, as well as many human activities and technologies, bear the
possibility of harmful and long-lasting consequences for both humans and nature. How people
perceive such risks is a crucial question; risk perceptions can prompt or oppose actions to address
particular risks.

What are environmental risks?

In general, risk refers to a situation, event, or activity, which may lead to uncertain adverse
outcomes affecting something that humans value. Thus, risk entails a causal chain between a risk
source (a situation, event, activity, etc.) and an uncertain adverse outcome. The two essential
components of risk are the severity and uncertainty of the adverse outcome (or loss). Characterizing
an outcome as adverse involves a human evaluation. As Slovic puts it: ‘danger is real, but risk is
socially constructed’ (1999, p. 689). Environmental risks differ from other risks in a number of ways.
We use climate change as a case in point. First, environmental risks are characterized by high
complexity and uncertainty, entailing intricate causal relationships and multiple consequences.
Consequently, they often encompass both risks for (e.g. acidification of oceans caused by
anthropogenic carbon dioxide) and risks from (e.g. destruction of human habitat due to flooding) the
environment. Second, environmental risks often emerge from the aggregated behaviours of many
individuals (e.g. use of fossil fuels) rather than from a single activity. Therefore, mitigations cannot
be easily attained, because they require actions of many people. Third, the consequences of
environmental risks are often temporally delayed and geographically distant. The people who
contribute to a risk (e.g. industrial countries) are not necessarily the ones who suffer the
consequences (e.g. developing countries, future generations). Environmental risks, therefore, often
raise ethical issues.

Subjective Risk Judgements

‘Risk perception’ refers to people's subjective judgement about the risk that is associated with some
situation, event, activity, or technology. Research has developed several techniques to assess
subjective risk judgements. First, respondents are asked to give an overall judgement by either rating
or rank ordering various risks according to their overall riskiness or to the degree to which they
experience concern, worry, or threat concerning these risks. A second approach is to ask people how
much money they would be ‘willing to pay’ (WTP) to mitigate or how much they would be ‘willing
to accept’ (WTA) to tolerate a particular risk. A third approach is to have respondents estimate the
subjective probability of a given outcome (e.g. the probability of dying from lung cancer when
exposed to asbestos).
 16

Temporal discounting refers to the psychological phenomenon that outcomes in the far future are
subjectively less significant than immediate outcomes. Applied to environmental risk perception, this
tendency would imply that environmental risks should be perceived as less severe when the
consequences are delayed. Yet, studies looking at discounting in environmental risk evaluations
found little evidence for it (Böhm and Pfister 2005; Gattig and Hendrickx 2007). For example,
people find an oil spill equally risky whether it may happen in one month, in one year, or in ten years
(Böhm and Pfister 2005). An explanation for these surprising findings could be that environmental
risks tap into moral values, which apply irrespective of temporal aspects (Böhm and Pfister 2005;
Gattig and Hendrickx 2007). The Psychometric Paradigm
A well-established approach to studying risk perception is the psychometric paradigm (Slovic 1987).
Its aim is to identify the ‘cognitive map’ of diverse risk events, activities, or technologies and its
underlying psychological dimensions that lead individuals to perceive something as more or less
risky. Across a variety of studies, two dimensions have repeatedly emerged as a result of factor
analyses, which constitute the basic dimensions of the cognitive map of perceived risk: dread risk
and unknown risk. Dread risk describes the extent to which a risk is experienced as dreadful or as
having severe, catastrophic consequences. Unknown risk refers to the extent to which the risk is
experienced as new, unfamiliar, unobservable, or having delayed effects.
Risk perception may also be driven by values and moral positions . For example, people low on
traditional values (i.e. family, patriotism, stability) and those high on altruism (concern with welfare
of other humans and other species) tend to perceive greater global environmental risks (depletion of
ozone layer and global warming; Whitfield et al. 2009). Similarly, people who value nature in its
own right (biospheric value orientation, ) show greater awareness while people with strong egoistic
values show reduced awareness of environmental problems (Steg et al. 2005).

Values
A view dominant in environmental ethics maintains that some aspects of the environment (e.g. rare
species, landscapes) have an inherent value, according to which the nonhuman world should be
valued and respected ‘for its own sake’ (Taylor 1981; see also Chapter 17). In contrast to what
environmental economics suggests, people are sometimes highly reluctant to make tradeoffs among
different values. For example, many think that it is morally wrong to sacrifice nature or endangered
species for money. People think of such entities or values (e.g. human or animal life, unspoilt nature,
human dignity) as absolute, not to be traded off for anything else, particularly not for economic
values. Psychological theorizing speaks of protected or sacred values to refer to this phenomenon
(Baron and Spranca 1997; Tetlock et al. 2000). Studies have shown that forcing people to trade off
such values, or asking them to ‘put a price’ on things they consider protected (e.g. asking people for
how much money they would be willing to accept the extinction of some species) can induce strong
negative affective reactions (e.g. outrage) and tradeoff reluctance (Hanselmann and Tanner 2008;
Tetlock et al. 2000). Individuals holding protected values are more likely to reject market based
approaches to trading emission rights, despite their possible benefit in mitigating climate change
(Sacchi et al. 2014). Besides, sacred values seem to affect environmental risk perception: People
holding sacred beliefs for the Indian river Ganges are less likely to perceive this river as polluted
(Sachdeva 2016).

Morality and Ethics

 17

Moral considerations also play an important role in risk evaluation (Böhm and Pfister 2005; Pfister
and Böhm 2001). Moral philosophy usually contrasts consequentialist principles and deontological
principles. The distinctive idea of deontological principles is that the focus is on the inherent
rightness or wrongness of the act per se. Deontological principles refer to morally mandated actions
or prohibitions (e.g. duty to keep promises, duty not to harm nature), despite their consequences.
Consequentialist principles, in contrast, entail conclusions about what is morally right or wrong
based on the magnitude and likelihood of outcomes. The aim of consequentialist principles is to
maximize benefits and to minimize harms.

Emotional Reactions to Environmental Risks

Emotions influence risk perceptions. We judge risks as higher when we feel negative about an
activity, but we judge risks as lower when we feel positive about it (see affect heuristic, Section
2.3.1). There is more to emotions than their valence, though. Appraisal theories suggest that different
specific emotions can have differential impacts on perceived risks even if they share the same
valence (Keller et al. 2012). For example, fear increases and anger reduces risk perception, even
though both are negative (Lerner and Keltner 2001). Fear and anger are associated with different
tendencies to evaluate events (appraisals). Specifically, fear is associated with evaluating situations
as uncertain and uncontrollable, leading individuals to perceive events as riskier. In contrast, anger
predisposes individuals to evaluate events as highly certain and controllable, leading them to
perceive events as less risky. Emotions can also occur as reactions to perceived risks (Böhm and
Pfister 2015). When people focus on the consequences of a risk, they experience consequence-based
emotions. These can be prospective (e.g. fear arising from the anticipation of harm) or retrospective
(e.g. sadness triggered by an experienced loss). When people focus on moral rightness, they
experience ethics-based emotions. These can be directed towards oneself (guilt when taking blame)
or towards other people (outrage when blaming others). Böhm (2003) asked respondents to indicate
for a list of environmental risks how intensely they experienced these four emotion types in response
to the risks. The emotional profiles of the risks are shown in Figure 2.1. Ethics based self-directed
emotions (e.g. guilt) are particularly strong for individual behaviours such as car use. Ethics based
other-directed emotions (e.g. outrage) are experienced when responsibility can be ascribed more
clearly to one agent (e.g. chemical dumps). Species extinction triggers mainly prospective (e.g. fear)
and retrospective (e.g. sadness) consequence based emotions. Emotional reactions to natural risks
(e.g. earthquakes) are generally weaker than those to risks that are caused by humans.

Unit 3: Solutions to environmental issues from various fields.

Global Warming and Climate Change

Human activities have made global warming and climate change a global threat. The rising levels of
CO2 and other greenhouse gases have caused an increase in average global temperatures, extreme
weather events, rising sea levels and other negative changes. These changes are directly and
indirectly affecting all life forms. Pollution of air, land and water through excessive deforestation,
industrialization and overfilling landfills which emits CO2 and adds to greenhouse gas emissions
are all topmost causes of these environmental issues. Here are some effective solutions to these
problems: ● Invest in and encourage production of sustainable technology
● Commercial and residential buildings should aim to achieve zero-emission or zero-waste
 18

● Improve waste compaction in landfills with smart technology like stationary compactors which
helps free up space for other constructive uses. It comes in varying capacities and
configurations for handling different volumes of trash

● Increase forest cover, restore sea grasses and boost use of agricultural cover crops to reduce the
amount of CO2 in atmosphere. Water Pollution and Ocean Acidification

1. Rapid urban development, improper sewage disposal by industries, oil spills, disposal of
chemical and radioactive wastes, and plastic pollution are some of the major causes of water
pollution. Today, water scarcity and polluted water are posing a big threat to the human
existence across many nations of the world.
2. Ocean waters absorb around 30 percent of the carbon dioxide that is released in the
atmosphere. Ocean acidification occurs when the CO2 absorbed by the seawater undergoes a
series of chemical reactions which leads to increased concentration of hydrogen ions, thus
making the seawater more acidic. This decreases the carbonate ions in the seawater which
makes it difficult for clams, deep sea corals, oysters etc. to build and maintain their shells and
other calcium carbonate structures. These changes in the ocean water chemistry can affect the
behavior of other organisms also. This puts the entire ocean food web at risk. Listed below
are some measures which can help prevent water pollution and ocean acidification:
3. Practice more effective measures to contain spills
4. Curtail storm water runoff and plant trees near water bodies to reduce soil erosion
5. Expand the network which monitors the measuring of acidity levels to provide researchers
and shellfish farmers with long-term and real-time pH data
6. Incorporate ocean acidification threats into the coastal zone management plans of states
7. Increase marine protection measures

Loss of Biodiversity
Biodiversity helps maintain the balance of the ecosystem and provides biological resources which
are crucial for our existence. Habitat destruction, climate change, pollution, secondary extinction and
introduced species are a few ways in which humans are wreaking havoc on the biodiversity of this
planet. Loss of biodiversity can be countered in a number of ways:

1. Government should create and implement stricter policies and laws related to conservation of
biodiversity
2. Stop habitat destruction and encourage its restoration
3. Practice sustainable living
4. Reduce invasive species
5. Research innovative ways to preserve biodiversity and educate the populace about it
6. Awareness and adaption are two key steps towards conserving this boon called environment.
Each one of us can and should do their bit to curb the effects of these environmental issues
and ensure that our future generations have a healthy planet to live.

Influencing public opinion, adopting responsible environment-related behaviour.

 19

● Environmental attitudes are important because they often, but not always, determine behavior
that either increases or decreases environmental quality.
● Generally, attitudes have three components, cognitive, affective and behavioral.

● Pro-environmental attitudes rise and fall with current events and vary with age, gender,
socioeconomic status, nation, urban-rural residence, religion, politics, values, personality,
experience, education, and environmental knowledge.
● Environmental education aims to improve environmental attitudes but has mixed results. The
mass media have been both helpful and harmful.
● Pro environmental attitudes can be defined as the concern for environment or caring about
environmental issues. Some studies have found that there is a strong link between attitude and
pro environmental behavior, but others have not.

Variables that affect concern for the environment

Age-Younger people are found to have higher levels of environmental concern than older people.
Gender- Women tend to show higher levels of environmental concern than men. However, women
exhibit lower levels of environmental behavior and knowledge than men. It shows that knowledge is
not necessarily connected with concern.
Socio economic Status- Environmentalists are generally reported to be middle or upper middle-class
citizens. Some studies show that low income earners display greater levels of environmental concern
than high income earners.
International differences- Countries differ in their average level of environmental concern. Eg: One
study shows that people from Japan had highest environmental knowledge score, but their actions
were least protective. Wealthier countries are frequently reported to be more concerned about the
environment. Developing countries face more environmental issues.
Urban Rural Residence – Farmers and other rural residents with their need to use environmental
resources directly, tend to be more concerned about environment.
Direct experience with the nature – Engaging in direct nature related outdoor activities is associated
with increased concern for environment.
Religion and Politics – A debate exists about the role of Judeo- Christian religion in reducing
environmental concern. Studies found that Christians generally have lower levels of environmental
concern than other groups. Conservative politics, traditionally associated with religious values, also
predicts lower levels of environmental concern.
Personality – Personality traits like self-efficacy agreeableness and openness to experience are found
to have associated with more environmental concern. Those high in self-transcendent (those who
expands personal boundaries), biosphere oriented or eco-centric values and low in self-interest
values do tend to have much more favorable attitudes toward preserving the environment
Values – Values trigger attitudes that in turn lead to behavior. Several values influence attitudes.
Biosphere, altruistic and post materialist value predicts more environmental concern. People with
 20

egalitarian and individualist values tend to see local environmental threats as less problematic than
distant threats.
Education and environmental knowledge. – Environment knowledge is often assumed to be closely
linked to environmental concern. However the knowledge attitude association is not always found.
Environmental Education- Increased levels of environmental concern can be facilitated through
formal teaching situations. However, teaching programs that include environmental education
components are not always effective and sometimes even has reverse effects.
Unit 4: Application of psychological principles to influence public opinion to adopt responsible
environment-related behavior. behavioural economics.
INTERVENTIONS: FROM RESEARCH TO IMPLEMENTATION (taken from BELL
Environmental Psychology)

● Interventions need to be carefully planned before they are implemented (Gardner and Stern
2002; Steg and Vlek 2009). A few points are noteworthy in this respect to increase the
effectiveness of interventions.
● Firstly, it is important to target behaviours that can significantly improve environmental
conditions. To illustrate, while refusing plastic bags in shops is well-intentioned, its impact is
relatively small compared to for instance the impact of buying food that has been produced
locally instead of food flown in from abroad. Ideally then, interventions should focus on
behaviours with relatively high environmental impacts.
● Secondly, interventions should be rooted in theory. Using a theory driven approach is
important as it will provide a good basis not only for understanding and changing
environmentally significant behaviours but also for developing sound evaluations. For each of
the five informational strategies presented here, the theoretical assumptions underlying the
intervention will be discussed.
● Thirdly, it is essential that the effect of the intervention is assessed properly. Ideally,
intervention studies include measurements of the target behaviour before and after
implementation of the intervention, a socalled pretest/posttest design, and include a control
group that has not been exposed to the intervention. This way, changes in the outcome
measure can be monitored and compared to a ‘business as usual’ situation.
● Also, including measurements of factors related to behavioural decisions (e.g. knowledge,
attitudes) is important, as this will provide insight into the reasons why an intervention was
effective (or not). For instance, failure of an energy conservation campaign to change
behaviour may be attributable to the fact that people already have sufficient knowledge about
how to save energy.

Informational Strategies

In this section, we will discuss the following informational strategies: information provision, goal
setting, commitment, prompting, and feedback. They were chosen because they are most
frequently used in the literature (for systematic reviews and meta-analyses, see Abrahamse and
 21

Steg 2013; Abrahamse et al. 2005; Möser and Bamberg 2008; Osbaldiston and Schott 2012).
Provision of Information

● Information provision is probably the most widely used intervention to promote behaviour
change. Generally, two types of information are distinguished: information about
environmental problems and information that helps people to take action to alleviate these
problems.

● Information provision has its roots in the so-called knowledge deficit model, the assumption
being that people do not know about a specific environmental problem, or they do not know
in detail what to do about it (Schultz 2002). Information provision aims to overcome this
knowledge deficit. The research to date indicates that information alone is not very effective
(e.g. Schultz 1998; Staats et al. 1996). A study (Staats et al. 1996) evaluated a Dutch mass
media campaign aimed at raising awareness of global warming and things people could do to
take action. A pretest/posttest survey revealed an increase in knowledge about global
warming, but no behavioural changes occurred. A more effective strategy to encourage
behaviour change is tailored information (Abrahamse et al. 2007; Daamen et al. 2001).
● Tailored information is designed to reach a specific person or group(s) of people on the basis
of characteristics unique to those individuals (Kreuter et al. 1999). A study conducted in the
workplace (Daamen et al. 2001) found that tailored information was more effective at
encouraging employees to engage in behaviours to reduce oil pollution (e.g. checking for
leaks in oil pipes), compared to information that was not tailored. Information that is
conveyed via ‘models’, i.e. other persons carrying out the recommended behaviours, can be
another effective informational strategy (e.g. Sussman and Gifford 2013). This strategy is
based on Bandura's social learning theory (1977) and assumes that people make inferences
about how to behave in a given situation by observing the behaviour of others.
● Normative information, that is, information on the opinion or behaviour of others can be
effective in encouraging pro-environmental behaviour (Cialdini 2003). Such interventions are
based on insights from social norm theories (Cialdini et al. 1991; see Chapter 18). For
example, a study found that towels were reused more frequently when hotel guests were
provided with descriptive norm information (about how many other guests were reusing
towels) compared to the standard environmental message often used in hotels (Goldstein et al.
2008).
● Information alone is not very effective in encouraging behaviour change and it is essential to
combine it with other interventions (Gardner and Stern 2002). When information is tailored,
when it is conveyed through modelling, or when information is provided on the behaviour of
others, it can be more effective (see Abrahamse et al. 2005). Goal Setting

● This intervention technique is based on goal setting theory, which states that individual
behaviour is goal-directed and that the anticipation of reaching an attractive goal motivates
respective behaviour (see also Chapter 22). Goal setting is most effective when goals are high
but, at the same time, realistic (Locke and Latham 1990). Moreover, goals should be clearly
formulated and achievable within a short period of time. A study (Becker 1978) examined the
 22

effect of goal setting and feedback (see Section 26.3.5) to encourage households to reduce
their energy consumption.
● Reduction goals were assigned that differed in difficulty (savings of 20% versus savings of
2%), and were either combined with feedback or no feedback. Goal setting was only effective
in combination with feedback and only for the high reduction goal (20%) group (who in fact
achieved a reduction of 15%).
● Goal setting appears to be more effective when combined with other informational strategies.
Whereas early research primarily focused on the assignment of individual goals, more recent
intervention programs have effectively included the assignment of group goals. The effect of goal
setting could be enhanced by so called implementation intentions. ‘Implementation intentions are if
then plans that spell out when, where, and how a set goal has to be put into action’ (Schweiger
Gallo and Gollwitzer 2007, p. 37). A series of studies indicates that implementation intentions can
be effective to encourage a range of environmentally friendly behaviours (e.g. Bamberg 2003; see
also Chapter 30). Commitment

● In a commitment intervention, individuals, or groups are asked to sign a pledge

(commitment) to change their behaviour. It can be assumed that a commitment affects
behaviour change via reduction of cognitive dissonance (Festinger 1957), i.e. the tension that
arises when one's beliefs or attitudes do not align with one's behaviour (e.g. I promised to do
this, but I am not acting accordingly). Commitment techniques are regularly combined with
other informational strategies (e.g. goal setting) as well as incentives (Bachmann and Katzev
1982; Matthies et al. 2006).
● A German study (Matthies et al. 2006) used a combination of commitment and incentives to
encourage habitual car users to try out public transport. Participants in the incentive only
group received a free public transport ticket. Participants in the commitment only group were
asked to commit themselves to try out at least one activity of their choice (out of a list of 10
suggested activities, including using public transport). In a third group, the commitment was
combined with the free public transport ticket. A fourth group did not receive any
intervention. All intervention groups showed an increase in use of public transport compared
to baseline levels, while the control group showed no increase. In a followup measure (12
weeks later), only the commitment groups (commitment only and commitment combined
with a ticket) had more frequently tried out public transport.
● Commitments require relatively high amounts of time and resources, e.g. when people need
to be contacted individually. Also, not everyone who is approached with the request to sign a
commitment as part of such studies may actually do this. These participants were then often
excluded from the study. It may well be that those participants were less willing to change
their behaviour anyway, which may have resulted in an overestimation of the effects of
commitment (for an exception of a study where those participants were not excluded, see
Matthies et al. 2006).

Prompting

● The technique of prompting has been used to encourage pro-environmental behaviour since
the early years of intervention research. It entails a short-written message or sign, which
draws attention to a specific behaviour in a given situation.
 23

● Prompts are simple reminders that can encourage people to behave in an appropriate way, e.g.
to avoid littering or to switch off the lights when leaving a room (e.g. Sussman and Gifford
2012). By using prompts, one assumes that the target group already has a positive attitude or
has the intention to carry out the behaviour in question, but lacks a cue in the situation where
the behaviour is required. Thus, prompts can be assumed to overrule the automatic elicitation
of a problematic behaviour (see Chapter 24). Depending on the content of a prompt, they can
be assumed to directly convey sanctions or incentives (e.g. ‘Thank you for not littering’),
which can be linked to behaviourist approaches (Bell et al. 2001; see also Chapter 27).
● A study (Austin et al. 1993) used prompts (pictograms) to encourage recycling and proper
disposal of trash. Prompting resulted in an improvement of correct disposal of both
recyclables and trash by 54% and 29%, when posted directly above the receptacles. In a
variation, the prompts were posted 4 m from the receptacles, which resulted in an increase of
only 19%, suggesting that prompts can be especially effective if placed directly where the
requested behaviour is going to be carried out.
● Prompting techniques have been criticized for having only weak, shortterm effects (Bell et al.
2001). Prompting is mainly effective with less complex and easy behaviours, if formulated
politely and if well placed and timed (see Geller et al. 1982).

● Psychologists advocate various strategies to encourage environmentally responsible behavior.

We can categorize psychological interventions as antecedent or consequent, depending on
whether the intervention occurs before the target behavior or after.
● Antecedent interventions include attitude change, education, and prompts.
● Consequent interventions include rewards, punishments, and feedback Antecedent Strategies:

Intervening Before the Behavior

● It precedes the behavior they are attempting to change. In other words, the goal of these
strategies is to ‘make people care.’
● In many cases, the primary targets are attitudes. It aims to show the people how to behave in
ways consistent with what they already care about. For example: we could prompt people by
providing information about the energy efficiency of certain appliances to improve the
success of individuals who are already trying to conserve.

Attitude change and education

Environmental education involves making people aware of the scope and nature of environmental
problems and of behavioral alternatives that might alleviate them. Studies have suggested that simply
educating people is not tremendously effective at changing the behaviors. Just because we change
attitudes doesn't necessarily mean we promote behavior change

Attitude Behavior Correspondence

There are many factors that account for low attitude-behavior correspondence and there are things
we can do to increase the correspondence.

They are:
 24

● General attitudes may not predict specific behaviors.

● A specific attitude is not always salient or accessible.
● Prompts can make specific attitudes more salient.
● Prompts such as ‘please recycle’ signs can remind us that we have attitudes favorable towards
recycling and thus facilitate corresponding actions.

The theory of planned behavior proposes that subjective norms (socially appropriate way to act in a
particular place) as well as perceived control (belief that one has control over his/her behavior) and
attitudes together influence behavioral intentions and intentions in turn predict behavioral outcomes
for ex: you have not finished a can of pop, you are already a minute late getting to class, and drinks
are not permitted in the classroom. although you are a conscientious recycler, you may have to leave
that aluminum can on a bench outside the classroom if there is no recycling container nearby.

Consequent Strategies: Intervening After The Behavior.

Consequent or contingent interventions occur after the target behaviors are observed. This strategy
includes reinforcement techniques and feedback. Positive reinforcement uses reward –the person
gains something valuable for performing environmentally constructive acts. Negative reinforcement
offers relief from a noxious situation in exchange for desirable behavior.
Punishment, on the other hand, means an unpleasant consequence occurs as a result of an undesirable
behavior. Feedback simply provides information about whether one is attaining or failing to attain an
environmental goal. Feedback could be reinforcing because it provides competency information; that
is, it tells us when we are doing a good job.
Some of the reinforcement-based strategies (eg: financial payments) have demonstrated consistent
behavioral change. In addition, the effect is probably reduced if the rewards seem abstract or are not
immediate. Reinforcement techniques can be coupled with prompts.

Removal of Barriers
Individuals who believe it will be difficult to carry out an environmentally responsible behavior are
unlikely to engage in that action.
If we can remove perceived barriers to environmentally responsible action, we should be able to
make favorable behavior more likely for eg: placing recycling bins in convenient locations should
serve not only as a prompt, but also a mechanism enabling committed individuals to recycle their
trash.
 25

Module 2: Issues of migration, globalization and technology

Unit 1: Cross cultural Psychology: Dynamics of cultural contact (brief), acculturation.

CULTURE
• The term ‘culture’ is derived from the Latin word cult or cultus, meaning tilling or cultivation
or refining and worship.
• For all individuals, irrespective of caste, creed, race, religion, ethnicity, occupations,
educational qualifications, gender, age and socio-economic background, culture is regarded as
one of the indispensable aspects that influences the living conditions.
• Cultures are defined as the complex whole that includes the set of knowledge, beliefs, arts,
morals, laws and customs, and any other capabilities and habits that need to be put into
operation by the individuals as members of society.
• The culture systems on one hand, may be regarded as the products of action and on the other
hand, they are regarded as the elements of future action.
• An important aspect of culture is, it distinguishes one group of individuals from the other
group. It is referred to the set of attitudes, norms, values and beliefs, which the individuals
need to take into account and put into operation in their lives. These are communicated from
one generation to the next (Spencer-Oatey, 2012)
• Culture refers to society and its way of life. It is defined as a set of values and beliefs, or a
cluster of learned behaviors that we share with others in a particular society, giving us a sense
of belongingness and identity. Because of this, cultural understanding is becoming even more
important because of the call to interact with many individuals from other countries and other
cultures (Lee, 2006).
• Bodley (1999) further adds three basics components of culture, namely: what people think,
what they do, and the material products they produce. All forms of culture exhibit unique
ways and value systems that aid and affect individuals in their perception and reaction to
different life circumstances.
Kagitçibas and Berry (1989) defined cross-cultural psychology as the “study of similarities and
differences in individual psychological and social functioning in various cultures and ethnic groups”
(p. 494). Cross-cultural psychologists originally set out to seek universal principles that would apply
across cultures (Sinha, 2002). Thus, cross-cultural psychology traditionally involved testing Western
theories in other cultures (Laungani, 2002; Yang, 2000), with the notion that culture was independent
of the individual and separable from psychological activities and principles (Greenfield, 2000).
Cross-cultural psychologists often collect data across multiple cultures, comparing and contrasting
effects in an effort to produce knowledge about phenomena that are universal and those that are
 26

culture specific (Triandis, 2000), and attempting to determine how different cultures influence
behavior (Brislin, 2000). Cultural psychology
Researchers identified as cultural psychologists are less likely than cross-cultural
psychologists to be interested in traditional experimental or quasi-experimental approaches,
and more likely to see culture as internal to the person (Triandis, 2000). Cultural psychology
uses methods and studies problems arising from the everyday activities of particular cultures,
with less emphasis on cross-cultural comparison (Greenfield, 2000). Therefore, the methods
of cultural psychologists are often ethnographic in nature—meaning they involve extensive
observation and rich description of a culture (Heine, 2008). The focus is on finding
relationships between a culture and the psychological characteristics of people living in the
culture, with the corresponding view that psychological processes derive from the interplay
between the person and his or her culture (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Cultural psychologists
tend to study cultures quite different from their own, are interested in natural (non-contrived)
settings and situations, and focus on context (i.e., they are less likely to be interested in
psychological principles independent of the context in which they arise) (Triandis, 2000).
According to Ratner (2006), in a discussion of cultural psychology, aspects of culture provide
the foundations and predictors of psychological processes more effectively than do personal
factors. Thus, some writers (e.g., Yang, 2000) have characterized cultural psychology as a
hybrid of psychology and anthropology that prefers to define psychology in terms of context-
bound concepts. Cultural psychology sees culture as essential to understanding all
psychological processes, and is interested in principles derived from culture, rather than
imposed upon it (Segall, Lonner, & Berry, 1998).
Many cross-cultural psychologists choose to focus on one of two approaches: In the Etic
approach, the researcher looks at the research field objectively from a distance and tries to
find similarities and differences. Emic approach can be defined as the perspective in which
the researcher gains the insider’s point of view.
Cross-cultural psychologists also study something known as ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism
refers to a tendency to use your own culture as the standard by which to judge and evaluate
other cultures. In other words, taking an ethnocentric point of view means using your
understanding of your own culture to gauge what is "normal." This can lead to biases and a
tendency to view cultural differences as abnormal or in a negative light. It can also make it
difficult to see how your own cultural background influences your behaviors.
CROSS - CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY
• The field of cross-cultural psychology is the scientific study of variations in human behavior,
taking into account the ways in which behavior is influenced by cultural context.
 27

• Kagitçibaşi and Berry (1989) defined cross-cultural psychology as the “study of similarities
and differences in individual psychological and social functioning in various cultures and
ethnic groups” (p. 494).
• Cross-cultural psychologists originally set out to seek universal principles that would apply
across cultures (Sinha,2002).
• Cross-cultural psychologists often collect data across multiple cultures, comparing and
contrasting effects in an effort to produce knowledge about phenomena that are universal and
those that are culture-specific (Triandis, 2000), and attempting to determine how different
cultures influence behavior (Brislin, 2000).
• Cross-cultural psychology is related to a number of population-level disciplines
(anthropology, biology, ecology, linguistics, sociology) that are largely concerned with
describing, analyzing, and understanding features of whole populations, groups, or
collectivities; in these disciplines there is not a primary concern with specific individuals.
• Many cross-cultural psychologists choose to focus on one of two approaches:
• AN EMIC APPROACH: An Emic approach involves the study of a particular culture,
usually from within, from the perspective of the members of the culture (i.e., indigenous
psychology).
• AN ETIC APPROACH: An Etic approach is likely to investigate one or more
characteristics of multiple cultures, often from the outside (i.e., traditional crosscultural
psychology) and imposing external measurement (Price-Williams, 1975).
• Cross-cultural psychologists also study something known as ethnocentrism.
• Ethnocentrism refers to a tendency to use your own culture as the standard by which to
judge and evaluate other cultures.
• In other words, taking an ethnocentric point of view means using your understanding of your
own culture to gauge what is "normal.
• " This can lead to biases and a tendency to view cultural differences as abnormal or in a
negative light. It can also make it difficult to see how your own cultural background
influences your behaviors”.
Dynamics of cultural contact (as taken from KENNETH)
The immigrants' first contacts usually occur under unfavourable conditions. They are often forced to
accept low-paying jobs with low status that local inhabitants have rejected. They are forced to live in
poor neighbourhoods and have difficulty moving out because they are not accepted elsewhere. The
immigrant becomes trapped, with no way out. If relatives back home are depending on financial
support from the immigrant then even returning home is impossible. Krau (1991) points out that this
 28

trapped condition may continue through the first and even the second generation of immigrants. The
negative consequences of immigration for the host culture are typically exaggerated, which may in
turn contribute to mutual hostility in a self-fulfilling prophecy. Resistance to integration is met by
animosity from locals in a spiralling negativity that turns potential friends into enemies.
Dynamics of cultural contact (as taken from Rajagiri Notes)
Culture is something that surrounds us, that we live in like a fish lives in water. Culture refers to
many characteristics of a group of people, including attitudes, behaviors, customs, and values that
are transmitted from one generation to the next.
We usually take our own culture for granted until some event makes us realize that our beliefs about
the world and how to behave in it are not shared by every person. That event exposes us to another
culture. Culture contact, or contact between peoples with different cultures, usually leads to change
in both systems. The effects of culture contact are generally characterized under the rubric of
acculturation, a term encompassing the changes in artifacts, customs, and beliefs that result from
cross-cultural interaction.
The acculturation process is influenced by: reason for migration, motivation, age, education, cultural
distance, attitude of host culture, racism, generation, language, and social support.
Voluntary acculturation, often referred to as incorporation or amalgamation, involves the free
borrowing of traits or ideas from another culture.
Forced acculturation can also occur, as when one group is conquered by another and must abide by
the stronger group’s customs.

Acculturation stress experienced by NRIs and unskilled workers

It is a challenge to move from one culture to another. In the new culture, we are exposed to new
values, beliefs and behaviors and we are changed by them. Beliefs we hold are possibly not taken for
granted anymore. Who we are may be questioned. What is important to us may not seem so
important anymore. Our behaviors may change. We have emotional reactions to the cultural change.
The stress that results from the cultural change is called acculturation stress. This stress can be
positive (the person enjoys being in a new environment and looks forward to learning and adapting)
and negative (the person is overwhelmed by all the changes).
Acculturative stress consists of psychological and social stress experienced due to an incongruence
of beliefs, values, and other cultural norms between a person’s country of origin and country of
reception.
This form of stress also may be triggered by perceived feelings of inferiority, “otherness,”
discrimination, language barriers, undocumented immigration status, or poverty. Acculturative stress
contributes to mental health problems (e.g., depression, anxiety).
Globalization- After centuries of technological progress and advances in international cooperation,
the world is more connected than ever. Globalization is a term used to describe the increasing
connectedness and interdependence of world cultures and economies. Globalization is the word used
to describe the growing interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures, and populations,
brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services, technology, and flows of investment,
 29

people, and information. The wide-ranging effects of globalization are complex and politically
charged. As with major technological advances, globalization benefits society as a whole, while
harming certain groups. Understanding the relative costs and benefits can pave the way for
alleviating problems while sustaining the wider payoffs.
The process of acculturation (taken from KENNETH)
International migration almost always results in intercultural contact. Previously culturally isolated
individuals or groups set up a new life in another country and culture. This transition forces them to
engage in cultural and psychological adaptation in their new environment. How this process of
acculturation proceeds is the focus of this section. When immigrating to a new country there can be
dramatic changes in language, culture, food, institutions and religion which challenge the immigrant
and he or she is required to interpret, accept or reject these changes. The process where groups or
individuals with different cultural backgrounds come into first-hand contact by influencing each
other's culture has been termed acculturation. Berry (1 990) distinguishes acculturation on the group
level (ecological, cultural, social and institutional) from the individual level. At the individual level
acculturation refers to psychological changes in behaviour and cognitions. According to Berry's
ecological framework (Berry, 1 994), the individual and the context are interactive. People have
adapted in an ecological context in both their biological and their cultural identity. In this adaptation,
the individual responds to ecological influences which may result from direct contact with others or
be mediated by other influences in the new context. Adaptation results in a new identity for the
migrating person, and this defines a new ecological framework.
Berry (1990) has developed a two-dimensional model of acculturation in pluralistic societies with
four different options that result from separate questions which are answered either positively or
negatively: (1) is it desirable to remain in one's heritage culture? and (2) is it desirable to maintain
positive contact with other groups in the new society? When these two questions are posed
simultaneously, a combination of four possible varieties of acculturation strategies results (Figure 1
5.2). (1) The assimilation strategy implies that the individual rejects his or her original culture and
seeks to become a member of the new culture. This strategy of developing a new cultural identity is
captured by the idealized concept of the 'melting pot'; (2) integration represents an option in which
the individual wants both to maintain the original culture and also to learn about the new culture; (3)
separation implies that the individual wants to maintain his or her original culture and avoid the new
culture; (4) marginalization implies that the individual rejects both the original and the new culture.
Of course, acculturation is not a unidirectional process. The integration strategy, for example, can
only be pursued in societies which have favourable policy conditions and where certain social
psychological preconditions are established such as a widespread acceptance of cultural diversity and
low levels of ethnocentrism and discrimination. When individuals or groups want to pursue closer
contact with the dominant culture, but are rejected by the latter, segregation or exclusion results.
There are many studies which focus on the psychological correlates linked with the different
strategies of acculturation (Berry, 1990; Berry & Kim, 1 988; LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerton,
1993). Those who feel marginalized or maintain a separation mode experience higher levels of
conflict than those who seek integration and intermediate levels or those who want assimilation. For
example, Prins, van Oudenhoven, and Bank (1994) studied the acculturation strategies of Turks and
Moroccans in the Netherlands. They found that the majority of both groups are aiming at integration.
In addition, those who integrate report higher levels of general well-being than assimilating
 30

individuals. Similarly, Third World immigrant youth in Norway (Sam & Berry, 1 995) and
immigrants to Germany (Schmitz, 1 992) show that integration seems to be the most effective
strategy in terms of health and well-being. Individual factors existing prior to migration such as age,
gender and education and group factors such as cultural orientation (see Figure 1 5.1) may have
profound influences on the degree of adaptation. Each of these factors is likely to moderate or affect
the acculturation process (see Berry & Kim, 1 988). When acculturation begins early, the process is
likely to be smoother than when relatively older persons move. There is substantial evidence that
migrant women have poorer mental health than migrant men. Distance between cultural orientations
may have an influence; the greater the cultural differences, the less positive is the adaptation. Higher
education and knowledge of the new language and culture appear to be associated with positive
adaptation: related to education is one's place in the social and economic world. Social changes mean
disrupted communities and loss of social support. A common experience for migrants is a
combination of status loss and limited status mobility. An immigrant's 'entry status' in the host
society is frequently lower than his or her 'departure status' in the society of origin.

Acculturation strategy and psychological health

These four strategies describe ways individuals respond to the challenge of a new culture and how
they adjust. Research on the emotional and mental health of people using the different strategies
shows that people who use the acculturation strategy of marginalization are more depressed, anxious
and have poorer mental health than any of the other groups. People who use the integration
(biculturalism) are the most psychologically healthy (and are more successful) than the other 3
groups. The psychological health of those who use separation or assimilation lies somewhere in
between.

Acculturation strategy and family conflict

These four acculturation strategies are ways chosen by individuals to adjust to a new culture. In a
group, each individual may chose a different strategy, and may acculturate a different rates.
Grandparents may be pursuing a strategy of separation; the father a strategy of marginalization; the
mother a strategy of integration and the children, assimilation. Much intergenerational family
conflict can arise from this situation.

Multiculturalism
Berry and his colleagues (Berry, 1990; Berry, Poortinga, Segall, & Dasen, 1 992) and others (Taylor,
1991) have developed a multicultural model which attempts to find an alternative to integration and
assimilation while avoiding the negative consequences of separation and marginalization. This
endeavour is of course only feasible where government policies promote and sustain such pluralism,
as for instance in Canada. Multicultural or pluralistic societies differ, according to Berry (1990),
from monocultural societies in two important ways: (1) they provide social and cultural networks for
those who enter; and (2) they allow greater tolerance and acceptance of culturally diverse groups.
Whether or not it is possible to maintain a truly multicultural society is questioned by some authors
(Mallea, 1 988). Multiculturalism has become an emotionally loaded construct when it has been used
to enforce the interests of ethnic groups on the larger society without regard for within-group
variables such as age, gender, socioeconomic status, disability and other potentially salient variables.
Wherever multi-culturalism has been exclusively used to promote the self-interest of selected ethnic
 31

groups the term has become divisive. When a more inclusive definition has been used, recognizing
the importance of within-group as well as between-group variables, multiculturalism has the
potential to provide a level playing field where a multiplicity of groups can find common ground
without giving up their cultural identity. Friedman (1994) contends that with the increased awareness
of ethnic identity and cultural affiliations both within each European country and across national
boundaries there is a tendency for each group to perceive other groups as competing for limited
resources.
From Zenha’s note
DYNAMICS OF CULTURAL CONTACT
• Cultural dynamics is about the formation, maintenance, and transformation of culture over
time in this sense. Although this approach is often called cultural evolution, we prefer to call
it cultural dynamics to clearly demarcate it from social evolutionary theories of the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
• There are three main processes in cultural dynamics: how novel cultural information is
introduced to a population, how it is transmitted, and how its prevalence changes.
• Cultural dynamics have been examined at two levels: cultural changes over time at the
Macro-level and cultural transmission processes at the Micro-level.
• Central to micro-level cultural dynamics is the idea that cultural information is socially
transmitted.
• A person who possesses cultural information acts as its sender, and the information is taken
up by receivers; these transmissions all occur in some context.
• Kashima (2016a) distinguished four subprocesses—production, grounding, interpretation, and
memory.
• In production, cultural information is put into a form that can be interpreted by receivers.
Through grounding, the sender and receivers establish a mutual understanding of the cultural
information and add it to their common ground. During interpretation, the information is
translated to representations in the brain and body of the receiver and stored in memory.
 32

Subprocesses of social transmission of cultural information (Kashima 2016b), which translate

between, on the one hand, intrapersonal and subjective representations and, on the other hand,
interpersonally observable and potentially intersubjective representations of cultural information.
Production transforms the intrapersonal into the interpersonal; grounding establishes mutual
understanding of the interpersonal; interpretation transforms the interpersonal into the
intrapersonal; and memory stores the intrapersonal representations. Artefacts—enduring things in
the world that are interpersonally observable—can also intersubjectively represent cultural
information.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ACCULTURATION
• Exposure to another culture is an everyday reality for first-generation immigrants, but even
second and later-generation minorities navigate between the heritage and the mainstream
culture in their everyday lives. The psychological consequences of having sustained contact
with another culture, a process that has been termed ‘psychological acculturation’ (cfr. Berry,
1980; Berry & Sam, 1997; Graves, 1967).
• Acculturation is a key psychological process in increasingly diverse societies, where a
substantial proportion of the population either migrated themselves or grew up in immigrant
families (e.g., the percentage of immigrants is over 20% of the Western European, 36% of the
Northern American, Bureau of Statistics, 2016; Humes, Jones, & Ramirez, 2010;
Khoo,Mcdonald, Giorgas, & Birrell, 2002).
• An important reason to study psychological acculturation is that it is thought to play an
important role in producing health and wellbeing for minorities. Immigration, and the ensuing
adjustment to a new culture, is stressful.
 33

• However, there are large individual and group differences in the costs of immigration to
minority members, and these cannot be explained by structural and economic factors alone
(Corral & Landrine, 2008).
• Psychological acculturation has the potential to explain individual and group differences in
immigrant minorities’ healthy adjustment, and therefore, may provide leverage for
intervention (Baysu &deValk, 2012; Berry & Sam, 1997; LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerton,
1993; Levecque, Lodewyckx, & Vranken, 2007; Myers & Rodriguez, 2003; Organista,
Organista, & Kurasaki, 2002; Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2001; Yu, Huang,
Schwalberg, Overpeck, & Kogan, 2003).

THE PROCESS OF ACCULTURATION

• International migration almost always results in intercultural contact. Previously culturally
isolated individuals or groups set up a new life in another country and culture. This transition
forces them to engage in cultural and psychological adaptation in their new environment.
• When immigrating to a new country there can be dramatic changes in language, culture, food,
institutions and religion which challenge the immigrant and he or she is required to interpret,
accept or reject these changes.
• The process where groups or individuals with different cultural backgrounds come into
firsthand contact by influencing each other's culture has been termed acculturation.
• Berry (1990) distinguishes acculturation on the group level (ecological, cultural, social and
institutional) from the individual level. At the individual level acculturation refers to
psychological changes in behaviour and cognitions.

ACCULTURATION STRATEGIES
• There are 4 specific acculturation strategies, with which an immigrant can choose to adapt.
• These include:
INTEGRATION, MARGINALIZATION, ASSIMILATION, SEPARATION.
INTEGRATION:
Integration occurs when individual are able to adopt the cultural norms of the dominant or host
culture while maintaining their culture of origin.
 34

MARGINALIZATION:
Marginalization occurs when individual reject both their culture of origin and the dominant host
culture.
SEPARATION
• Separation also involve shedding of the host culture.
• Separation occurs when individual rejects the dominant or host in favor of preserving their
culture of origin. separation is often facilitated by immigration to ethnic enclaves.
ASSIMILATION:
• In anthropology and sociology, the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnic
heritage are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society. Assimilation is the most
extreme form of acculturation.

Unit 2: Relevance of cultural identity to self-concept.

Personal identity is cultural identity. Culture is a powerful organizer of people’s lives. How we
view ourselves and who we are as individuals cannot be separated from when, where, and how we
grew up. How adults behave, love, work and make decisions is related not only to their individual
 35

psychological development but also to how their individual development intersects with the political,
geographical, sociological and historical factors that precede and surround their lives. Culture is one
of the most influential determinants of identity.

Cognitive development is important to consider when understanding cultural identity and

individual’s perceptions of themselves as cultural beings. In Piaget’s model, for example, when
schoolage children move from concrete to formal operational stage, they are engaging in a cognitive
shift that allows them to understand the world in logical terms and from multiple perspectives.

Development of the self

In addition to understanding the role of human development in personality development and

behavioral functioning, it is important to understand the development of the self and the intersection
of cultural factors with the self-concept.

There are generally 3 components that influence the development of the self:

● The notion of the self.

● The ideal self.
● The self reflected in the perception of others.

The first layer of self includes individual components, including unique personality traits,
characteristics and abilities, along with innate dimensions of temperament. The second layer of the self
includes the self-ideal, traits and characteristics that are aspired to, long with the goals and aspirations.
Additionally, identity is constructed by the social context a person has been in, is in and will be in.
identities are shaped through social interactions with others. By the time children reach school age they
begin to realize that others have perceptions of them and incorporate this into their perception of self.
Cultural identity models outline development that includes a sense of reference group orientation along
with self group orientation. During preadolescence, the awareness of sociopolitical connotations of
cultural group affiliations, the pressure for conformity and acceptance increases. Preteens develop rigid
definitions of criteria for group membership based on behaviors, dress, speech and relationships.

Contextual dimensions of self

Cultural identity and self- concept are also shaped by historical images and stereotypes of
culture. Dominant cultural patterns are embedded in our cultural discourses and social institutions,
perpetuating certain ideas and ignoring others. Historical, sociological, anthropological, political and
geographical explanations are needed to make sense of a person’s life choice, life cycle events, and
patterns of individual or relational behavior. Cultural identity is not static, but dynamic.

Immigration / Acculturation

Immigration can be an issue for an individual long after the first-generation immigrant in that
family took the journey. The ability to cope with the migration process in the first and subsequent
generations differs according to the level of choice in migrating, gender and age of the immigrant,
 36

proximity to the country or region of origin, educational level, social support and events that occur
after migration.

Mental health services to migrants should focus on:

● Reasons for migrating to this country, method of migration, intent of returning to the
country of origin.
● Their sense of loss, grief etc.
● Language issues.
Immigrants always struggle with the reorganization of themselves in the context of their
host society and face pressure to acculturate or not acculturate from a variety of sources.

Acculturation can be defined as the process that occurs as members of one cultural group are exposed
to, or come into significant contact with other cultural group. Regardless of the speed and the nature
of cultural adaptation, the process of immigration invariably involves a redefinition of cultural identity
at the individual and family levels. The immigrants’ identity is also always shaped by the experience
of immigration.

Adaptation and identity (taken from KENNETH AND KEITH)

● As more minorities cross boundaries, one outcome of successful adaptation is an intercultural

identity (Kim, 1995). By combining psychological (affective, behavioral, and cognitive),
social (interpersonal and mass communication), and environmental explanations, we can
explain the stress–adaptation–growth process of an individual. The social and psychological
dimensions of adaptation are different but interrelated facets of cross-cultural adaptation.
Identity is dynamic and evolving.
● Kim (1988, 1995) argued that during the process of adaptation, stress is an underlying factor
motivating an individual to make the necessary adjustments to find some form of balance.
The degree of intercultural development influences an individual’s capacity to function in a
multicultural society by undergoing the struggle to manage the stress, the need to successfully
adapt, and the maintenance of ethnic identity distinctiveness. The result is an intercultural
identity, defined as an increase in the individual’s capacity to integrate conflicting cultural
demands into a cohesive new whole (Kim, 1995).
● Identity has universalized and individualized orientations: universalized to transcend the
ascribed cultural parameters and individualized as the self–other orientation becomes more
particularized and personalized (Kim, 2001). Although most social scientists have devoted
time to drawing boundaries between ethnic group memberships, emphasis should be placed
on merging boundaries without the need to lock oneself in a single identity (Kim, 1995). In
essence, an individual who expands his/her identity by incorporating new cultural elements
should not be perceived as a disloyal ethnic group member.
● Rather, the merging of ethnic boundaries is perceived as a matter of personal necessity and
value for the ethnic individual. Identity negotiation Ting-Toomey (1993) developed a theory
of identity negotiation, drawing on social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979),
acculturation theory (Berry, Kim, Power, Young, & Bujaki, 1989), and racial identity
development scales (Cross, 1991; Helms, 1990). Ting-Toomey viewed ethnic identity as a
 37

multidimensional construct including aspects of personal and collective self-concept,

affiliation with in-group and out-group members, attitudes, and feelings.
● According to Ting-Toomey, humans have universal needs for security and inclusion. Ethnic
identity represents a contradictory state between a sense of group belonging and a sense of
wanting to become separate from the group, which accounts for group inclusion or
differentiation. The contradictory state takes the form of a dialectical tension, which is “the
simultaneous presence of two relational forces that are interdependent and mutually negating.
Their interdependence is evident in that the forces define each other” (Montgomery, 1992, p.
207). Thus, the ultimate challenge for an individual is to find the balance between both states.
● This tension, between in-group membership and individuality, is anchored in the daily life
and social practices of ethnic individuals. What the adaptation and negotiation theories have
in common is that membership in an in-group is a matter of degree and variation. If norms,
values, and social relationships within an in-group influence the communication patterns of
group members, the influence should depend on the extent to which one shares the group’s
norms (Kim, 1988).
● Admission to the in-group and acceptance by the in-group, on the basis of shared norms and
values, are interrelated: The more an individual associates with the in-group, the greater the
conformity that is expected and reinforced. At the same time, if the in-group does not approve
of an individual’s behavior, it can reject the in-group member. Because of this variation in
conformity among in-group members, the boundary lines of in-group and outgroup are
sometimes blurred. Although our in-groups offer us a sense of belonging and security, they
also have the power to reject us.
● The process of identity formation is concerned with how individuals understand the
implications of their ethnic identity. We communicate who we are on a daily basis. Our
identities have a profound influence on when we feel secure, when we are at our most
vulnerable, and when we feel obligated to mask our authentic self. We struggle with and
against our identity. But how can we connect identity with a cross-cultural frame? Making a
distinction between cultural variability and ethnic identity salience is clear.
● The social construction of the self may be the determining factor in understanding the context
of cultural differences. By using the identity pulls of security–vulnerability and inclusion–
differentiation, we can understand that it is not easy to neatly fit into an in- or out-status.
Cultural orientation and the conception of self (TAKEN FROM SEMIN AND KLAUS)

● Today's international migration flows can be characterized by a movement of people from

collectivistically oriented Third World countries to individualistically oriented Western
countries of Europe and North America. In order to understand the process of transition and
adaptation in the receiving society we must raise such questions as: in which way do people
vary across cultures? How do cultures shape individuals' identity? What are the best strategies
for adaptation to a new cultural context? In this section the focus is on the first question: how
do people vary across cultures? If we assume that a person's identity or self is shaped by his
or her social environment (Markus & Kitayama, 1991), then we have to focus on how social
relationships, values and norms vary across cultures.
● It will be argued that cultures differ systematically in the way individuals define themselves
and their position in society. This has important consequences for their positive or negative
 38

experiences as migrants. For instance, when an actor perceives himself or herself as an

individual whose identity and self is separate from the group or community, he or she is less
likely to be concerned about social bonding and network factors.
● On the other hand, when an actor's identity or self is defined by close social relationships and
obligations he or she is more likely to be concerned with or dependent on social network
factors. Recently, a number of related conceptions of cultural variation have been suggested
in the literature, e.g. tight vs. loose cultures (Pelto, 1 968) and high vs. low context cultures
(Hall, 1 976). A somewhat related concept is individualism vs. collectivism. This dimension
of cultural variation has received most attention from cross-cultural researchers (e.g. Kim,
Triandis, Kagitcibasi, Choi, & Yoon, 1 994; Triandis, 1989).
● According to Hofstede (1 980), individualism refers to a society's cultural orientation in
which the ties between individuals are loose, the emphasis is on ‘I’, consciousness and values
such as autonomy, achievement orientation and self-sufficiency are important. Collectivism
as its opposite stresses 'we' consciousness and values such as group solidarity, and the sharing
of duties and obligations. Indeed it was Hofstede's ambitious research programme which
isolated this dimension. In his now classic study Culture's consequences (1980) he analysed
the responses of individuals in 40 countries with respect to their work-related values. When
he factor-analysed his data he could classify the 40 countries along four dimensions, which
he named 'individualism-collectivism', 'power distance', 'masculinity-femininity' and
'uncertainty avoidance'.
● According to Hofstede's analysis, the most individualistically oriented cultures are to be
found in North America and Western Europe; the more collectivistically oriented countries in
Asia, Africa and Latin America. Since the majority of immigrants come from Third World
countries in Africa and Asia, their cultural background is most likely to be collectivistic and
their preferred destinations are likely to be the countries of Western Europe and North
America. The culture contact and culture clash is likely to take place, so to speak, along the
individualistic-collectivistic dimension.
● Lalonde, Taylor and Moghaddam (1 988) studied how individualistic or collectivistic
orientation affects acculturation strategies of immigrant women in Canada. They found that
the women in their sample who have a stronger desire to retain their ethnic identity were
more likely to favour a collectivistic approach for getting ahead in Canadian society
compared to those for whom heritage culture maintenance was less important.

Self-concept

● Self-concept is an individual's knowledge of who he or she is. According to Carl Rogers,

selfconcept has three components: self-image, self-esteem, and the ideal self. Self-concept is
active, dynamic, and malleable. It can be influenced by social situations and even one's own
motivation for seeking self-knowledge.
● Self-concept begins to develop in early childhood. This process continues throughout the
lifespan. However, it is between early childhood and adolescence that self-concept
experiences the most growth.
 39

● Cultural identity is the identity or feeling of belonging to a group. It is part of a person's

selfconception and self-perception and is related to nationality, ethnicity, religion, social class,
generation, locality or any kind of social group that has its own distinct culture.
● In this way, cultural identity is both characteristic of the individual but also of the culturally
identical group of members sharing the same cultural identity or upbringing.
● Cultural identity theory- Cultural identity refers to a person's sense of belonging to a
particular culture or group. This process involves learning about and accepting traditions,
heritage, language, religion, ancestry, aesthetics, thinking patterns, and social structures of a
culture. Normally, people internalize the beliefs, values, norms, and social practices of their
culture and identify themselves with that culture. The culture becomes a part of their
selfconcept (Lustig, 2013).
● Myron Lustig notes that cultural identities are central to a person's sense of self. That is
because cultural identities “are central, dynamic, and multifaceted components of one’s self
concept” (Lustig, 133). Lustig also points out that cultural identities are dynamic, and they
exist within a changing social context. As a result, a person's identity changes as do one's
ongoing experiences in life (Lustig, 135).
Unit 3: Migration: causes and consequences (Indian/Kerala context). Discuss NRI/ NRKs and
migrant unskilled laborers in Kerala.
TAKEN FROM NCERT TEXTBOOK

Migration: Causes and consequences in Indian context

In the Census the following questions are asked on migration:

• Is the person born in this village or town? If no, then further information is taken on
rural/urban status of the place of birth, name of district and state and if outside India then name of
the country of birth.
• Has the person come to this village or town from elsewhere? If yes, then further questions are
asked about the status (rural/urban) of previous place of residence, name of district and state and if
outside India then name of the country.
In addition, reasons for migration from the place of last residence and duration of residence in place
of enumeration are also asked. In the Census of India migration is enumerated on two bases: (i) place
of birth, if the place of birth is different from the place of enumeration (known as life-time migrant);
(ii) place of residence, if the place of last residence is different from the place of enumeration
(known as migrant by place of last residence).
Can you imagine the proportion of migrants in the population of India? As per 2001 census, out of
1,029 million people in the country, 307 million (30 per cent) were reported as migrants by place of
birth. However, this figure was 315 million (31 per cent) in case of place of last residence.
Streams of Migration
A few facts pertaining to the internal migration (within the country) and international migration (out
of the country and into the country from other countries) are presented here. Under the internal
 40

migration, four streams are identified: (a) rural to rural (R-R); (b) rural to urban (R-U); (c) urban to
urban (U-U); and (d) urban to rural (U-R). In India, during 2001, out of 315 million migrants,
enumerated on the basis of the last residence, 98 million had changed their place of residence in the
last ten years. Out of these, 81 million were intrastate migrants. The stream was dominated by female
migrants. Most of these were migrants related to marriage. The distribution of male and female
migrants in different streams of intra-state and inter-state migration is presented in Fig. 2.1 a and 2.1
b. It is clearly evident that females predominate the streams of short distance rural to rural migration
in both types of migration. Contrary to this, men predominate the rural to urban stream of inter-state
migration due to economic reasons. Apart from these streams of internal migration, India also
experiences immigration from and emigration to the neighbouring countries. Table 2.1 presents the
details of migrants from neighbouring countries.
Spatial Variation in Migration
Some states like Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat and Haryana attract migrants from other states such as
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, etc. (see Appendix–vii for detail). Maharashtra occupied first place in the list
with 2.3 million net in-migrants, followed by Delhi, Gujarat and Haryana. On the other hand, Uttar
Pradesh (-2.6 million) and Bihar (-1.7 million) were the states, which had the largest number of net
out-migrants from the state. Among the urban agglomeration (UA), Greater Mumbai received the
higher number of in migrants. Intra-states migration constituted the largest share in it. These
differences are largely due to the size of the state in which these Urban Agglomeration are located.
Causes of Migration
People, generally are emotionally attached to their place of birth. But millions of people leave their
places of birth and residence. There could be variety of reasons. These reasons can be put into two
broad categories : (i) push factor, these cause people to leave their place of residence or origin; and
(ii) pull factors, which attract the people from different places. In India people migrate from rural to
urban areas mainly due to poverty, high population pressure on the land, lack of basic infrastructural
facilities like health care, education, etc. Apart from these factors, natural disasters such as, flood,
drought, cyclonic storms, earthquake, tsunami, wars and local conflicts also give extra push to
migrate. On the other hand, there are pull factors which attract people from rural areas to cities. The
most important pull factor for majority of the rural migrants to urban areas is the better opportunities,
availability of regular work and relatively higher wages. Better opportunities for education, better
health facilities and sources of entertainment, etc. are also quite important pull factors.
Consequences of Migration
Migration is a response to the uneven distribution of opportunities over space. People tend to move
from place of low opportunity and low safety to the place of higher opportunity and better safety.
This, in turn, creates both benefits and problems for the areas, people migrate from and migrate to.
Consequences can be observed in economic, social, cultural, political and demographic terms.
Economic Consequences A major benefit for the source region is the remittance sent by migrants.
Remittances from the international migrants are one of the major sources of foreign exchange. In
2002, India received US$ 11 billion as remittances from international migrants. Punjab, Kerala and
Tamil Nadu receive very significant amount from their international migrants. The amount of
remittances sent by the internal migrants is very meagre as compared to international migrants, but it
 41

plays an important role in the growth of economy of the source area. Remittances are mainly used
for food, repayment of debts, treatment, marriages, children’s education, agricultural inputs,
construction of houses, etc. For thousands of the poor villages of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa,
Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, etc. remittance works as life blood for their economy. Migration
from rural areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa to the rural areas of
Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh accounted for the success of their green revolution strategy
for agricultural development. Besides this, unregulated migration to the metropolitan cities of India
has caused overcrowding. Development of slums in industrially developed states such as
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Delhi is a negative consequence of unregulated
migration within the country.
Demographic Consequences
Migration leads to the redistribution of the population within a country. Rural urban migration is one
of the important factors contributing to the population growth of cities. Age and skill selective out
migration from the rural area have adverse effect on the rural demographic structure. However, high
out migration from Uttaranchal, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Eastern Maharashtra have brought
serious imbalances in age and sex composition in these states. Similar imbalances are also brought in
the recipients states. What is the cause of imbalance in sex ratio in the place of origin and destination
of the migrants?
Social Consequences
Migrants act as agents of social change. The new ideas related to new technologies, family planning,
girl’s education, etc. get diffused from urban to rural areas through them. Migration leads to
intermixing of people from diverse cultures. It has positive contribution such as evolution of
composite culture and breaking through the narrow considerations and widens up the mental horizon
of the people at large. But it also has serious negative consequences such as anonymity, which
creates social vacuum and sense of dejection among individuals. Continued feeling of dejection may
motivate people to fall in the trap of anti-social activities like crime and drug abuse.
Environmental Consequences
Overcrowding of people due to rural-urban migration has put pressure on the existing social and
physical infrastructure in the urban areas. This ultimately leads to unplanned growth of urban
settlement and formation of slums shanty colonies. Apart from this, due to over-exploitation of
natural resources, cities are facing the acute problem of depletion of ground water, air pollution,
disposal of sewage and management of solid wastes.
Others
Migration (even excluding the marriage migration) affects the status of women directly or indirectly.
In the rural areas, male selective out migration leaving their wives behind puts extra physical as well
mental pressure on the women. Migration of ‘women’ either for education or employment enhances
their autonomy and role in the economy but also increases their vulnerability. If remittances are the
major benefits of migration from the point of view of the source region, the loss of human resources
particularly highly skilled people is the most serious cost. The market for advanced skills has
become truly a global market and the most dynamic industrial economies are admitting and
 42

recruiting significant proportions of the highly trained professionals from poor regions.
Consequently, the existing underdevelopment in the source region gets reinforced.
Taken from: IMPACT OF MIGRATION ON KERALA'S ECONOMY AND SOCIETY by K.C.
Zachariah, E. T. Mathew, S. Irudaya Rajan
Waves of migration : The first generation of migrants from Kerala, in the early-20th century, were
semi-skilled or quasi-professional workers to Ceylon, parts of Malaya (to work on plantations),
Burma, Madras, Calcutta, Karachi and Bombay. The knowledge and money they brought back
influenced Kerala’s architecture and cooking, to some extent. The second wave of migration after the
Second World War was to Singapore, Malaysia and different parts of India – to big cities like
Bombay, Delhi, Calcutta, Madras, and Bangalore. Most of the people who migrated during the
second wave, from 1945 to 1960, were high-school-educated, semi-skilled workers (typists,
secretaries, office workers, and army personnel). The third wave of migrants, from 1960 to 1975,
consisted of people with technical skills and professional training (technology professionals, nurses,
clerks, technicians, etc.). These three waves of migration, and the consequent remittances, helped
influence land relationships and instill a sense of “Indianess”, as a significant number of Malayalee's
joined the pan-Indian middle class. The fourth wave, from 1975 to 1992 (until the Kuwait war), saw
mass migrations to the Gulf, USA, Germany and other countries in Europe and elsewhere. This was
due to increased incomes earned from high oil prices in the 1970s, and the shortage of skilled labour
required for construction and infrastructure development in an oil-based economy. The fifth wave of
migration (1993 onwards) had two or three streams. These included: the relatively large migration of
semi-skilled and unskilled labour from northern parts of Kerala, particularly Malappuram and
Kannur; immigration of highly qualified professionals (engineers, doctors, IT experts, academics) to
various parts of Europe, US, and other parts of the world; increasing emigration to the US by the
family networks of nurses who migrated to the US and Europe during the fourth wave of migration
in the 1980s.
Internal Migration in Kerala

Until very recently, Kerala was known more for its internal (within India) migration than for its
external migration. There are two distinct phases (or turn around) in the historical trend in the
migration experience of Kerala. The first turn around occurred in the 1940s when Kerala became
closely integrated with the other states of India. It started with World War II and the Indian
Independence in 1947. Until then, Kerala was a net in-migration state; more persons from
neighbouring states came to Kerala than the number of persons who moved to these states. After the
integration, for the first time, Kerala became a net out-migration state. The number of persons from
Kerala moving to Madras, Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi and other metropolitan centres exceeded the
number who came to Kerala from other states. The second turn around took place in the 1970s, when
Kerala became a major emigration state. Until then, international migration from Kerala was
relatively small, at least compared to internal migration. The relative position of emigrants and
outmigrants changed drastically after the oil boom of the 1970s. In the 1981-91 decade, net external
migration (net emigration) was about 555 thousand persons compared with a net internal migration
(net out-migration) of 189 thousand persons. Thus, Kerala's loss of population through external
migration was almost three times the loss due to internal migration. The first transition was a change
from net in-migration to net outmigration. The second transition was a change from a predominance
 43

of out-migration to a predominance of emigration. Some of the out-migrants themselves became

emigrants, moving to the country of destination directly from their state of domicile in India.
At the origin, we postulate that the root cause of migration was the Kerala Model of Development - a
vibrant social sector co-existing with a stagnant productive sector. Based on the analysis of the
factors associated with migration, we identify four elements in the Kerala Model of Development,
which contributed to migration from the State.
First, the rapid decline in mortality (and the resulting demographic expansion). This is the first
element in the Kerala Model of Development, which in our framework had a significant impact on
migration propensities from Kerala. To the extent that unemployment and low wages are partly a
result of rapid population growth, demographic pressure has been a primary factor in migration from
Kerala. The demographic transition, especially sustained mortality decline, took place in Kerala
several decades ahead of other states of India. Therefore, the rate of population growth and
population density were much higher in Kerala than in other states. The rapid decline in mortality
created a demographic imbalance which was rectified first through migration and later through birth
control.
Second, stagnation in the agricultural sector in Kerala following the wage hikes and agrarian and
other reforms of the 1960s introduced without the necessary follow-up reforms such as agricultural
mechanization. This has been another element in the determinants of migration from the State,
especially internal (out) migration. A very high proportion of out-migrants and emigrants from the
State have their origin in the coastal and mid-land regions of the State where rice and coconut are the
main agricultural crops, the main means of subsistence, and the main source of cash income. After
the agrarian reforms, especially the wage reforms, and in the context of a militant opposition to
agricultural mechanisation, agriculture, particularly rice and coconut cultivation, had lost much of its
profitability. Rice land lost much of its value as a source of income or an investment option in the
mid-land and the coastal regions of the State. Land reforms also had an impact, but only marginal, on
migration. Faced with increasing difficulty in finding new plots of land to put up "huts" of their own,
the children of "hutment" dwellers were forced to move to other regions of the State, or to other
states in India, to establish a family of their own. Thus, land reforms had played a certain catalytic
role in changing the attitude of the population towards migration as a viable option to deal with the
problem of population pressure.
Third, the accelerated development in education, especially education at higher levels. Education
expansion is a major element of the Kerala Model of Development. Stagnation in the agricultural
sector gave a further boost to educational development in the State. With the traditional agriculture
offering very little scope for upward socio-economic mobility and rice land losing out as an
investment option, parents turned to education as the best option for ensuring their children's future
well-being. The gap between the supply of educated persons and the opportunities available for their
placement in the State worsened. It became necessary and attractive for the educated of Kerala youth
to seek employment in the fast-developing metropolitan centres in the other states. More and more of
the educated youths in the midland and the coastal regions opted for migration instead of staking
their future in the withering agricultural sector back home.
Fourth, the failure of the economic organisation in the State to expand employment in the secondary
and the tertiary sectors. The question whether this failure was part of the Kerala Model of
 44

Development is not very relevant; it came with it. While population pressure, stagnation in
agriculture, and educational explosion could, no doubt, exert a positive impetus to migrate, they by
themselves would not have led to migration, if only the other productive sectors - secondary and
tertiary sectors- could absorb the growing educated labour force. The failure of the state institutions
to provide the required support and provide the favourable milieu for the growth of the secondary
and the tertiary sector of the economy was an equally important cause of migration. Thus, at the
place of origin (Kerala), our framework of the determinants of migration includes four elements:
demographic expansion, agricultural stagnation, educational expansion, and the failure of the state
level institutions to provide the required support and the milieu for growth of secondary and the
tertiary sectors of the State economy. At the destinations, the metropolitan cites of India and in the
Gulf countries, what Kerala lacked in terms of employment opportunities were readily available on a
large scale.
Fifth, the growing economic opportunities in the metropolitan and industrial cities of India after
Indian Independence, and in the Gulf countries following the oil boom of the early 1970s.
Unskilled migrant laborers and workers in Kerala

Kerala offers the best wage rates in the country in the unorganised sector. Sustained job
opportunities, peaceful social environment, relatively less discriminatory treatment of workers,
presence of significant others, direct trains from native states, the ease with which the money they
earn can be transferred home and the penetration of mobile phones cutting short the distance from
homes influenced the migration to Kerala. There are push and pull factors attracting migrants to
Kerala. According to Dr. Manav Paul, the push factors are mostly poverty, unemployment, density of
population, bad yield from agriculture, low demand for labourers and other factors like raising up
families, lack of civil activities in the residential area, disasters, internal fights on basis of caste,
creed, race affect the flow of migrants to Kerala. Pull factors like better employment opportunities,
standard of life in Kerala, high wages compared to other states, minimal or absence of communal
clashes, high health indices, and provision of education for children also attract migrants to Kerala,
as well as an ongoing labor shortage in Kerala and greater healthcare availability. However, despite
these motivations, migrants often find that they are unable to access the same benefits as locals.
Push factors

● Migration has been a livelihood strategy for millions of rural poor in India for decades. Low
wages, limited and irregular employment opportunities, failed crops, family debts and
drought have been some of the major reasons that have pushed many people to leave their
homes in search of jobs in Kerala too. Footloose labourers from Tamil Nadu have been
lamenting about the lack of rains in their native place due to which agriculture is in a crisis.
● Workers from Anantapur in Andhra Pradesh and those from northern Karnataka were severely
hit by drought. The major source areas from where workers come to Kerala are known for
floods, cyclones as well as drought. In addition to these typical reasons, several workers from
the eastern and northeastern states of India have cited political instability, caste oppressions
and communal violence in their native places as reasons for migration.
● The enforcement of Foreigners Act by the current government in Assam has accentuated the
movement of undocumented migrants from Bangladesh in Assam to Kerala.
 45

Pull factors

● Kerala offers the best wage rates in the country in the unorganised sector- almost double the
national average in many categories. In the absence of the availability of native labour due to
the demographic advancement and the resultant changes in the age structure of the
population, the state is almost completely dependent on migrant labour.
● The high wage rates and the sustainable job opportunities have made Kerala one of the most
sought-after destinations in the country. Political stability, the comparatively peaceful social
environment, and the relatively less discriminatory treatment meted out to migrants compared
to many other potential destinations, also serve as additional pull factors.

● The Muslim and Christian migrants feel quite comfortable in the state compared to other parts
of India which is a significant reason for Kerala being chosen as their work destination. Hindi
and Odiya services are offered for the Christian migrants in select areas in Kerala, and
Muslim labourers tend to live in areas with significant presence of native Muslim community.
Some of the migrants who have come to Kerala with their families cited the availability of
better educational and health facilities in Kerala as an additional impetus for sticking on here.
High wages

● Kerala currently offers the highest wages not only in India but also among the SAARC
Countries. The high minimum wages with comparatively better living conditions in Kerala,
even in villages, are often what motivates migrant workers, as the wages are often double or
even more than three times than wages obtained in other major cities in India, which also
have higher living costs. This is often attributed to the socialist-leaning Kerala model of
development and is a key attraction to the migrant labourers.
● For agricultural work like ploughing and tilling, the average daily wage in Kerala was more
than Rs 713, followed by Tamil Nadu at Rs 515. The lowest wage being paid in the country
was Rs 187. In states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Odisha, workers are usually paid
wages of around 200 rupees, but which can be as low as 90 rupees. The wages for
nonagricultural work is also much higher in Kerala. Carpenters and plumbers get wages
which are two times the national wage average for their profession. The data shows that while
the average wage ranges are between Rs 200 and Rs 300 for different professions in states
across the country, employers in Kerala do not pay below Rs 600 for any job.
● It is even said that a migrant labourer from Bihar, who would get Rs 40 at his native place,
makes a minimum of Rs 600 in Kerala. However, Keralite workers are paid even higher
amounts and so, most of the times the local residents prefer the migrant workers because of
the comparatively cheaper labour and also because the migrants work harder than the locals.
Even though the wages for labour are high, the cost of living in the state is the same or even
lower than in many other parts of the country. Over 70 per cent of them earn wages above
Rs.300 per day.
Characteristics of unskilled laborers in Kerala (from SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF MIGRANT
LABOURERS ON CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY IN KERALA – A STUDY ON
CHANGANASSERRY TALUK)
 46

1. Most of the labourers are from West Bengal. The major reason behind this is the increased
unemployment and poverty in West Bengal when compared to other states in the country.
2. The most preferred age group of workers by the respondents is from 18-25 years. The major
reason behind this the increased productivity and efficiency of labourers in the age group 18-25
years.
3. There is high increase in the number of migrant workers that people hire for manual labour.
The major reason behind this is the increased availability of migrant labourers in the state at any
time.
4. There is an increase in the number of migrant workers in the locality or work site. The
increase is due to the increased supply of abundant migrant labourers and the low labour cost
involved in hiring them.
5. People hire migrant labourers mainly for other purposes. They are hired mostly for works
other than construction and cleaning which includes painting, housekeeping, car washing, gardening,
etc…. Now because earlier they were hired mostly in the construction field and now there is excess
supply of migrant labourers in construction and cleaning. So they take up other jobs to earn a living.
6. That the major demand of the migrant labourers is higher wages. They demand more wage
above all other factors because of the financial backwardness of their families residing in their native
states and to meet the increasing living expenses in Kerala.
7. Environment degradation is the most common negative impact of migrant worker colonies.
This is caused by their negligence towards necessity of environment protection as well as health
concerns. The life styles they follow in their states which are mostly backward also influence these
kinds of behaviour.
8. Major issue faced by people while dealing with migrant labourers is fraudulent practices.
These fraudulent practices are followed by most of the migrant labourers due to their negative moral
side and urge make more money to fund their other expenses apart from meeting basic needs and
saving to supplement their families.
9. Above 80% of labourers constitute migrant labourers in an area or locality. This is because of
their willingness to do work for longer hours and cheap labour offered.
10. The life style and health concerns of the migrant labourers are poor. This is mainly because
most of the migrant labourers are illiterate and unaware about the importance of living under
hygienic conditions.
11. There is an increase in the crime rates in the locality due to the illegal activities of the migrant
workers. This increase is due to the antisocial life style of the migrant labourers and their
involvement in illegal activities with the aim to make more money.
12. Migrant labourers are more willing to work and faster in completing the work efficiently. The
reason behind this is the necessity of the migrant labourers to work more and earn more to feed their
families and the general non-lethargic attitude towards work
 47

13. Migrant labourers are more productive than the domestic labourers. This is because the
longer working hours, quality of work and less duration of rest when compared to the domestic
labourers.
14. Domestic labourers are paid up to 10% more wages than the migrant labourers. This is
because the labour cost in Kerala higher when compared to that in other states.
15. More migrant labourers in the area or site pushed many domestic labourers into the situation
of unemployment. This is because of the increased presence of migrant labourers in all fields of
manual unskilled labour.
16. People gain fair satisfaction or profit by employing migrant labourers to do work. This is
because of their increased efficiency and productivity.
17. No better facilities should be provided to the migrant labourers in the locality. This opinion
comes because even though better facilities are provided, migrant labourers are not comfortable and
they personally prefer to live in their existing conditions Average Wage Earnings per day

● Kerala offers the best wages in unorganised sector among the subnational entities of South
Asia, which might be a pull factor for the Migrant labourers in Kerala. According to the India
Wage Report prepared by International Labour Organization in 2018, the states with the
consistent highest casual wages in both rural and urban areas are Kerala, Jammu and
Kashmir, Punjab, and Haryana.
● The existing wages for casual workers in Kerala is around 65% higher than that of India. It is
notable that the wage rates for women in Kerala is 50% more than that of their counterparts in
India. However, it is much lesser than their male counterparts in Kerala
NRI’s/NRK’s (taken from Indian Migration to Gulf Countries: Issues and Challenges by Sudhaveni
Naresh)
Indian Migration Trends to Gulf Countries

● In contrast to the earlier migration, which mostly destined to developed countries, the trend in
current migrants shifted towards emerging countries such as Gulf and South-East Asia.
However, a majority of Indian migrants about 70 percent in the Gulf countries has comprised
the semi-skilled and unskilled labor and the rest being white collar workers and professionals
(Khadria, 2006).
● Indian migrants in the Gulf region can be divided into the following categories: unskilled
labor employed in construction companies, municipalities agricultural farms domestic
workers and as housemaid; skilled and semi-skilled workers employed as craftsman, driver,
artisan and other technical workers; white-collar or professionals such as doctors, engineers,
accountants, nurses, and paramedics, employed in government, private sectors and
entrepreneurs (Pradhan, 2009;Rajghatta, 2013).
● A portion of the remittances they send back home, in turn, in injected into the local economy.
Kerala is the best example for it followed by Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, emigration to
Gulf has changed the socio-economic conditions of their families. The contribution of
migration to development can be seen in various areas like consumption, housing,
transportation, lifestyle, investment patterns, education and other infrastructural facilities
 48

(Azeezand Begum, 2009; Kohli, 2014). The development can also be noticed in the
commercial sector as growth in the commercial complexes, jewellery outlets, hotels and
hospitals during 1980 and1990s with international standards proves the contribution of gulf
migration to the development (Zachariah et al., 2002).
● Another impact of migration in the labor market was the increase invocational education and
training. A number of institutions have been opened in Kerala to provide skills to semiskilled
and unskilled workers. This includes construction related courses, motor operations, machine
operations, computer education, other technician courses etc. (Azeezand Begum, 2009).
Migration also helped in reducing poverty in certain areas.
Issues and Challenges related to welfare of Indian Migrants in Gulf

● Various concerns and issues relating to welfare of Indian migrants have come to fore in the
wake of increasing migration to Gulf countries in recent times. The poor unskilled and
semiskilled labor migrants often risks life and family savings to migrate to Gulf countries. In
desperation to find a gainful employment in Gulf countries, the Indian migrants approach
private recruitment and placement agencies. However, taking this as an opportunity to earn
easy money, these agencies are indulging in exploitative practices by colluding with
prospective employer.
● It is revealed by the Indian migrants during the primary survey conducted for the present
paper that they were exploited by the agents as well as the employers in many ways, such as
passport withholding, denial of promised job or remuneration and victimization. Women
migrants who are employed as domestic worker faces ill treatment in Gulf countries,
sometimes even being subjected to sexual abuse.
● It was also found that denial of legal rights for redressal of complaints, use of migrants for
smuggled goods, etc. were in common. There was no systematic mechanism in place for
collecting, compiling, and disseminating information about overseas job opportunities and
educational avenues in India so far (Khadria, et al, 2009). In recent years, there was an
increase in the number of private agencies in recruiting workers. There were no controls over
these agents in recruitment practices. Contract violation was a common phenomenon.
The Hofstede dimensional model of national culture (taken from ‘The Hofstede model: Applications
to global branding and advertising strategy and research’ by Marieke de Mooij and Geert Hofstede)

● The Hofstede model (Hofstede 2001; Hofstede & Hofstede 2005) distinguishes cultures
according to five dimensions: power distance, individualism/collectivism,
masculinity/femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-/short-term orientation. The model
provides scales from 0 to 100 for 76 countries for each dimension, and each country has a
position on each scale or index, relative to other countries.
● The power distance dimension can be defined as 'the extent to which less powerful members
of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally'. In large power distance
cultures, ever>'one has his or her rightful place in a social hierarchy. The rightful place
concept is important for understanding the role of global brands. In large power distance
cultures, one's social status must be clear so that others can show proper respect. Global
brands serve that purpose. Luxury articles, some alcoholic beverages and fashion items
typically appeal to social status needs.
 49

● Individualism/collectivism can be defined as 'people looking after themselves and their

immediate family only, versus people belonging to in-groups that look after them in exchange
for loyalty. In individualistic cultures, one's identity is in the person. People are ‘I’-conscious,
and self-actualization is important. Individualistic cultures are universal is tic, assuming their
values are valid for the whole world. They also are low-context communication cultures with
explicit verbal communication. In collectivistic cultures, people are ‘we'-conscious. Their
identity is based on the social system to which they belong and avoiding loss of face is
important. Collectivistic cultures are high-context communication cultures, with an indirect
style of communication. In the sales process in individualistic cultures, parties want to get to
the point fast, whereas in collectivistic cultures it is necessary to first build a relationship and
trust between parties. This difference is reflected in the different roles of advertising:
persuasion versus creating trust.
● The masculinity/femininity dimension can be defined as follows: 'The dominant values in a
masculine society are achievement and success; the dominant values in a feminine society are
caring for others and quality' of life.' In masculine societies, performance and achievement
are important; and achievement must be demonstrated, so status brands or products such as
jewellery are important to show one's success (De Mooij & Hofstede 2002; De Mooij 2010).
An important aspect of this dimension is role differentiation: small in feminine societies,
large in masculine societies. In masculine cultures, household work is less shared between
husband and wife than in feminine cultures. Men also do more household shopping in the
feminine cultures. Data from Eurostat (2002) show that low masculinity explains 52% of
variance of the proportion of men who spend time on shopping activities.
● Uncertainty avoidance can be defined as 'the extent to which people feel threatened by
uncertainty and ambiguity and try to avoid these situations'. In cultures of strong uncertainty
avoidance, there is a need for rules and formality to structure life. This translates into the
search for truth and a belief in experts. People of high uncertainty avoidance are less open to
change and innovation than people of low uncertainty avoidance cultures. This explains
differences in the adoption of innovations (Yaveroglu & Donthu 2002; Yeniurt & Townsend
2003; Tellis et ai 2003). Whereas high uncertainty avoidance cultures have a passive attitude
to health by focusing on purity in food and drink and using more medication, low uncertainty
avoidance cultures have a more active attitude health by focusing on fitness and sports (De
Mooij & Hofstede 2002; De Mooij 2010).
● Long- versus short-term orientation is 'the extent to which a society exhibits a pragmatic
future-orientated perspective rather than a conventional historic or short-term point of view'.
Values included in long-term orientation are perseverance, ordering relationships by status,
thrift, and having a sense of shame. The opposite is short-term orientation, which includes
personal steadiness and stability, and respect for tradition. Focus is on pursuit of happiness
rather than on pursuit of peace of mind. Long-term orientation implies investment in the
future. An example is the relationship between LTO and broadband penetration (De Mooij
2010). Broadband asks for large investments by business or governments.
 50

From Nimya’s notes

Migration from one area to another in search of improved livelihoods is a key feature of
human history. India, with a vast reservoir of both highly skilled and semi and unskilled
labour force, is a major contributor to the contemporary global labour flows. Migrant labour
flows from India since the 1990s have not only registered impressive growth in respect of the
traditional destinations like the United States of America (USA), the United Kingdom (UK),
Canada and the Gulf countries but also have diversified and expanded to newly emerging
migrant destinations in continental Europe (Germany, France, Belgium), Australasia
(Australia, New Zealand), East Asia (Japan), and SouthEast Asia (Singapore, Malaysia).
• Kerala has been one of the leading States in India in terms of migration, a development taking
place mostly since the 1960s. The trend and pattern of migration has been undergoing change
and moving from unskilled and semi-skilled to skilled labour migration. Kerala state
had a long history of in migration which was mainly from the neighbouring south Indian
states, particularly from Tamil Nadu. The flow of migrants from Tamil Nadu started in the
sixties and reached peak in early 1990s.
• Keralites have been migrating to other states in India and to other countries for several
decades in search of employment. It is estimated that about 2.2 million (Zachariah and Rajan,
2012) Keralites1 have migrated to other countries. As per National Sample Survey 2007-08,
about 0.9 million Keralites have migrated to other parts of India and one million people from
other states in India have migrated to Kerala. In-migration of workers to Kerala has a long
history. The migration in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s was primarily from the neighbouring
states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. But the recent migration is from states as far as West
Bengal, Odisha, Bihar, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand. Majority of these migrant
workers were young in age, having low level of education.

• The flow is from relatively backward states to a state ranked on top in human development
index and gender parity index among the states in India. There are also differences in terms of
the profile of the migrant workers, the occupation they are engaged in and the magnitude of
inflow. The activities they are engaged in also got much more diversified than earlier. They
are employed not only in urban areas but also in rural areas.

• The migrant workers are now engaged as construction workers, casual labourers, agricultural
and plantation workers, road workers, domestic workers, carpenters, masons, plumbers,
electricians etc. They are also employed in jewellery making, cashew processing units,
plywood factories, flour mills, quarries, brick kilns, hotels, slaughter houses, petrol pumps
etc.India is the country with vast human resources. And due to the unbalanced distribution of
these resources the country faces an unbalanced supply of labour.
• In order to overcome this situation when the people finds difficult to attain minimum job
opportunities, in search of employment they starts to move and if the volume of this
movement is more we call the process as Migration. Considering the implications of
migration it has some economic effects on both birth place and destination. Migration from a
labour surplus region or area where disguised unemployment is wide spread generally helps
in increasing the average productivity of labour in that region. As far as migration draws up
 51

on the surplus labour and the disguised unemployment it would help the emigrating region. It
would enable the remaining population of the region to improve their living conditions
• Dilip Saika (2008) in his study economic conditions of the in migrants workers in Kerala. A
case study in the Thiruvananthapuram districts analyses the economic conditions of the
inmigrants workers in Kerala. this has been done by analyzing their saving ,income, and
consumption pattern and nature of work before and after migration. Through primary survey
they surveyed 166 in migrants workers in Thiruvanan-thapuram district. They found that
saving and investment habit among the migrants in found to be very poor, whatever money
remains after consumption.
Unskilled migrant laborers and workers in Kerala
• Kerala offers the best wage rates in the country in the unorganised sector. Sustained job
opportunities, peaceful social environment, relatively less discriminatory treatment of
workers, presence of significant others, direct trains from native states, the ease with which
the money they earn can be transferred home and the penetration of mobile phones cutting
short the distance from homes influenced the migration to Kerala. There are push and pull
factors attracting migrants to Kerala. According to Dr. Manav Paul, the push factors are
mostly poverty, unemployment, density of population, bad yield from agriculture, low
demand for labourers and other factors like raising up families, lack of civil activities in the
residential area, disasters, internal fights on basis of caste, creed, race affect the flow of
migrants to Kerala. Pull factors like better employment opportunities, standard of life in
Kerala, high wages compared to other states, minimal or absence of communal clashes, high
health indices, and provision of education for children also attract migrants to Kerala, as well
as an ongoing labor shortage in Kerala and greater healthcare availability. However, despite
these motivations, migrants often find that they are unable to access the same benefits as
locals.
Push factors

● Migration has been a livelihood strategy for millions of rural poor in India for decades. Low
wages, limited and irregular employment opportunities, failed crops, family debts and
drought have been some of the major reasons that have pushed many people to leave their
homes in search of jobs in Kerala too. Footloose labourers from Tamil Nadu have been
lamenting about the lack of rains in their native place due to which agriculture is in a crisis.
Workers from Anantapur in Andhra Pradesh and those from northern Karnataka were
severely hit by drought. The major source areas from where workers come to Kerala are
known for floods, cyclones as well as drought. In addition to these typical reasons, several
workers from the eastern and northeastern states of India have cited political instability, caste
oppressions and communal violence in their native places as reasons for migration. Pull
factors
● Kerala offers the best wage rates in the country in the unorganised sector- almost double the
national average in many categories. In the absence of the availability of native labour due to
the demographic advancement and the resultant changes in the age structure of the
population, the state is almost completely dependent on migrant labour. The high wage rates
 52

and the sustainable job opportunities have made Kerala one of the most sought-after
destinations in the country. Political stability, the comparatively peaceful social environment,
and the relatively less discriminatory treatment meted out to migrants compared to many
other potential destinations, also serve as additional pull factors. High wages
● For agricultural work like ploughing and tilling, the average daily wage in Kerala was more
than Rs 713, followed by Tamil Nadu at Rs 515. The lowest wage being paid in the country
was Rs 187. In states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Odisha, workers are usually paid
wages of around 200 rupees, but which can be as low as 90 rupees. The wages for
nonagricultural work is also much higher in Kerala. Carpenters and plumbers get wages
which
are two times the national wage average for their profession. The data shows that while the
average wage ranges are between Rs 200 and Rs 300 for different professions in states across
the country, employers in Kerala do not pay below Rs 600 for any job. It is even said that a
migrant labourer from Bihar, who would get Rs 40 at his native place, makes a minimum of
Rs 600 in Kerala. However, Keralite workers are paid even higher amounts and so, most of
the times the local residents prefer the migrant workers because of the comparatively cheaper
labour and also because the migrants work harder than the locals. Even though the wages for
labour are high, the cost of living in the state is the same or even lower than in many other
parts of the country. Over 70 per cent of them earn wages above Rs.300 per day.
Characteristics of unskilled laborers in Kerala
• 1. Most of the labourers are from West Bengal. The major reason behind this is the increased
unemployment and poverty in West Bengal when compared to other states in the country.

• 2. The most preferred age group of workers by the respondents is from 18-25 years. The
major reason behind this the increased productivity and efficiency of labourers in the age
group 18-25 years.
• 3. There is high increase in the number of migrant workers that people hire for manual labour.
The major reason behind this is the increased availability of migrant labourers in the state at
any time.
• 4. There is an increase in the number of migrant workers in the locality or work site. The
increase is due to the increased supply of abundant migrant labourers and the low labour cost
involved in hiring them.
• 5. People hire migrant labourers mainly for other purposes. They are hired mostly for works
other than construction and cleaning which includes painting, housekeeping, car washing,
gardening, etc…. Now because earlier they were hired mostly in the construction field and
now there is excess supply of migrant labourers in construction and cleaning. So they take up
other jobs to earn a living.
• 6. That the major demand of the migrant labourers is higher wages. They demand more wage
above all other factors because of the financial backwardness of their families residing in
their native states and to meet the increasing living expenses in Kerala.
 53

• 7. Environment degradation is the most common negative impact of migrant worker colonies.
This is caused by their negligence towards necessity of environment protection as well as
health concerns. The life styles they follow in their states which are mostly backward also
influence these kinds of behaviour.
• 8. Major issue faced by people while dealing with migrant labourers is fraudulent practices.
These fraudulent practices are followed by most of the migrant labourers due to their negative
moral side and urge make more money to fund their other expenses apart from meeting basic
needs and saving to supplement their families.
• 9. Above 80% of labourers constitute migrant labourers in an area or locality. This is because
of their willingness to do work for longer hours and cheap labour offered.

• 10. The life style and health concerns of the migrant labourers are poor. This is mainly
because most of the migrant labourers are illiterate and unaware about the importance of
living under hygienic conditions.
• 12. Migrant labourers are more willing to work and faster in completing the work efficiently.
The reason behind this is the necessity of the migrant labourers to work more and earn more
to feed their families and the general non-lethargic attitude towards work
• 13. People gain fair satisfaction or profit by employing migrant labourers to do work. This is
because of their increased efficiency and productivity.
Average Wage Earnings per day

● Kerala offers the best wages in unorganised sector among the subnational entities of South
Asia, which might be a pull factor for the Migrant labourers in Kerala. According to the India
Wage Report prepared by International Labour Organization in 2018, the states with the
consistent highest casual wages in both rural and urban areas are Kerala, Jammu and
Kashmir, Punjab, and Haryana. The existing wages for casual workers in Kerala is around
65% higher than that of India. It is notable that the wage rates for women in Kerala is 50%
more than that of their counterparts in India. However, it is much lesser than their male
counterparts in Kerala

NRI’s/NRK’s
Indian Migration Trends to Gulf Countries

● In contrast to the earlier migration, which mostly destined to developed countries, the trend in
current migrants shifted towards emerging countries such as Gulf and South-East Asia.
However, a majority of Indian migrants about 70 percent in the Gulf countries has comprised
the semi-skilled and unskilled labor and the rest being white collar workers and professionals
(Khadria, 2006).
● Indian migrants in the Gulf region can be divided into the following categories: unskilled
labor employed in construction companies, municipalities agricultural farms domestic
workers and as housemaid; skilled and semi-skilled workers employed as craftsman, driver,
artisan and other technical workers; white-collar or professionals such as doctors, engineers,
 54

accountants, nurses, and paramedics, employed in government, private sectors and

entrepreneurs (Pradhan, 2009;Rajghatta, 2013).
● A portion of the remittances they send back home, in turn, in injected into the local economy.
Kerala is the best example for it followed by Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, emigration to
Gulf has changed the socio-economic conditions of their families. The contribution of
migration to development can be seen in various areas like consumption, housing,
transportation, lifestyle, investment patterns, education and other infrastructural facilities
(Azeezand Begum, 2009; Kohli, 2014). The development can also be noticed in the
commercial sector as growth in the commercial complexes, jewellery outlets, hotels and
hospitals during 1980 and1990s with international standards proves the contribution of gulf
migration to the development (Zachariah et al., 2002).
● Another impact of migration in the labor market was the increase invocational education and
training. A number of institutions have been opened in Kerala to provide skills to semiskilled
and unskilled workers. This includes construction related courses, motor operations, machine
operations, computer education, other technician courses etc. (Azeezand Begum, 2009).
Migration also helped in reducing poverty in certain areas.

● According to ‘push’ and ‘pull’ theory, migration may occur as a search for an opportunity to
improve one’s lot in life. Migration can occur as a flight from undesirable social or economic
situations which constitute an expulsive push by the community. The destination exerts a
‘pull’ on the migrants. (Bogue, 1969). Push and pull are complimentary because migration
can happen only if the reason to migrate is achieved by pull from an attractive location. The
unskilled migrant workers from other states in Kerala are mostly from the rural areas.
● Without ambiguity, most of them said that the most important factor that led them to migrate
was the lack of job opportunities and that they cannot survive in their villages with the
income that they earn. Working in one’s own plot of land was not an option as most of them
had only a small piece of land. If at all something has to be done in one’s own land, the elder
members of the family can take care of the same. The second option available to them was to
work as agricultural labour.

● The young migrant workers whom we met were clear that the volume of such work in their
villages or surrounding areas was sufficient to provide work only for a small section of the
workforce. Moreover, it does not provide year round employment. One young worker told us
“I had nothing to do at home and was not in a position to survive that way”. Another worker
told us “the income was insufficient. We were taking loans, repaying it and again taking loan
when I finally decided to move out”.

● Opportunities for employment outside the agriculture sector were also not there. The strategy
that appears to be followed is that the elder members in the villages take care of the work
available in the locality while the youngsters migrate. In some cases, one of the young
members in the family stay in the village and other young members migrate.An equally
important factor was the low wages for unskilled labour in the villages. According to the
respondents, they get less than ₹200 a day for the work in their villages.
 55

● As mentioned earlier, the young people who are presently working in Kerala were pushed out
of their villages in West Bengal, Odisha or Assam due to lack of employment opportunities
and low wages in their villages. But they had other options such as moving to the urban areas
in the same state or moving to metro cities in the country such as Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru
or Chennai. None of the five cities in Kerala are million plus cities.Then why did they come
to Kerala? We tried to get a feedback from the migrant workers in Kerala.

● A Bengali worker employed in the construction sector told us “If I work here properly, I
would be able to earn around ₹ 15000 per month, whereas even in Kolkata I can earn only ₹
6000. Regularity of work is also a problem there”. Another worker agreed with him saying
that “if I earn ₹ 6000 in Kolkata, I have to spend ₹ 3000 for expenses. Here I can earn ₹
10000-15000 without much difference in working hours and cost of living”. “In villages also,
we need at least ₹ 4000 for my family consisting of father, mother, myself, wife and one
child”.
VULNERABILITIES OF MIGRANT WORKERS

• There are evidences that the migrant community is unfortunately very vulnerable to
exploitation because of their plight lack of awareness and their willingness to compromise for
comparatively better life. There are reports that the migrants have a frugal living in Kerala.
Perumbavoor one of the largest migrant settlement in Kerala here the migrant works 12-14
hrs.
• They cook, eat, and sleep in open spaces . Lack of awareness of labour rules and regulations
among migrant workers results in exploitation of the workers by the middle men and the
contractors. There are also cases of low paid, long hours of work and substandard
accommodation. The exploitative employers and sub contractors illegal wage deductions also
makes the life of migrants tough in the state. Migrant labourers are usually employs in the 3D
jobs- dangerous, dirty and degrading and there are diseases and injuries that come out of out
by doing such job.
Unit 4: Communication devices: The use and abuse of social networking/ technology. Its
role in social life & politics: special reference to communal issues.
Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) define social media as "a group of Internet-based applications that build
on the ideological and technological foundations of Web2.0, and that allow the creation and
exchange of user-generated content." A social networking service is a platform to build social
networks. These social network services are web based and these provide means for users to interact
over the Internet .
Social Media Use
● Social media allows for global communication and connectedness.
● Social media enables people to gather information and opinion that would not be covered by
the mainstream media. Instead, it has empowered people to make more informed decisions
about the things they care about.
 56

● Social media is a fantastic tool to find new work, or to be headhunted for that matter.
Prospective employers can find people they want, and jobseekers can find their next career
move.
● Social media is a fantastic tool to promote products and services using a variety of mediums.
For instance, YouTube is a great way to showcase a new product in action. It is an
attentiongrabbing, fun way of sharing information.
Social Media Abuse
Unfortunately, social media is also greatly abused. Yes, it has brought everybody closer together.
However, anti-privacy and criminal conduct is also rife. Those who go against societal norms have
caused significant problems, including:

● Disgruntled employees have took to social media to publicly air their grievances, often in a
libelous and defamatory way. Similarly, ex-lovers have shared very private information about
their exes on social media. Suddenly, the private is public.
● Online bullying is now rife and many people have fallen victim to it. In fact, teenagers have
been known to commit suicide as a result of vicious comments and posts about them, and even
messages.
● Hackers have been able to access various pieces of very private information and share this all
over the globe. While there is a place for hackers in order to stop other hackers, the reality is
also that this cat and mouse game is one that has no end, and that claims many victims.
Loss of privacy due to social media:
● Social media 'mining' is a type of data mining, a technique of analyzing data to detect patterns.
Social media mining is a process of representing, analyzing, and extracting actionable patterns
from data collected from people's activities on social media. Google mines data in many ways
including using an algorithm in Gmail to analyze information in emails. This use of the
information will then affect the type of advertisements shown to the user when they use
Gmail. Facebook has partnered with many data mining companies such as Datalogix and
BlueKai to use customer information for targeted advertising.[263] Massive amounts of data
from social platforms allows scientists and machine learning researchers to extract insights
and build product features.[264]
● Ethical questions of the extent to which a company should be able to utilize a user's
information have been called "big data".[263] Users tend to click through Terms of Use
agreements when signing up on social media platforms, and they do not know how their
information will be used by companies. This leads to questions of privacy and surveillance
when user data is recorded. Some social media outlets have added capture time and
Geotagging that helps provide information about the context of the data as well as making
their data more accurate.
● On April 10, 2018, in a hearing held in response to revelations of data harvesting by
Cambridge Analytica, Mark Zuckerberg, the Facebook chief executive, faced questions from
senators on a variety of issues, from privacy to the company's business model and the
company's mishandling of data. This was Mr. Zuckerberg's first appearance before Congress,
prompted by the revelation that Cambridge Analytica, a political consulting firm linked to the
Trump campaign, harvested the data of an estimated 87 million Facebook users to
psychologically profile voters during the 2016 election. Zuckerberg was pressed to account for
how third-party partners could take data without users’ knowledge. Lawmakers grilled the 33-
 57

year-old executive on the proliferation of so-called fake news on Facebook, Russian

interference during the 2016 presidential election and censorship of conservative media.
Mental health issues due to social media usage:
One studied emotional effect of social media is 'Facebook depression', which is a type of depression
that affects adolescents who spend too much of their free time engaging with social media sites.This
may lead to problems such as reclusiveness which can negatively damage one's health by creating
feelings of loneliness and low self-esteem among young people. Using a phone to look at social
media before bed has become a popular trend among teenagers and this has led to a lack of sleep and
inability to stay awake during school. Social media applications curate content that encourages users
to keep scrolling to the point where they lose track of time. A 2017 study of almost 6,000 adolescent
students showed that those who self-reported addiction-like symptoms of social media use were
more likely to report low self-esteem and high levels of depressive symptoms. In a different study
conducted in 2007, those who used the most multiple social media platforms (7 to 11) had more than
three times the risk of depression and anxiety than people who used the fewest (0 to 2).
A second emotional effect is social media burnout, which is defined by Bo Han as ambivalence,
emotional exhaustion, and depersonalization. Ambivalence refers to a user's confusion about the
benefits she can get from using a social media site. Emotional exhaustion refers to the stress a user
has when using a social media site. Depersonalization refers to the emotional detachment from a
social media site a user experiences. The three burnout factors can all negatively influence the user's
social media continuance. This study provides an instrument to measure the burnout a user can
experience when his or her social media "friends" are generating an overwhelming amount of useless
information (e.g., "what I had for dinner", "where I am now").
A third emotional effect is the "fear of missing out" (FOMO), which is defined as the "pervasive
apprehension that others might be having rewarding experiences from which one is absent." FOMO
has been classified by some as a form of social anxiety.It is associated with checking updates on
friends' activities on social media. Some speculate that checking updates on friends' activities on
social media may be associated with negative influences on people's psychological health and
wellbeing because it could contribute to negative mood and depressed feelings. Looking at friends'
stories or posts on various social media applications can lead users to feel left out and become upset
because they are not having as fun as others. This is a very common issue between teen users of
certain apps and it continues to effect their personal well-being.
On the other hand, social media can sometimes have a supportive effect on individuals who use it.
Twitter has been used more by the medical community. While Twitter can facilitate academic
discussion among health professionals and students, it can also provide a supportive community for
these individuals by fostering a sense of community and allowing individuals to support each other
through tweets, likes, and comments
How Social Media Can Be Used Ethically
For Knouff, the goal is to make sure businesses and individuals alike are able to use these fantastic
tools in an ethical manner. This can be achieved by putting proper social media policies in place.
Some of the key elements of this should be:
● To never put private, identifying information on any social media platform or other public
forum.
● To make sure all private settings are set in such a way that nobody can access important
information or make changes.
● To make sure you only connect with people who you actually want to associate with.
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Social media and politics

The emergence of the internet and the social media has profoundly altered the conditions for political
communication. The social media have given ordinary citizens easy access to voice their opinion and
share information while bypassing the filters of the large news media. This is often seen as an
advantage for democracy.
The social media make it possible for politicians to get immediate feedback from citizens on their
policy proposals, but they also make it difficult for politicians and business leaders to hide
information.
The new possibilities for communication have fundamentally changed the way social movements
and protest movements operate and organize. The internet and social media have provided powerful
new tools for democracy movements in developing countries and emerging democracies, enabling
them to organize protests and to produce visual events suitable for the media.The social media and
search engines are financed mainly by advertising. They are able to target
advertisements specifically to the population segments that the advertisers select. The fact that these
media act like marketing companies and consultants may compromise their neutrality.Another
problem is that the social media have no truth filters. The established news media have to guard their
reputation as trustworthy, while ordinary citizens may post unreliable information. echo
chambers may emerge when people are sharing unchecked information with groups of like minded
people. Studies find evidence of clusters of people with the same opinions on social media like
Facebook. People tend to trust information shared by their friends. This may lead to selective
exposure to partisan opinions, but several studies show that people are exposed to a more diverse set
of news and opinions on social media than on traditional news media.
False stories are shared more than true stories, as discussed above. Conspiracy theories, whether true
or false, are shared on social media because people find them interesting, exciting, and entertaining.
The proliferation of conspiracy beliefs may undermine public trust in the political system and public
officials. A noteworthy example is the mistrust of health officials during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Some studies indicate that there are political asymmetries in responses to misinformation due to
differences in personality characteristics and media structures. Psychological traits such as
closemindedness, uncertainty avoidance, and resistance to change are more common among
conservatives than among liberals and moderates. These traits, combined with more selective media
use and a more insular nature of the conservative media ecosystem, make conservatives more likely
than liberals to share and believe misinformation. Liberal citizens are more likely to share fact-
checking information than conservatives. Furthermore, liberal and moderate media are more likely
than conservative media to fact check their stories and to retract false stories.
Populism refers to a political style characterized by anti-establishment and anti-elite rhetoric and a
simplified, polarized definition of political issues. The establishment is often evoked in populist
rhetoric as the source of crisis, breakdown, or corruption. This can take the form of the denial of
expert knowledge and the championing of common sense against the bureaucrats. Much of the
appeal of populists comes from their disregard for “appropriate” ways of acting in the political
realm. This includes a tabloid style with the use of slang, political incorrectness, and being overly
demonstrative and colorful, as opposed to the elite behaviors of rigidness, rationality, and
technocratic language. Citizens with populist attitudes have a preference for tabloid media content
that simplifies issues in binary “us” versus “them” oppositions.
It is often difficult for populist politicians to get their messages through the mainstream media,
especially when these messages contain unverified claims or socially inappropriate speech. The
internet has provided populists with new communication channels that match their needs for
 59

unfiltered communication. Populists sometimes rely on borderline truths, forged content,

manipulative speech, and unverified claims that would not pass the gatekeepers at reputable news
media. The availability of independent internet media and social media has thus opened a door to the
spreading of biased information, selective perception, confirmation bias, motivated reasoning, and
inclinations to reinforce in-group identities in echo chambers. This has paved the way to a rise in
populism around the world.Another factor contributing to the rise of populism is the concentration of
ownership of internet news media. This enables the dissemination of attention-catching content
targeted at specific audience segments in a fragmented market. The content that is most profitable
happens to also be the most emotional, incendiary, polarizing, and divisive messages. This
contributes to inflating the loudest and most antagonistic voices and intensifying social conflicts by
distorting facts and limiting exposure to competing ideas.
Right-wing populism is characterized by short and emotional or scandalizing messages without
sophisticated theorizing. The communication is controlled by strong charismatic leaders in an
asymmetric top-down manner. The social media pages of populist politicians are often
heavily moderated to suppress critical comments. The type of reasoning is based mostly on anecdotal
evidence and emotional narratives, while abstract arguments based on statistics or theory are
dismissed as elitist.
USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA IN ELECTION CAMPAIGNING AND ELECTION COMMISSION OF
INDIA’S (ECI) SOCIAL MEDIA POLICY
Summary of Instructions of the Commission concerning use of Social Media in Election Campaigning
The Commission has issued detailed guidelines concerning social media on 25th October 2013,
which instructs candidates to furnish details of their social media accounts at the time of filing
nominations. The Commission has also brought the social media sites under the purview of
precertification as mentioned in Commission’s order No.509/75/2004/JS-1/4572 dated 15.04.2004.
The Commission has instructed that candidates and political parties shall include all expenditure on
campaigning, including expenditure on advertisements on social media into their election
expenditure account.
The commission has further clarified that any political content in the form of
messages/comments/photos/videos posted/uploaded on the blogs/self-accounts on websites/ social
media will not be considered as political advertisements and would not require pre-certification.
However, advertisements published in e-newspaper shall require pre-certification by the concerned
Authority.
Appointment of social media expert
A special social media expert has been added in Media certification and Monitoring Committee
(MCMC) to monitor social media and report violations.
Use of Social Media
The Commission decided to enhance its interaction and involvement with all the stakeholders in the
electoral processes by inducting the use of social media at the State as well as the District level.
Instruction in this regards was issued to Chief Electoral Officers of all States/UTs on 6th September
2016. All Chief Electoral Officers and the District Electoral Officers now have their official accounts
on various social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, YouTube etc. for establishing a more
interactive system. The CEOs have set up Social Media Cells to professionally handle these Social
 60

Media accounts and disseminate all the necessary information. Complaints received on these
platforms are promptly responded to. At the ECI level, a Social Media Cell is also set up to
disseminate all election-related information to various stakeholders and to monitor the performance
of the State/ UTs and District and to guide and train them to maximise the use of Social Media,
making it more interactive and interesting for the general public. The Social Media Cell also closely
monitors the web for election-related news and developments and regularly reports to the
Commission.
Social media and communalism
An event can be classified as a communal riot on two grounds: firstly, if there is violence and,
secondly, if two or more communally identified groups confront each other or the members of the
other group, at some point during the violence.[i] There have been several horrific communal riots
have been the 1984 Sikhriots and the 2002 Gujarat (Godhra) riots & the recent Muzaffarnagar riots.
Social media had a key role in the Assam violence, Kishtwar (Jammu) & this time in the
Muzaffarnagar riots also, the posts by user over Facebook, Twitter, SMS & coverage by the Indian
media tend to affect the mold the opinions and actions of the other individuals of the society.
The internet has become an integral part of modern living. The spread of social media and the se of
platforms is changing the way society operates. Social media has been playing a destructive role in
inciting communal violence in India and time has come to check its misuse. Social networking
sites are a threat to national security as they are used as tools for drug trafficking, money
laundering and match-fixing, terrorism, instigating violence and for rumor tools etc. Social media
tools like Blogs
Wikis
Discussion forums
Micro blogs
SMS
And the most burning issue, i.e. Social networking sites – Facebook, Twitter etc.
Social media can be defined, among other things, as tools; how they are used, by whom they are
used and for what reason can represent either a threat or an opportunity for national security, it is
itself shouldn’t be seen as a potential threat to national security but those who use these tools may
pose a potential risk.
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Unit 5 Content Analysis of of Social Media Comments/ Abuse/

Misinformation/Propaganda

Content Analysis

• Krippendorff (2004) defined content analysis as “a research technique for making replicable
and valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful matter) to the contexts of their use”,
emphasising the significance of the context for the application of this method
• The process of content analysis research involves the systematic reading or observation of
artefacts which are assigned labels (sometimes called codes) to indicate the presence of
characteristics germane to the research questions posed. Through the systematic labelling of
the content of texts, researchers can analyse patterns of content quantitatively using statistical
methods, or use qualitative methods to analyse meanings of content within texts

• Estimates suggest that more than 210 million people worldwide suffer from addiction to
social media and the internet.
• Symptoms of depression are twice as likely to appear in teens who spend five to seven hours
a day on their smartphones.

• Not being on social media causes the fear of missing out in 34% of young adults.
• A massive 43% of teenagers feel bad if no one likes their post.
• 71% of all Americans log in to check their Facebook on a daily basis.
• What is social Media ? Social media is an internet-based form of communication. Social
media platforms allow users to have conversations, share information and create web
content.
• with the convenience of communication and the timeliness of information dissemination,
social media often becomes an important communication channel for two-way information
exchange.
• There is a very fine line of separation between the use and abuse of social media. Many
times topics are blown out of proportion and conversations are pulled out of context, leading
them to spiral out of control
• In 2010, a Reddit user who had genuinely donated a kidney made a posting seeking
donations to a related charity. Some Reddit users thought this was a scam and contacted the
user at his home with death threats. Further, in 2013, Reddit admitted that its platform had
helped to fuel “online witch hunts” when groups of users had wrongly named several people
as suspects in the Boston bombing (BBC News, 2013; Suran& Kilgo, 2017).
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• The contributing editor of Scientific American Mind and former editor in chief of
Psychology Today, for instance, was fooled into thinking a chatbot on a dating service was
interested in him romantically (Epstein, 2007).
• A survey of 10,000 European children aged 9 to 16 reported that 40% of children expressed
shock and disgust when viewing violent or pornographic content that had been shared by
others online (Livingstone, Kirwil, Ponte, & Staksrud, 2014).
• Where estimates are that 10 to 40% of the youth are victims of cyberbullying (Kowalski,
Giumetti, Schroeder, & Lattanner, 2014), and 40% of those who cyberbully report they do so
for fun (Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007), possibly connected with occurrences of jealousy. This is
because heavy users of social media are more likely to believe that others have better and
happier lives (Chou & Edge, 2012), and those who live vicariously through others online
have significant maintenance demands and access social media platforms excessively for the
fear of missing out (Fox & Moreland, 2015). Propaganda & Misinformation
• Propaganda is the dissemination of information—facts, arguments, rumours, half-truths, or
lies—to influence public opinion. Deliberateness and a relatively heavy emphasis on
manipulation distinguish propaganda from casual conversation or the free and easy exchange
of ideas.
• Misinformation is an objective social phenomenon that appears in the social operation
environment. It usually refers to the information that is widely circulated intentionally or
unintentionally without a factual basis and confirmation or clarification
• Fake news may seem new, but the platform used is the only new thing about it. Propaganda
has been around for centuries, and the internet is only the latest means of communication to
be abused to spread lies and misinformation.
• With advancement of technology theses irrelevant information evolved into a newform
called Digital Propoganda
• In recent years, the spread of misinformation on social media platforms has caused public
concern, not only because misinformation can easily confuse people, causing them to make
wrong decisions, resulting in economic and material losses, but also because misinformation
can have an impact on health, medical, and other fields, spreading wrong treatments which
even further damages the public’s physical and mental health. At the same time,
unconstrained misinformation will lead to social disorder and the prevalence of negative
emotions, ultimately causing a huge impact on society. Therefore, it is especially important
to understand the spread process and diffusion characteristics of misinformation on social
media platforms
Techniques for spreading Propaganda
1. Bandwagon
2. Testimonial
3. Plain Folks
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4. Transfer
5. Fear
6. Logical Fallacies
7. Glittering Generalities
8. Name Calling
Elements Of Misinformation

1. Tools and services :tools and services for manipulating and spreading the message across
relevant social media networks, many of which are sold in various online communities from
across the globe
2. Social Networks : our friends family recommendation ( Algorithm).
3. Motivation : Affirming Bias
Infohazard

According to Nick Bostrom “it is the risk that is arising from the dissemination or the
potential dissemination of true information that may cause harm or enable some agent to
cause harm”.
Eg: Spoiler Warning Information Hazard can also take other forms like Attention Hazzard,
Streisand Effect,Distraction or Temptation Hazard (Click Bait), Biasing Hazard,Information
Burying hazard , knowing to much Hazard.
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Module 3: Issues related to economic development

Unit 1: Social mobility, economic development and social tensions.
Social mobility

• Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups in social position over time. It
describes the movement or opportunities for movement between different social groups, and
the advantages and disadvantages that go with this in terms of income, security of employment,
opportunities for advancement etc.

• Social mobility reveals the degree to which an individual’s starting point in life determines their
chances in the future, and therefore the extent to which talent is rewarded with opportunity.

• Social mobility is the movement of individuals, families, households, or other categories of

people within or between social strata in a society.

• It is a change in social status relative to one's current social location within a given society.
• A stronger association between one’s starting point and their outcomes in adulthood, indicates
lower social mobility and less meritocracy.

• A stronger association between one’s starting point and their outcomes in adulthood, indicates
lower social mobility and less meritocracy.

• Russian-born American sociologist and political activist Pitirim Sorokin first introduced the
concept of social mobility in his book “Social and Cultural Mobility.”

• According to Sorokin, no two societies are the same in terms of movement allowed and
discouraged, and that the speed of social mobility can change from one time period to the next.
It depends on how developed the society is.

• Such a societal shift can happen over time as individuals move from one position to another
due to various social interactions. Mobility, more or less, provides people with benefits as they
are motivated by different factors in society and work to reach new roles that offer them a better
standard of living and greater rewards. People compete and cooperate with others in society to
move up the social mobility ladder.

• Social mobility mostly is mentioned in the case of individuals or families but may refer to
classes, ethnic groups, or entire nations, and can measure SES, health status, literacy, or
education;

• Social mobility matters because:

• Equality of opportunity is an aspiration across the political spectrum.
• Lack of social mobility implies inequality of opportunity;
• economic efficiency depends on making the best use of the talents of everyone;
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• And social cohesion and inclusion may be more likely to be achieved where people believe
they can improve the quality of life they and their children enjoy through their abilities, talents
and efforts.
Social mobility, economic dev and social tension

• Social stratification describes the socioeconomic levels of a society as “layers,” with the
wealthiest and most powerful citizens being at the top. Typically, the top layer of society tends
to have lots of property, as well as prestige and social influence.

• Sociologists who study stratification have identified open class systems (based on education or
achievement) and compared them to closed class systems (eg.caste system where it is
assignment rather than attainment.). The difference between these types of class systems are
their structural mobility. In a class system that has high structural mobility, it’s easy to move
around between social classes based on the way the society is structured, regardless of your
individual achievements.
Types of Mobility

Upward mobility
This is when a person moves from a lower position in society to a higher one. It can also
include people occupying higher positions in the same societal group. However, upward
mobility, while seen as a good thing, can also come at a cost for individuals. When a person
moves upward, they often need to leave behind familiar surroundings such as family and places.
They may also need to change their way of thinking and behavior. The individual will need to
adapt to the new environment as a result of their upward movement and adopt different
behaviors in the new society.
Downward mobility

Downward mobility takes place when a person moves from a higher position in society
to a lower one. Downward mobility can be extremely stressful for people who face a rapid
decline in their social status. They may find it hard to adapt to the new environment, as it is not
similar to the standard of living they are used to.

Patterns of social mobility

• Horizontal mobility
• Vertical mobility
• Intra generational mobility
The intra-generational change in societal position occurs during the lifespan of a single
generation. One way is when a person climbs up the corporate ladder in their career. For
example, an individual starts their career as a clerk and through their life moves on to a senior
position such as a director.
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In societies with low social mobility, individual outcomes are strongly determined by their
starting point in life. That is, children from privileged backgrounds tend to grow up to be
privileged themselves in terms of education, income, wealth and occupation; on the other hand,
children from poor families tend to grow up poor themselves. Low social mobility not only
erodes the foundation of growth, it also reduces well-being and puts social cohesion and
democratic participation at risk. In societies with high social mobility, individual life chances
are not strongly determined by where you come from or who your parents are. In high-mobility
societies, children from less well-off backgrounds will have the same chances of achieving
their aspirations as those from more advantaged upbringings.
The concept of social mobility is important to the study of societies because it is suggestive
of equality of opportunity: the idea that while everyone will not have the same outcomes, they
should have the same opportunities. Increasing equality of opportunity means addressing the
many layers of disadvantage faced by different groups within a population. Increasing social
mobility is not only an argument for equality; it is an economic case as well: promoting equality
of opportunity is essential for economic efficiency as it enhances the use of individual talents.
• Intergenerational Income Mobility
‘Intergenerational income mobility’ is the association between the income of parents and
that of their children when they grow up. This measure helps create an understanding of how
independent (or not) child outcomes are from those of their parents, in turn revealing the level of
fairness and meritocracy in society. A study published in 2013 in the Journal of Human Resources,
assesses income mobility in India. They compute, for example, transition probabilities of child
(i.e., son) incomes based on the income quintile of their parents (i.e., fathers).
FINDINGS: For a child whose parent’s income is in the bottom quintile (20 percent), the
probability of reaching the top quintile is a low three percent. That means children of the poorest
20 percent of households have a three-percent chance of ending up in the highest income quintile
themselves.
At the same time, 54 percent of children born to parents in the top income quintile will end up
in the highest income quintile themselves. More than half (58 percent) of children born to parents
in the lowest income quintile are also likely to end up in the lowest income quintile.
• Intergenerational mobility
Inter-generational mobility happens when the social position changes from one
generation to another. The change can be upward or downward. For example, a father worked
in a factory while his son received an education that allowed him to become a lawyer or a
doctor. Such societal change also causes the generation to adopt a new way of living and
thinking. Inter-generational mobility is affected by the differences in the parents’ and their
offspring’s upbringing, changes in population, and changes in occupation.
• Occupational Mobility
Occupation mobility is the relationship between occupation origins (or parents’ occupation)
and destinations (individual occupation outcomes). Occupations have some methodological
advantages over the study of income and earnings mobility and reveal the degree to which
individual talents are rewarded with opportunities. Occupation mobility is particularly relevant
in India because the caste system has strong occupation affiliations. How likely is it that the
child of a manual laborer could end up in a white-collar profession? Conversely, what are the
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chances that children born to white-collar professionals end up in manual labor? These
questions help us to understand the ways in which occupation, class and caste positions are
passed from one generation to another.
Azam and colleagues analysed occupation mobility between men born in 1945 and 1984
in India using the Indian Human Development Survey (IDHS). 78 percent of sons born to
white-collar fathers ended up in white-collar or skilled/semi-skilled occupations. Moreover,
58.5 percent of children born to unskilled workers, also ended up in unskilled professions. 6.4
percent of children born to farmers ended up in white-collar occupations. Further, only 4.9
percent of children born to unskilled workers ended up in white-collar jobs. Meanwhile, 71
percent of children born to skilled/semi-skilled workers also ended up in skilled/semi-skilled
occupations.
Current measurements of social mobility in India suggest that intergenerational persistence
in both incomes and occupations remain: few children from low-income families will likely
grow up to have incomes at the top of the distribution. Similarly, few children from
disadvantaged backgrounds will end up in professional and high-skilled occupations. The
implications of this are far-reaching, as it means that India is unable to harness the abilities and
talents of the population.
• Structural mobility and individual mobility
• Absolute social mobility and Relative social mobility
Factors Responsible for Social Mobility:
• Industrialization:
• Urbanization:
• Legislation:
• Politicization:
• Modernization:
• Migration:
• Education:
• Skills and Training
• Motivation:
• Achievements and Failures:
The barriers/tensions to more social mobility:
The determinants of and barriers to relative social mobility are not well understood. Potential
explanatory factors include:
• Educational attainment and socio economic background -Across all countries family and
socio-economic background is a major influence on a person’s level of education and
earnings, but the impact of parental education, or lack of it, on a child’s future prospects is
particularly marked in southern European countries and the UK. By providing quality
education to the very young which improves the chances of academic success as the child
moves up through the school
system .Encouraging greater social mix in the classroom is one of the ways government
policy can help children from disadvantaged backgrounds improve their prospects, according
to the study.
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• Segregating pupils too early on the basis of academic ability is found to undermine social
mobility. By delaying selection until the age of 16 instead of 10 as is currently the case in
some countries, the influence of the school socioeconomic environment on pupils’ academic
performance could be reduced by as much as two-thirds.
• childhood poverty and associated psychological and behavioral development;
• the family and the strategies families adopt to support their children, including access to
financial, social and cultural capital i.e. not just money but values, behaviors and networks of
contacts that affect access to opportunities;
• Attitudes, expectations and aspirations, including aversion to risk; and
• Economic and other barriers which some groups use to “hoard opportunities”
e.g. anti-competitive practices which limit access to professions such as the law and may
discriminate against particular groups.
Social mobility between generations tends to be lower in more unequal societies. It says
redistributive tax and benefit policies aimed at providing income support or access to education for
disadvantaged families may reduce the handicaps of a poorer or less well educated background.
• In India, the richest 1% hold more than four times the wealth held by 953 million people
who make up for the bottom 70% of the country's population.
• The rich in India are increasing at a faster pace than the world, says the recent Wealth Report
by Knight Frank

Women and girls put in 3.26 billion hours of unpaid care work each and every day—a
contribution to the Indian economy of at least INR 19 lakh crore a year; which is 20 times the
entire education budget of India in 2019.
• The Rich Are Getting Richer During The Pandemic- at the height of the pandemic, Jeff
Bezos, Bill Gates, Mark Zuckerberg (his net worth ballooned by about $15 billion in 2020),
Warren Buffett and Larry Ellison collectively witnessed their already incredible wealth
increase by $101.7 billion between March 18 and June 17, while most families don't even
possess an emergency fund of three months’ savings to get them through tough times.
• The pandemic led to the creation of a new underclass of workers. These are the overlooked
folks who stock shelves at Amazon, shop for our food in supermarkets, deliver packages,
drive Ubers, take care of elderly residents at nursing homes and engage in an array of other
gig-economy and lower-wage work. Those essential jobs place these people in dire situations,
which substantially increase their health risks. Usually these are dead-end, no-growth roles
that they remain stuck in.
Possible solutions
Increase Geographic Mobility
Labour migration is important for economic growth as it allows for the efficient allocation of
talent across regions and states, as well as industries. Internal migration in India is typically
short-distance, with people moving within districts and states rather than across state borders.
Internal migrants often face integration challenges and discrimination in their place of
destination. It is not realistic to expect everyone to move to find a job, but the distribution of
economic prospects across India are not equal. Policies designed to create local employment
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should be coupled with others that support people who want to move for better employment
and education opportunities. Policies on internal migration should be mainstreamed into
labour market policies as well as those on urban planning, environmental protection and
development. Further, positive political discourse around migration is needed to help increase
geographic and social mobility.
Improve Equality in Education
Education is often considered one of the most important factors influencing social mobility.
The socioeconomic status of one’s parents, however, greatly determines education and
learning opportunities. Children who belong to more advantaged families tend to have greater
access to high-quality education. There are also disparities in learning outcomes. Meanwhile,
a college degree is increasingly needed to gain access to desirable jobs in dynamic sectors in
India, but university degrees remain out of reach for many.
To harness the equalising potential of education, India must increase investments in quality,
affordable and accessible early childhood education. Experts in pedagogy have long argued
that achievement gaps start at birth, persist throughout early childhood, and have long-term
negative consequences. A British study has found that addressing gaps in learning
opportunities and outcomes amongst children at a young age have multiple benefits,
including a reduction in the persistence of learning disparities, improved cognitive and non-
cognitive development amongst children, and increasing female labour force participation.
Indeed, many countries have made strides towards closing the achievement gap through
investment in early childhood education. Finally, more entry points are needed for recognised
educational institutions for people who are entering or re-entering education later in life.
Adapt Social Protections to Reality
Social protection measures can reduce the risks associated with sickness and healthcare,
unemployment and injury, parental responsibilities, poverty, and social exclusion. Social
protections are critical for social mobility as they protect people against the negative
consequences of income shocks. Moreover, they can prevent downward mobility, particularly
amongst the poor. At the same time, social protections can play an important role in
supporting individuals facing additional risks or burdens such as childcare, other care work,
or health-related constraints. Social protections can reduce the short-term risk of poverty,
increase long-term earnings by reducing the loss of work experience, and reduce the
likelihood of working and being trapped in low-income jobs. Examples of such protections
are sufficient paternity and maternity leave, paid sick leave, and unemployment insurance.
Leverage Corporate Responsibility
Research has found that Indian companies are rife with biases in hiring, promotions, wages,
transfers, and terminations, based on gender, age, caste, education, marital status and region
of origin. These companies have an important role to play in increasing social mobility in
India, and the government should derive greater accountability from them. One potential step
is for companies to adopt blind-hiring practices where the individual characteristics of an
applicant are hidden.
Companies need dedicated strategies for ensuring career progression and promotion amongst
less privileged staff. Implementing in-house diversity task forces and diversity policies are
one policy option for firms. For the state, mandatory quotas for senior management and the
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boardroom should be considered, as well as mandatory reporting of gender wage gaps as has
been done elsewhere.

ECONOMIC DEVOLOPMENT
Economic development generally refers to the sustained, concerted actions of policy makers
and communities that promote the standard of living and economic health of a specific area.
Economic development can also be referred to as the quantitative and qualitative changes in the
economy. Such actions can involve multiple areas including development of human capital, critical
infrastructure, regional competitiveness, environmental sustainability, social inclusion, health,
safety, literacy, and other initiatives. Economic development differs from economic growth.
Whereas economic development is a policy intervention endeavor with aims of economic and
social well-being of people, economic growth is a phenomenon of market productivity and rise in
GDP.
Growth and development
Dependency theorists argue that poor countries have sometimes experienced economic growth
with little or no economic development initiatives; for instance, in cases where they have
functioned mainly as resource-providers to wealthy industrialized countries. There is an opposing
argument, however, that growth causes development because some of the increase in income gets
spent on human development such as education and health.
Economic growth and development is a two-way relationship:
With the rise in economic growth, families and individuals will likely increase expenditures with
heightened incomes, which in turn leads to growth in human development. Further, with the
increased consumption, health and education grow, also contributing to economic growth. In
addition to increasing private incomes, economic growth also generate additional resources that
can be used to improve social services (such as healthcare, safe drinking water, etc.). By generating
additional resources for social services, unequal income distribution will be mitigated as such
social services are distributed equally across each community, thereby benefiting each individual.
Concisely, the relationship between human development and economic development can be
explained in three ways.:
First, increase in average income leads to improvement in health and nutrition.
Second, it is believed that social outcomes can only be improved by reducing income poverty.
Lastly, social outcomes can also be improved with essential services such as education, healthcare,
clean drinking water and social protection policies.
REGIONAL POLICY:
In its broadest sense, policies of economic development encompass three major areas:
Governments undertaking to meet broad economic objectives such as price stability, high
employment, and sustainable growth. Such efforts include monetary and fiscal policies, regulation
of financial institutions, trade, and tax policies.
Programs that provide infrastructure and services such as highways, parks, affordable housing,
crime prevention, and education.
Job creation and retention through specific efforts in business finance, marketing, neighborhood
development, workforce development, small business development, business retention and
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expansion, technology transfer, and real estate development. This third category is a primary focus
of economic development professionals.
SOCIAL TENSION
In any developing country of continental dimensions like India, where scores of languages are
spoken and where every religion and ethnic diversity abounds, it is natural to come across different
kinds of tensions- social, economic, political, religious, or ethnic. Tension- "a situation in which
people feel aggressive or unfriendly towards each other, and which may develop into conflict or
violence."
Factors Leading to Social Tensions
Tension can erupt due to economic deprivation or thereat of economic deprivation, due to
denial of rights to one class, or favour to another. It could be over the "reservation" issues.
Economic deprivation is factor potent enough to cause violence by the affected group or class.
Feeling of identity aggression by one community against others is an area where tension is
aggravated through inflation of ego; and further through caste, sect or religion, dialect, and
language. It inflates through location, region, and state. And when two or three components
combine leading to a larger identity group, the feeling is extremely aggressive and inordinately
volatile resulting in a feeling of harassment, insecurity, and unrest among other smaller groups.
Social tensions have become an integral phenomenon of our society. Tensions could erupt due
to economic deprivation, occupational competition, and feeling of identity, terrorism, casteism,
politicization of the state machinery, linguistic problem, communal violence and so many other
reasons.
In developing societies, there are more chances of social tensions emerging. India is a multi-
lingual and multi-religious society. In such a society differences are bound to emerge, but the same
can be settled through democratic ways. Social tension in any society is the first symptom of
something serious that would follow, if adequate steps are not taken at the appropriate time to
check it. It is the duty of the state machinery to control the tensions and regulate them in positive
direction.
Remedial Actions
Inclusion
Social tensions can be addressed by facilitating interactions between various groups, by creating
an order of leadership at various levels in each group, by appropriate recognition and respect to
each member of the group in a larger milieu a in matters of communal, religious, and sectarian
conflicts. Inclusion of the aggrieved or the so-called minority members vis a vis the majority
community in various segments of the government organs like in the administration, police,
judiciary, and the legislature would help. Non-segregated residential colonies and areas would help
in integration to foster respect for each other's ways of living. Education being a prime factor,
ensuring literacy for one and all would help contain strife and develop understanding.
It is also necessary for the government in power to send a clear message that it is a government of
all and not of or for a chosen few. For this purpose, there should be no partisan attitude or occasion
for bias or favoritism in any sphere of its activity. The attitude and dealing of the administration
should be unbiased and impartial to all communities so that no group or community feels deprived
or avoided.
There needs to be free flow of information, exchange of viewed, access to interaction with the
administration and more communication so that rumors do not hold away and are curbed right at
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their very inception. Administrative decisions like announcements of elections should not be at a
time when communal feelings are deep rooted and tempers are high. It is also necessary for the
government in power to ensure across the board a system of grievance redressal machinery, be it
for the peasantry, the labour workers 'class the other deprived sections of society, etc., so that their
frustrations are contained, and, instead, get channelised for possible remedial measures.
As long as social tensions are indicators of the possibilities of transformation towards a more
promising future, then they are good, but if these tensions violate the basic framework of rights,
are a threat to national integration, then they should be controlled and given a positive direction
which can help in striving for social justice, maintaining social harmony and ultimately national
integration.

Unit 2: Endogenous/sustainable development solutions in the fields of agriculture, energy&

tourism.

Sustainable development

Sustainable development is an organizing principle for meeting human development goals while
also sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem
services on which the economy and society depend. The concept of sustainable development was
described by the 1987 Bruntland Commission Report as “development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Building
a new community in a previously undeveloped area without destroying the ecosystem or harming
the environment is an example of sustainable development.

Sustainable development is a long-term solution to how we plan our indefinite progress in the
future without causing damage to the environment so as to guarantee a safe habitat for the next
generations, who will continue to develop their economies, societies, and care for the environment
with a similar ideal in mind. It satisfies our needs without sabotaging the opportunities of others.
The concept covers a broad scope of matters such as environmental, social, and economic
development which continues to prove its importance in our lives as it affects all aspects of them.

The Main Challenges of Sustainable Development Today

1. Lack of financial resources to carry out and plan sustainable development

2. Sustainable development is often not possible in war-torn countries as there are other priorities
on hand.

3. Natural occurrences, such as earthquakes and tsunamis, can pose a threat to sustainability as
they can shift the flow of water and destroy certain elements of infrastructure.

4. The governmental conflict between immediate profit and investment towards sustainable
technologies.

5. Corruption. Lack of efforts at a municipal level

Can we achieve Sustainable Development?

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In spite of the very difficult circumstances in which many developing countries currently find
themselves in, sustainable development is achievable, however, it would require a lot of
concentrated and coordinated effort. If appropriate supply-side policies, such as education and
vocational programmes, were to be implemented, illiteracy rates would drop and people would be
made more aware about the environment surrounding them which would contribute greatly to a
rise in environmental awareness. sustainable development is achievable, however, it is only
achievable is everyone is dedicated to achieving it. In order for this to happen, the world needs a
wakeup call of cosmic dimensions – the only worry is it might be too late by then.

• Western societies started to discover that their economic and industrial activities had a
significant impact on the environment and the social balance. Several ecological and social
crises took place in the world and rose awareness that a more sustainable model was needed.

• Environmental- 1976: Seveso disaster, 1984: Bhopal disaster, 1986:

Chernobyl nuclear disaster, 1989: Exxon Valdez oil spill, 1999: Erika disaster. Also: global
warming, air pollution, the issue of the ozone layer, the loss of biodiversity…

• Economic crisis-1982: the debt shock of developing countries

• Forty times more crude oil is being shipped down the Hudson today than just four years ago,
creating what the National Transportation Safety Board calls an
“unacceptable public risk” because much of this oil is being shipped in rail cars that just weren’t
designed to carry such risky, explosive cargo.Twenty five years after the Exxon Valdez spill
shocked a nation, we seem to be at greater risk than ever.

Some crisis that brought about the SDG

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals, were adopted by all
United Nations Member States in 2015 as a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet
and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity by 2030. The 17 SDGs are integrated—that is,
they recognize that action in one area will affect outcomes in others, and that development must
balance social, economic and environmental sustainability. SDGs are designed to bring the world to
several lifechanging ‘zeros’, including zero poverty, hunger, AIDS and discrimination against women
and girls.

SDS in agriculture

• Most people would prefer the natural food that is free of chemicals and artificial enhancements.
Unfortunately, the majority of food we consume is produced using industrialized agriculture,
which is a type of agriculture where large quantities of crops and livestock are produced
through industrial techniques for the purpose of sale.

• This type of agriculture relies heavily on a variety of chemicals and artificial enhancements,
such as pesticides, fertilizers, and genetically modified organisms leading to soil pollution, soil
fertility depletion, microorganism reduction, water pollution.

• Also health issues with the use of pesticides

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• This type of agriculture also uses a large amount of fossil fuels and large machines to manage
the farm land.

• Usage of a lot of water

• Leads to a lot of waste (30% wasted, methane gas from the waste)
• Small farms are not economically viable.
• Although industrialized agriculture has made it possible to produce large quantities of food,
due to the negative aspects of this technique, there has been a shift towards sustainable
agriculture.

• Sustainable agriculture is a type of agriculture that focuses on producing longterm crops and
livestock while having minimal effects on the environment. This type of agriculture tries to
find a good balance between the need for food production and the preservation of the ecological
system within the environment. In addition to producing food, there are several overall goals
associated with sustainable agriculture, including conserving water, reducing the use of
fertilizers and pesticides, and promoting biodiversity in crops grown and the ecosystem.
Sustainable agriculture also focuses on maintaining economic stability of farms and helping
farmers improve their techniques and quality of life.

Safeguard natural resources- Land management should be improved through the widespread
adoption of sustainable practices of land use. Conservation agriculture can be used to prevent
soil erosion and land degradation. Manage watersheds and water use more efficiently. Protect
wildlife habitat and biodiversity through an integrated ecosystems approach. Provide incentives
for improving ecosystem services.

Share knowledge - While much of the knowledge needed to improve global agriculture already
exists, including within remote indigenous communities, it often does not reach those farmers
that could benefit most. Increase the level of education on crop and natural resource
management for farmers. Promote the development of village-based knowledge centres.
Provide access to scalable information technologies for farmers to receive weather, crop, and
market alerts, as well as other early warning systems to help them make the right decisions for
sustainability and productivity. Establish open and transparent two-way exchanges that capture
the ‘voice of the farmer’ in the process of policy formulation and implementation.

Build local access - Fundamental resources should be available to farmers to help them manage
their production process more reliably and at less cost. Secure access to land and water
resources, especially for women farmers. Provide rural access to microfinance services,
especially to microcredit. Build infrastructure – particularly roads and ports -to make supplies
available to farmers. Improve access to agricultural inputs and services, including mechanical
tools, seeds, fertilizers, and crop protection materials • Encourage and co-ordinate multiple
local actors to ensure information and supplies get into farmers hands. Invest in bioenergy
where it contributes to energy security and to rural development.
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Protect harvests- In many of the poorest countries, 20-40% of crop yields are lost because of
inadequate pre- and post harvest support. Likewise, vast quantities of food are squandered
during production and consumption phases of the food chain. Build local storage facilities and
transportation mechanisms, including cold chain storage for food preservation. Localise the
application of agronomic knowledge, pest-identification and meteorological information.
Educate the public on sustainable consumption and production needs and behaviours. Provide
risk management tools to support farmers in managing weather and market variations.

Enable access to markets- Farmers need to be able to get their products to market and receive
equitable price treatment when they do. Provide remote access to up-to-date market pricing
information. Develop well functioning markets through transparent information, fair prices,
sound infrastructure and reduced speculation. Encourage co-operative approaches to marketing
for small holders. Improve small holder farmers’ marketing skills through entrepreneurship
training. Reduce market distortions to improve opportunities for all strata of agriculture
worldwide.

Prioritise research imperatives- Achieving sustainable agriculture requires intensified,

continuous research, prioritising locally relevant crops, stewardship techniques, and adaptation
to climate change. Conduct agronomic research related to water availability, soil fertility and
post-harvest losses as well as climate change challenges. Conduct research into crop varieties
needed by the poorest and most vulnerable regions. Promote farmer-centred research in
accordance with their needs. Improve productivity through the responsible use of science and
technology. Establish public-private research collaboration around integrated solutions.
Increase investments from governments and business towards relevant R&D.

Benefits of sustainable agriculture

1. Contributes to environmental conservation

2. Prevents pollution

3. Reduction in cost

4. Biodiversity

5. Beneficial for animals

6. Economically beneficial for farmers

7. Social equality
8. Beneficial for environment

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL METHODS

• Rotating crops and embracing diversity. Planting a variety of crops can have many benefits,
including healthier soil and improved pest control. Crop diversity practices include
intercropping (growing a mix of crops in the same area) and complex multi-year crop rotations.

• Planting cover crops. Cover crops, like clover or hairy vetch, are planted during off-season
times when soils might otherwise be left bare. These crops protect and build soil health by
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preventing erosion, replenishing soil nutrients, and keeping weeds in check, reducing the need
for herbicides.

• Reducing or eliminating tillage. Traditional plowing (tillage) prepares fields for planting and
prevents weed problems, but can cause a lot of soil loss. No-till or reduced till methods, which
involve inserting seeds directly into undisturbed soil, can reduce erosion and improve soil
health.

• Applying integrated pest management (IPM). A range of methods, including mechanical and
biological controls, can be applied systematically to keep pest populations under control while
minimizing use of chemical pesticides.

• Integrating livestock and crops. Industrial agriculture tends to keep plant and animal production
separate, with animals living far from the areas where their feed is produced, and crops growing
far away from abundant manure fertilizers. A growing body of evidence shows that a smart
integration of crop and animal production can be a recipe for more efficient, profitable farms.

• Adopting agroforestry practices. By mixing trees or shrubs into their operations, farmers can
provide shade and shelter to protect plants, animals, and water resources, while also potentially
offering additional income.

• Soil Enrichment: Soil is a central component of agricultural ecosystems. Healthy soil is full of
life, which can often be killed by the overuse of pesticides. Good soils can increase yields as
well as creating more robust crops. It is possible to maintain and enhance the quality of soil in
many ways. Some examples include leaving crop residue in the field after a harvest, and the
use of composted plant material or animal manure.

Natural Pest Predators: In order to maintain effective control over pests, it is important to view the
farm as an ecosystem as opposed to a factory. For example, many birds and other animals are in
fact natural predators of agricultural pests. Managing your farm so that it can harbor populations
of these pest predators is an effective as well as a sophisticated technique. The use of chemical
pesticides can result in the indiscriminate killing of pest predators.

Unsustainable tourism

Tourism in general terms is the process of travelling from one place to another for having the feeling
of pleasure. In economic terms, tourism is the business that focuses on attracting the tourists from
different place to come and visit in the host country as it increases income of the company. (Burns
and Novelli, 2007)

Today, tourism is the major source of income for the countries. This is the one of the most growing
sectors that allows the country to earn foreign as well as domestic income in huge amount. Increase
in tourism not only support the economy of the country but also enhances the historical and cultural
image of the country in the world.

• Earlier vacations were an aristocratic activity only for the rich.

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• Thomas Cook group promoted mass tourism from the 19th century with package deals .
Mobility and technology further boosted mass travel for fun.

• Mass tourism is strongly linked also to seasonality- school vacations etc

• Mass tourism consumption experience has been linked to the ideas of “a McDonaldization,
Disneyfication or McDisneyfication of societies” (Ritzer and Liska; 1997)

• Tourism made positive and negative impact on the societies; tourism contributes for 8% of
employment and 9% of global GDP (matches India’s revenue in 2018 too)

• But do the local economies profit enough?

• Big tourist group build their own hotels, groomed staff from outside, big gardens, water
shortage, electricity shortage. transportation shortage for locals and tourists, too much traffic
on the road, culture loss false culture created for tourists, beaches extended, land bought by
outsiders increasing land cost. recreational activities like swimming and touching coral reefs
are damaging them, boat trips disturbing the marine life, not only beach areas, winter ski
resorts, forests cut into ski slopes, 500 hectres of even endangered forests each year cleared
eg Goa and Munnar has been turned into a concrete jungle, drug parties. other eg. Hawaii, the
local hospitality dances made into commodities in hotels, the socio cultural impact on the local
culture.

Impact of unsustainable tourism

• Environmental degradation destroys the meaning of existence of tourism itself. The number of
tourists is growing every year. According to the World Travel report (cited in Hickman; 2006)
“by 2020 the natural features of some of the wonders of the world will be damaged by global
warming, while other resorts will become seriously overcrowded”.

• According to Kripperdorf (1982;135), “the mass phenomena of modern tourism have initiated
the paradoxical process “Tourism destroys tourism”. The landscape loses its tourist value
through its use, or rather over-use, by the tourist”.

• Butler (1980)- lifecycle of a tourist destination -six stages a destination goes through when
tourism development takes place: “exploration, involvement, development, consolidation,
stagnation, concluding with either rejuvenation or decline.”

lifecycle of a tourist destination

Exploration -At this stage the destination is visited by small number of tourists who are keen to
explore cultural and natural beauty of the place but the number of visitors is limited due to
accessibility difficulties and lack of facilities. Here the attraction of the place yet remains
unmodified by tourism.

Involvement -In the next stage of involvement advertising and local initiatives are seen as the
element of promotion of the destination which results in increase of the tourist number with the
pressure on the public sector to develop infrastructure.
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Development- Next step in the cycle is development in which further initiatives for development
of facilities are made by national and multinational companies. In this stage the control of the
public sector is necessary as the popularity of the destination and increasing number of visitors
may not only be the reason of success but also cause failure and “the destination may suffer a
change in quality through problems of over-use and deterioration of facilities” (Butler; 1980;92).

Consolidation -The consolidation is the next level of tourism life cycle when tourism becomes a
great part of the local community.

Stagnation -Next step of stagnation occurs when after reaching peak numbers of visitors the
destination is no longer popular and only conservative visitors are still coming back. In this stage
the environmental, economical as well as socio-cultural problems can be seen as the reason.

Decline- The last stage is decline where effort is need to maintain the tourist arrivals by introducing
new types of facilities like for example casinos.

Sustainable tourism

Sustainable tourism means tourism which is economically viable but does not destroy the resources
on which the future of tourism will depend, notably the physical environment and the social fabric
of the host community.

Sustainable tourism is meant to make the development of tourism ecologically supportable in the
long term. The very importance of sustainable tourism lies in its motives to conserve the resources
and increase the value of local culture and tradition.

Sustainable tourism is a responsible tourism intending to generate employment and income along
with alleviating any deeper impact on environment and local culture.

In order for the sector to be able to continue to grow sustainably and provide greater benefits to
society, it is essential to operate in a responsible manner. We need to promote an inclusive tourism
sector that provides decent working conditions for all, promotes culture and local products, and
protects our natural resources, thus preserving the unique attractions of each destination.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM

• Sustainable Tourism tries its utmost to maintain the importance of local culture and tradition
• ST is informatory, as it doesn't only let tourist know about the destinations but also it helps
locals knowing about the culture and civilization of tourists.

• This kind of tourism is aimed to conserve the resources of destinations where one is visiting to
• ST seeks deeper involvement of locals, which provide local people an opportunity and make
their living. Above all, Sustainable Tourism stresses pointedly upon integrity of the tourist
places.
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• Achieving sustainable tourism is a continuous process and it requires constant monitoring of

impacts, introducing the necessary preventive and/or corrective measures whenever necessary.

• ST should also maintain a high level of tourist satisfaction and ensure a meaningful experience
to the tourists, raising their awareness about sustainability issues and promoting sustainable
tourism practices amongst them

ECOTOURISM: Ecotourism is a form of sustainable tourism – all forms of tourism can become
more sustainable but not all forms of tourism can be ecotourism “Ecotourism is environmentally
responsible travel and visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas, in order to enjoy, study and
appreciate nature (and any accompanying cultural features – both past and present), that promotes
conservation, has low visitor impact, and provides for beneficially active socioeconomic
involvement of local populations”.

Sustainable developmental solutions in the field of Tourism

End poverty in all its forms everywhere Tourism represents more than 10% of world GDP12 and
has a direct impact on international poverty levels. The sector should promote the creation of decent
jobs that have a direct impact on the well-being of the local population and help them to obtain a
fair income, security and social protection and better prospects for their personal development and
social integration. Companies in the tourism sector have the potential to generate decent jobs,
especially for women, youth and disadvantaged groups, by boosting the economy and local
development through their activities and to act so as to avoid environmental and economic crises
that impact the population.

End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture
Most of the world’s poverty is located in rural areas, where the highest levels of malnutrition are
found. Tourism can stimulate agricultural productivity through the production, use and sale of local
products, and at the same time, provide an avenue for additional income for people living in
tourism destinations. Businesses in the sector can promote sustainable tourism, stimulate
agricultural production through local consumption, offer alternative business models such as
agrotourism and be respectful of the environment and local customs.

Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages The tourism sector can operate
in a sustainable, healthy and safe manner for local communities, tourists and employees,
contributing to the well-being of all of them. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and
promote lifelong learning opportunities for all Effective sustainable development can only be
achieved by ensuring that ethical values and responsibility in environmental, economic and social
matters are transmitted to the entire population. Tourism has a direct impact on a large number of
people, whose education will be key to achieving effective sustainable tourism.

Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls A large number of employees and
entrepreneurs in the tourism sector worldwide are women. However, they often occupy low paid
positions, perpetuating inequality at the economic and social levels. The tourism sector can act as
a vehicle for the empowerment of women, by providing decent employment at the local level,
enabling them to improve their living conditions and enjoy greater autonomy.
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Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all The tourism
activity requires substantial energy input and it can be very sensitive to water and sanitation
restrictions in destinations. The tourism industries can carry out an efficient management of water
resources and limit the negative impacts for the local ecosystem while at the same time provide
access to water for tourism and the local population.

Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all In order to achieve
sustainable tourism, it is necessary to promote access to affordable, clean and modern energy in
destinations. Companies in the tourism sector can commit to developing energy-efficiency
measures as well as to increasing the use of renewable energy in their operations, while decreasing
their reliance of fossil fuels, in order to achieve a sustainable and beneficial economy for all

Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all Tourism is one of the fastest-growing economic sectors in
the world, currently accounting for the creation of 1 in every 11 jobs ,and is one of the main sources
of revenue for many countries. It is therefore a key instrument for achieving inclusive and
sustainable economic growth and providing decent working conditions for a large number of
people, particularly young people and women.

Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster
innovation Infrastructure, industrialization processes and innovation are important issues in the
development of tourism activity. The companies in the sector have the capacity to invest in
sustainable facilities and infrastructures that allow universal access and use, especially by persons
with disabilities and other disadvantaged groups. They can also improve the technological
capability of tourism destinations, especially that of rural communities, in terms of access to
information and communication technologies.

Reduce inequality within and among countries Tourism accounts for 10% of world GDP.
Tourism that benefits society, the economy and protects the environment is a powerful tool for
community progress and for reducing inequality. It is important for local communities and all key
actors to be involved in its development. Companies of the sector can contribute to urban renewal
and rural development by helping to reduce regional imbalances and giving local communities the
opportunity to prosper within their place of origin.

SUSTAINABLE CITIES AND COMMUNITIES

A city that is not good for its citizens is not good for tourists. Sustainable tourism has the potential
to advance urban infrastructure and universal accessibility, promote regeneration of areas in decay
and preserve cultural and natural heritage, assets on which tourism depends. Greater investment in
green infrastructure (more efficient transport facilities, reduced air pollution, conservation of
heritage sites and open spaces, etc.) should result in smarter and greener cities from which not only
residents, but also tourists, can benefit.

CLIMATE ACTION

Tourism contributes to and is affected by climate change. It is, therefore, in the sector’s own interest
to play a leading role in the global response to climate change. By lowering energy
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consumption and shifting to renewable energy sources, especially in the transport and
accommodation sector, tourism can help tackle one of the most pressing challenges of our time.

PEACE AND JUSTICE

As tourism revolves around billions of encounters between people of diverse cultural backgrounds,
the sector can foster multicultural and inter-faith tolerance and understanding, laying the
foundation for more peaceful societies. Sustainable tourism, which benefits and engages local
communities, can also provide a source of livelihood, strengthen cultural identities and spur
entrepreneurial activities, thereby helping to prevent violence and conflict to take root and
consolidate peace in post-conflict societies.

Sustainable developmental solutions in the field of energy

Sustainable energy is the energy that powers the needs of the current generations but maintains the
ability to meet those of future generations. At this point, it is important to understand that the term
sustainable energy should not be construed to mean that it is 100% environmentally safe. For
example, dams harness the energy of moving water which can harm wildlife such as fish. However,
renewable energy sources have a very light environmental footprint compared to fossil fuels. It is
because of this that sustainable energy is the global ticket to a cleaner and less polluted earth.

The Challenge

There is no development without fuelling the engine of growth. Energy is critical and people with
no sustainable access to energy are deprived of the opportunity to become part of national and
global progress. And yet, one billion people around the world live without access to energy. More
than 781 million people in 2016, or 39% of the world’s population, do not have access to clean
fuels and technologies for cooking.

The four main types of alternative energy sources are harnessed from natural processes such as
water, wind, and sunlight. They are the most sustainable forms of energy.

Solar Energy

Sunlight is one of the main renewable sources of energy we know of today. To harness solar energy,
a number of technologies are used to help convert it into heat, electricity, or light.

• Photovoltaic systems are used to convert sunlight into electricity.

• Solar water heating system are used to heat buildings.

• Mirrored dishes help to boil water in conventional steam systems to generate electricity.

In commercial buildings, solar energy is used to promote processes such as heating, cooling, and
ventilation. Homeowners can also take advantage of solar power by installing solar systems that
help heat water, run appliances, and light their premises.

Wind Energy

Wind can be indirectly considered part of the solar power because it comes from uneven heating
and cooling of the atmosphere resulting in winds. It is also caused by regular rotation of the earth.
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To harness wind power, green power companies use a wind turbine that rotates generators to
generate electricity.

Today, there are many commercial grade wind-power generating systems designed to meet the
energy requirements of different users. For example, a single wind turbine can be used to generate
electricity for individual homes and small enterprises.

To generate electricity on a large scale from wind power, companies and governments have to
invest in large scale wind farms. These are multiple turbines installed in areas with strong winds
to generate optimal electricity that is injected into national grids or used in a specific region. A
good example is the Macarthur Wind Farm in Victoria, the largest in Australia, with a capacity of
420 MW.

Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is harnessed using heat generated from deep inside the earth. The heat is
sourced from heated rocks near the surface or steams of hot water from miles below the surface.

The energy is harvested using geothermal power plants. These plants use the high pressure and
temperature steam to run generators that produce electricity. On a smaller scale, geothermal energy
can be used to heat manufacturing plants, offices or homes.

Hydropower

This is not a new invention. Initially, water energy was harnessed via waterwheels that used to run
machines such as flour mills and sawmills. Today, the kinetic energy of flowing water is converted
to electricity using special turbines.

In many cases, the water is held in a reservoir such as a dam and directed to run the turbines to
generate hydroelectricity.

Other sustainable energy sources

Other top sustainable energy sources that you can use include ocean thermal energy harnessed from
the sun’s heat on the surface of the water, and mechanical energy from wave movement in the
ocean.

Bio-energy is another sustainable source of energy that is derived from biomass to generate heat
and electricity. Although bio-energy generates carbon dioxide just like fossil fuels, it is considered
a cleaner option because vegetation planted to supply more biomass help to remove an equal
amount of carbon dioxide from the air. This helps to keep the environmental impact neutral.

Why is this important?

The Secretary-General of the United Nations, has said, “Energy is the golden thread that connects
economic growth, social equity, and environmental sustainability. With access to energy, people
can study, go to university, get a job, start a business – and reach their full potential.” Energy is
central to nearly every major challenge and opportunity the world faces today – security, climate
change, food production, jobs or increasing incomes. Sustainable energy generates opportunity –
it transforms lives, economies and the planet. There are tangible health benefits to having access
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to electricity, and a demonstrable improvement in wellbeing. Energy access therefore constitutes a

core component of the sustainable development agenda for energy. The production of useable
energy can also be a source for climate change – accounting for around 60% of total global
greenhouse gas emissions.

Protection of the ecosystem

Sustainable energy or clean energy is the alternative that we need. Indeed, the world does not have
another option but to adopt sustainable energy because it comes with many benefits such as better
health and protection of our ecosystem.

Remember that you or your business do not have to wait until your government or city management
brings clean energy to you. You can start right away by acquiring solar panels or single wind
turbines to help supplement or replace the current fossil fuel powered electricity.

NON-RENEWABLE FORMS OF ENERGY

Coal- cheap, reliable/ pollution, mining dangers

Petroleum- cheap, reliable, transportable, / pollution, oil spills

Natural gas - underground, huge reserves, fracking- cheap, reliable/ water loss, mini earthquakes,
pollution

Nuclear

Renewable sources of energy

• hydropower- dams, but its dangers- other-Tidal and wave energy projects
• wind- wind energy from long back, ships, windmills. Now wind farms
• solar-photovoltaic cells- sun light and heat, cost reduced very much. India becomes lowest-cost
producer of solar power,Further, the costs of setting up solar PV projects were found to have
dropped at the fastest pace – 80 per cent – in India between 2010 and 2018.

• Biomass-biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel, wood and wood waste, biogasfrom landfills,
and municipal solid waste.

Geothermal

Boosting renewable energy- govt policies

International Renewable Energy Agency - intergovernmental organisation that supports countries

in their transition to a sustainable energy future, and serves as the principal platform for
international cooperation, (180countries).
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Unit 3: Role of local leadership and community (panchayat, kudumbasree)

in social mobilization and implementation of Government policies
Social mobilization is the process of bringing together allies to raise awareness of and demand
for a particular program to assist in the delivery of resource and services and to strengthen
community participation for sustainability and self-reliance. It includes planned actions and
processes to reach, influence and involves all relevant segments of society across all sectors from
the national to the community level. Community meetings to discuss an issues with community
leaders and public debates are some examples. It aims at empowering individuals and communities
to identify their needs, rights and responsibilities, change their ideas and beliefs and organize the
human, material, financial and other resource required for socioeconomic development.

Social mobilization is the cornerstone of participatory approaches in rural development and

poverty alleviation programs. It is a powerful instrument in decentralization policies and programs
aimed at strengthening human and institutional resources development at local level. Social
mobilization strengthens participation of rural poor in local decision-making, improves their access
to social and production services and efficiency in the use of locally available financial resources,
and enhances opportunities for asset-building by the poorest of the poor.

Role of Grama Sabha and public information in Social Mobilization

The Constitution’s 73rd Amendment has made the village council, the Gram Sabha, into a very
powerful tool of social mobilization. Many types of neighborhood groups, health and literacy
programs, Mahila Mandals (village women’s groups) and the mass media - newspapers, radio and
TV - also play a vital role in social mobilization at the community level. Social mobilization of
rural poor at community level will be successful if directly linked with issues affecting their
livelihoods.

For successful social mobilization of the rural poor, there is a need for improved access to public
information on local development issues directly linked with their livelihood interests. An effective
way of doing this is by facilitating free access to public information on local development
programes and activities, which has been a critical factor in the success of Panchayati Raj in the
States of Kerala and Andhra Pradesh.

Kudumbashree

It is a holistic, participatory, women oriented innovative overarching poverty reduction

approach. Kudumbashree is an poverty eradication mission of the state of Kerala works with 45.86
lakhs women. It envisages prosperity of the economically backward families in the state with
multiple programmes that will provide them Information, create awareness, Build up their capacity
and capability, Enhance their confidence, Opportunities for better social security and empowering
them physically, socially, economically and politically.

Examples of successful social mobilization

Total sanitation programme in Avanur Gram Panchayat, Kerala, India

This example of successful mobilization of the entire community by a gram panchayat to meet
a basic need has been widely recognized. It has brought national honour and a cash prize of Rs 1.2
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million to the panchayat. In 1996, a survey held by the Avanur Gram Panchayat in Kerala State
found that over 2 000 of Avanur’s 5 000 households were too poor to afford basic sanitation
facilities. The Gram Panchayat President convened a series of awareness-building meetings for all
families below the poverty line.

As an outcome of these meetings it was agreed that the Gram Panchayat would provide all these
families building material for a sanitation unit, with the condition that each beneficiary family
would complete 20 percent of the work on its own. The meetings focused on awareness-building
of women as main beneficiaries. Much to the surprise of all, the campaign was successfully
completed within three months. The Gram Panchayat spent only 20 percent of allocated resources
because 80 percent of the work was done by the beneficiary families themselves. In this way, a total
of about Rs 12 million in assets could be mobilized for the poorest families.

Total housing scheme in Avanur Gram Panchyat, Kerala State, India

The Avanur Gram Panchayat used the cash award of Rs 1.2 million to start a Total Housing
Scheme for families below the poverty line. This led to 500 houses being built during 1997-2000.
The Gram Panchayat gave each family an amount of Rs 20 000 in three stages, as a grant. The
beneficiary families contributed their own labour and material worth Rs 30 000 for each unit. The
scheme created assets worth more than Rs 25 million.

The Gram Panchayat has also successfully implemented a drinking water scheme and
neighbourhood units in Avanur, and was declared the ‘Best Panchayat’ in Kerala for its innovative
work.

The Janmabhoomi program in Andhra Pradesh: a learning model for capacity-building for
participatory local development planning

Janmabhoomi was inspired by South Korea’s Saemaul Undong programe and launched in
January 1997 as a mass mobilization effort to involve people in rural development planning and
decision making through PRIs in Andhra Pradesh.

It aims to take the administration closer to the people, make it more responsive to their felt
needs and to promote transparency and accountability in public affairs. It is also directed against
the caste system. It has specific program for disadvantaged groups like women, the Scheduled
Castes and Tribes and people with disabilities to integrate them into the mainstream of
development.

Janmabhoomi has activated the Gram Sabha, which is convened every three months and
presided over by the Sarpanch, the Mandal president, the ward member and government officials.

Leadership enhancement in women

1. To explain the 73rd Constitutional Amendment to newly elected women panchayat members.

2. To make women local council representatives aware of laws protecting women’s rights.

3. To make women council members aware of their roles and responsibilities in local development.

4. To enhance participation of women members in development planning within panchayats.

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5. To develop women’s leadership and communication skills for enhancing social mobilization.

6. To make them find ways and means to interface with other layers of local self-governance
within the State and claim the panchayat’s entitlements.

7. To familiarize them with rural/women/child development programmes to reduce poverty.

8. To empower them to identify and break cultural barriers and improve their social-economic
condition.

Empowerment

• Institutional empowerment; empowerment of different segments of rural society.

• Empowerment of PRIs empowers different segments of society.

• Political, economic and social dimensions with special reference to SC/ST, BC (backward
castes) and women.

• Socio-cultural milieu and women’s empowerment.

Leadership

• Meaning and importance in any institution or organization.

• Context of leadership in Panchayati Raj, its significance.

• Women leadership, male leadership, leadership among other weaker sections - SC/ST & OBC
(other backward castes).

• Leadership - socio-economic and political profile of the state in the context of PRIs.

• Capacity building of Panchayati Raj representatives/leaders.

• Qualities of a good leader for good governance.

• Leadership and ethics.

• Developing systemic thinking abilities.

Communication skills

• Confidence-building

• Capacity and awareness-building

• Access to information through Information Technology

• Ability to communicate in any language

Stress management

• Coping with day-to-day affairs

• Group interactions and discussions

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• Consultations for remedial measures

• Ability to resolve conflicts at the local level

Gender sensitization

• Sex and gender issues in the process of development, specifically rural development

• Socio-cultural and related factors leading to gender discrimination, analysis of rural society

• Awareness and capacity-building in PRIs

• Gender considerations in the process of local planning

• Gender issues and problems, capacity-building of women representatives in Panchayati

Raj especially their role in decision-making coupled with different centrally and state-
sponsored programmes for women’s development and empowerment.

(Remaining from miss’s ppt)

• Local leaders within a community who care deeply about helping the community and have the
ability to influence the people living there will have the greatest impact. Potential leaders
include panchayats, mayors, religious leaders, business leaders and other well-known
community figures. These leaders are ideally positioned to improve community preparedness
because they can effectively use their influence and connections as a means of motivating direct
action.

• In addition, local leaders have the deepest understanding of their respective localities.
Therefore, they have a tremendous opportunity to bridge the gap between their communities
and state officials to devise the most appropriate way to deploy resources during a crisis.

• Involving local leaders in the planning process allows them to relay information on
preparedness to the people, and these efforts ultimately result in a more resilient community.
When disaster strikes, information tends to pass from the highest governmental levels down to
the local level. This hierarchy leaves community members in a vulnerable position without
access to the decision making process. To address this problem, citizens and local leaders must
be involved in the planning stages before disaster strikes.

Local leaders should seek to serve two important functions:

1) a bridge between citizens, government officials, and crisis managers, and 2) a moderator
for community discussions on issues of preparedness.

• In both of these contexts, it is important for the local leader to emphasize the importance of
preparedness, gather information, prioritize community needs, inform government bodies,
collaborate to produce a plan, and relay preparedness information back to community members.

Panchayats (assembly (ayat) of 5 (panch)

• Panchayati Raj System in Kerala began with enactment of Panchayati Raj Act in 1994.
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• Three levels, Gram Panchayats (978), Block Panchayats( 152) and District Panchayats (14).
Each of these are further subdivided into wards.
Decentralization and devolution of function

• Health: All institutions other than medical colleges and regional speciality hospitals have been
placed under the control of the local governments.

• Education: In rural areas the high schools and upper primary schools have been transferred to
the District Panchayats and the primary schools have been transferred to Gram Panchayats;

• Poverty Alleviation: The entire responsibility of poverty alleviation has gone to the local
governments; all the centrally sponsored anti-poverty programmes are planned and
implemented through them.

• Social Welfare: Barring statutory functions relating to juvenile justice, the entire functions have
been devolved to local governments. The ICDS is fully implemented by GPs and Urban Local
Bodies. Care of the disabled, to a substantial degree has become a local government
responsibility.

• Agriculture and Allied sectors: The de facto and de jure local government functions are
agricultural extension including farmer oriented support for increasing production and
productivity, watershed management and minor irrigation, dairy development, animal
husbandry including veterinary care & Inland fisheries.

• Barring highways and major district roads, road connectivity has become local government
responsibility.

• Sanitation and rural water supply are being handled by local governments. Promotion of
tiny, cottage and small industries is mostly with the local governments. All the welfare pensions
are administered by the local governments.

• Welfare pension too handled by panchayat, so too cottage and small industries.
Benefits of social mobilization

• Can reach people who may not come into contact with the health system, particularly
marginalized groups and men.

• Get people talking about family planning.

• Educate the general public about family planning before they see their providers, which may
make counseling sessions easier and more beneficial.

• Use real-life situations in local languages to describe the benefits of family planning.
• Can expand the reach of family planning messages by attracting crowds at events or creating
a growing following, in the case of a radio drama series.
• Reduce and eliminate family planning myths and misconceptions.
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• Can help create culturally appropriate and sustainable solutions by working with communities
to identify their knowledge, perceptions, attitudes and needs..
Steps of social mobilization

Step 1: Assess community needs, issues and resources

Before designing and planning a social mobilization program, it is useful to understand the context
in which you will be implementing the program, including potential facilitators and barriers to
program implementation and the resources available to and within the communities

Step 2: Design a social mobilization strategy

Development of a social mobilization strategy in a community participatory workshop-type setting

Step 3: Identify and partner with local organizations

NGOs that will implement and manage social mobilization activities, including supervision and
coordination of community-level social mobilizers, should meet specific criteria before being
chosen.

The role of the NGOs differ from those of the social mobilizers who are responsible for facilitating
discussion groups, referring clients to health facilities and conducting important life event
celebrations.

Step 4: Design, test and produce social mobilization materials

Social mobilization materials may be developed within a workshop setting that includes program
staff, stakeholders and, possibly, graphic designers or artists

Identified local languages and phrases or words that would best communicate the program’s goal
• Identified equipment needs
• Determined what materials should be developed (for example, referral cards and branded badges,
pins, bags, shirts, jackets, hijabs and pens)
• Designed and pretested material prototypes

Step 5: Choose and train social mobilizers

Potential social mobilizers must meet specific criteria in order to be selected

Be willing to volunteer
• Be between the ages of 18 and 35
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• Live in urban slums

• Be an artisan (barber/hair stylist, driver, mechanic or tailor)
The project developed an orientation guide for social mobilizers that described how activities
should be conducted and included basic family planning information.

Step 6: Implement and monitor social mobilization activities

It is crucial to not only implement activities but also monitor them.
By measuring progress, programs and activities can make decisions and adjust plans based on
evidence

Monitoring of these activities included measuring mobilization meeting attendance, supervisor

checklists and family planning uptake—through the number of referrals provided compared with
the number of completed referrals.

Implementation of government policies

Policy implementation is generally defined as a series of activities undertaken by government
and others to achieve the goals and objectives articulated in policy statements. policy-makers and
system leaders are increasingly turning to individuals (e.g. knowledge brokers or champions),
teams (e.g. implementation teams), programmes or organisations with expertise in implementation
science and quality improvement approaches to support such efforts. ‘Intermediaries’ are one such
form of change agency.
What are intermediaries?
Intermediaries are individuals, organizations or programs that work in between existing system
structures in order to facilitate communication or to achieve a particular goal. There are many
different types of intermediaries that exist, playing a variety of roles in systems. One specific type
of intermediary is those that are policy oriented and implementation focused. Some of the most
commonly described functions include educating and stimulating interest in a policy or
programme; assessing evidence and a policy or programme’s fit or feasibility in a certain context;
linking knowledge generators and policy or programme developers with service deliverers;
ensuring effective implementation and fidelity systems are developed and maintained; building
capacity to implement well and integrate efforts to implement multiple initiatives; promoting the
spread and scaling up of effective interventions; enabling quality improvement and quality
assurance processes; and supporting policy and systems development.

Policy implementation is seen as a tension generating force in society. Tensions are generated
between and within four components of the implementing process: idealized policy, implementing
organization, target group, and environmental factors. The tensions result in transaction patterns
which may or may not match the expectations of outcome of the policy formulators. The
transaction patterns may become crystallized into institutions. Both the transaction patterns and
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the institutions may generate tensions which, by feedback to the policymakers and implementors,
may support or reject further implementation of the policy.

What enables implementation of policy?

Leadership is needed at all levels of the system for policy implementation. From a political
perspective, the appropriate level of leadership is needed to reshape mandates, resources, structures
and programmes. Consistency in leadership has also been suggested as an enabler of
implementation, such as fixed-term positions for senior government department officials, to ensure
continuity and strengthen relationships.
Communication plays an important role in facilitating successful implementation of a policy
and should be a core part of policy development from the beginning and throughout the stages of
implementation. Systematic communications are important to share information and feedback on
how implementation is progressing across sites, and to share wins and important policy milestones
to maintain buy-in and motivation of stakeholders.
Feedback mechanisms should be established between policymakers and front-line
practitioners once implementation has begun, to ensure the policy is being implemented as
intended, unplanned consequences are addressed efficiently and to support the learning capacity
of the system. Feedback mechanisms can include regular, standardized reporting arrangements
from front-line services to oversight structures for the policy, and policy reviews carried out at key
points in the policy life cycle, for example mid-term reviews.

Unit 4: Application of psychological methods to social auditing and economic issues.

Social Auditing
social means- relating to society or its organization. audit- an official inspection of an
organization’s accounts, typically by an independent body.
A social audit is a way of measuring, understanding, reporting and ultimately improving an
organization’s social and ethical performance. A social audit helps to narrow gaps between
vision/goal and reality, between efficiency and effectiveness. It is a technique to understand,
measure, verify, report on and to improve the social performance of the organization. Social
auditing is taken up for the purpose of enhancing local governance, particularly for strengthening
accountability and transparency in local bodies.

The idea of corporate social responsibility necessitates social audit. Corporates have a
responsibility towards their stakeholders including their shareholders, consumers, and larger
communities. Corporates draw resources and their success from society and they need to contribute
to society to further strengthen themselves. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) envisages
impactful contribution of corporates in achieving societal goals. The Constitution of India captures
and documents these goals in its all encompassing promise of social, economic and political justice
to all.
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CSR mandate in India, through the Companies Act, 2013, includes some aspects of
contributions that corporates should make to realise these goals. Accordingly, corporates decide
their CSR policies and make them known to public at large. Social audit can assess how effective
these CSR policies are and what social impact they bring to various stakeholders. Through social
audit, corporates can also discover and understand the ways to further strengthen their CSR
functions and social measures for them to be more impactful.
In 1953, Howard R. Bowen further elaborated the concept of social audit. He prescribed that
social audit be a high-level independent assessment conducted by a group of disinterested auditors.
These auditors would be socially oriented and technically trained in fields such as law, engineering,
theology, philosophy, economics, sociology, psychology, personnel and government. They would
also be conversant with business practices and problems.
The key difference between development and social audit is that a social audit focuses on the
neglected issue of social impacts, while a development audit has a broader focus including
environment and economic issues, such as the efficiency of a project or programme.
Bowen’s scope of social audit included appraisal of the company’s policies on the following
eight subjects:

• 1. Prices
• 2. Wages

• 3. Advertising

• 4. Research and Development

• 5. Community Relations
• 6. Public Relations

• 7. Human Relations
• 8. Employment Stabilization.
Objectives of social audit
1. Assessing the physical and financial gaps between needs and resources available for local
development.
2. Creating awareness among beneficiaries and providers of local social and productive services.
3. Increasing efficacy and effectiveness of local development programmes.

4. Scrutiny of various policy decisions, keeping in view stakeholder interests and priorities,
particularly of rural poor.
5. Estimation of the opportunity cost for stakeholders of not getting timely access to public
services.
Appropriate institutional level for social audit
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The most appropriate institutional level for social audit is the Gram Sabha, which has been
given ‘watchdog’ powers and responsibilities by the Panchayati Raj Acts in most States to
supervise and monitor the functioning of panchayat elected representatives and government
functionaries, and examine the annual statement of accounts and audit reports.

These are implied powers indirectly empowering Gram Sabhas to carry out social audits in
addition to other functions. Members of the Gram Sabha and the village panchayat, intermediate
panchayat and district panchayat through their representatives, can raise issues of social concern
and public interest and demand an explanation.

Steps in social audit in local bodies

1. Clarity of purpose and goal of the local elected body.
2. Identify stakeholders with a focus on their specific roles and duties. Social auditing aims to
ensure a say for all stakeholders. It is particularly important that marginalized social groups,
which are normally excluded, have a say on local development issues and activities and have
their views on the actual performance of local elected bodies.
3. Definition of performance indicators which must be understood and accepted by all. Indicator
data must be collected by stakeholders on a regular basis.
4. Regular meetings to review and discuss data/information on performance indicators.
5. Follow-up of social audit meeting with the panchayat body reviewing stakeholders’ actions,
activities and viewpoints, making commitments on changes and agreeing on future action as
recommended by the stakeholders.
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6. Establishment of a group of trusted local people including elderly people, teachers and others
who are committed and independent, to be involved in the verification and to judge if the
decisions based upon social audit have been implemented.
7. The findings of the social audit should be shared with all local stakeholders. This encourages
transparency and accountability. A report of the social audit meeting should be distributed for
Gram Panchayat auditing. In addition, key decisions should be written on walls and boards and
communicated orally.
The Concept of Psychological Capital
Psychological capital represents personal skills, including economical, human and
social, which the company possesses in order to achieve entrepreneurial competence at various
local and global levels. Therefore, it is the science that studies positive and evolving
psychological features in terms of performance, and has its role in contributing to facing the
current challenges. It expresses the individual's psychological state, which is capable of
developing and positively directed, and is characterized by the presence of self-efficacy and
confidence in success, achieving the goal with the desire to challenge and choosing difficult tasks
along with current and future success. As well as the hope to reorient paths and Resilience in the
case of exposure to problems and difficulties.(Nwanzu & Babalola, 2019)
The psychological capital is a building that consists of four variables: self-efficacy, hope,
optimism and Resilience. It is similar in nature to the shape of the situation that can be developed
and changed in the employee, as opposed to being similar to the feature in nature, such as
personality. The concept of psychological capital is often mentioned in the literature on positive
organizational behavior, which focuses on positive variables to improve performance. (Safavi &
Bouzari, 2019) (Jain, and Kumar 2017).
In the field of positive organizational behavior, four positive combinations were
distinguished (self-efficiency, Resilience, hope and optimism):
• Self-efficacy: Have the confidence to make the necessary efforts to succeed in challenging
tasks
• Optimism: Creating splendor or attribution regarding success, present or future
• Hope: perseverance, pursuit of goals, and reorientation of paths towards those goals when
necessary in order to achieve success
• Resilience: Tolerance and return to normalcy in the event of an individual experiencing
problems and adversity in his pursuit of goals

Self-efficacy: It is the conviction of the individual with his capabilities to internal development
and the use of this development in facing challenges, to identify opportunities and alternatives
that enable him to accomplish his tasks successfully, and indicates the extent of his ability to
challenge during situations. Self-efficacy has the ability to raise and support organizational
commitment, and that individuals who have high self-efficacy are individuals with a strong
organizational commitment, and this affects their performance by working positively.
Optimism: It is positive psychological thinking that affects knowledge and skills, and can be
directed to obtain a high level of positivity in line with the principle "You know your highest
strengths and talent, and you must use it to achieve your goal.”
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Hope: It is a psychological term that has been used widely in several areas historically in human
psychology, and we derive in the first place from positive psychology that it is concerned with
the research process and self-development processes that raise the level of hope among
individuals to form clear paths that point towards goals. (Awad, 2016).
Resilience: It is the least dimension of psychological capital that has received an interest in
organizational literature and has been used in the field of work by (Luthans), which he defined as
the positive psychological capabilities to revert or return again from obstacles, uncertainty,
conflict and failure, and even severe changes and progress achieved by the individual, and the
increase of his responsibilities, that is, it is a positive response not only to adverse events but also
to positive events that can cause adverse reactions on the side of the individual, and also in the
form of pressures that the individual is exposed to.
The importance of psychological capital is highlighted in the following aspects: (Shehata 2018),
(Talib and Dhahad 2019)
1. It relates to many positive results such as the performance of individuals, as it affects the level
of organizational commitment, and reduces absence from work.
2. It enhances the level of creativity and innovation among individuals and increases their level
of association with work and the company.
3. Possesses a positive effect in combating dysfunctional behaviors that specifically relate to
organizational change, and in turn, fights negative behaviors and undesirable situations with
action.
4. Encourages positives such as: emotional participation, positive alertness, and positive
organizational behaviors. (Al Najjar, et al., 2017).
5. It also motivates and develops individuals and promotes positive change in them,
psychological capital achieves job satisfaction and engagement with work.
6. Encourages individuals to conserve job resources, which achieves high levels of performance
and participation that in turn lead to job satisfaction,
7. Psychological capital is an important indicator in the identification of professional identity, and
associated with psychological and physical performance (Gota, 2017).
8. Enhances self-efficacy, supports efforts to achieve success through perseverance and trust,
and increases individual psychological abilities to deal with difficult problems.
Advantages of social audit
(a) Trains the community on participatory local planning
(b) Encourages local democracy
(c) Encourages community participation
(d) Benefits disadvantaged groups
(e) Promotes collective decision making and sharing responsibilities.
(f) Develops human resources and social capital
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Module 4 Gender Issues

Unit 1
Gender concept, Gender equity and equality, Gender based violence.
The concept of gender equality is since long established as the preferred wording for equal rights,
life prospects, opportunities and power for women and men , girls and boys. On the international
arena as well as in national contexts gender quality is a concept that is closely connected to the
human rights agenda. Gender equality is a concept with transformative connotations, covering
women’s empowerment, non-discrimination and equal rights regardless of gender.It points
towards change of gender-based power relations in all sectors of society, private as well as
public.

Equality, quality between men and women entails the concept that all human being, both men an
women are free to develop their personal abilities and make choices without the limitations set by
stereotypes rigid gender roles and prejudices. Gender equality means that the different behavior,
aspirations needs of women and men are considered valued and favoured equally.It does not
mean that women and men have to become the same but that their rights, responsibilities and
opportunities will not depends on whether they are born male or female.
UNICEF says Gender equality “means that women and men and girls and boys. Enjoy the same
rights resources, opportunities and protections. It does not require that girls and boys, or women
and men, be the same or that they be treated exactly a like”.

Major areas in gender inequality

1.Economic inequality
Labour participation and wages- over 50% of Indian labour is employed in agriculture. A
majority of rural men work as cultivators, while a majority of women work in livestock
maintenance, egg and milk production. There is wage inequality between men and women in
India.
Property rights- women have equal rights under the law to own property and receive equal
inheritance rights, but in practice, women are at disadvantages.
2. Occupational inequalities

Military service-women are not allowed to have combat roles in the armed force. According to a
study carried out on this issue, a recommendation was made that female officers be excluded
from induction in close combat arms.

Scientific profession-discriminatory hiring practices in favour of men were also pursued due
beliefs that women would be less committed to work after marriage.
3. Education inequalities-
Schooling-girls continue to be less educated than boys.
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Secondary education- in boys and girls , transition from primary to secondary education displays
and increase in the disparity gap, as greater percentage of females compared to males drop out
their educational journey after the age of 12
Literacy- through it is gradually rising, the female literacy rate in India is lower than male
literacy rate.
4.Political inequalities-
This measure of gender inequality considers the gap between men and women and men in
political decision making at the highest level.

5. Health and survival inequalities-

Sex-selective abortion- gender selection and abortion were banned under pre-conception and pre-
natal diagnostics technique act in 1994. The practice continue illegally.other institutional efforts
such as advertise ent calling female feoticides a sin by the health ministry of India and annual girl
child day can be observed to raise status of girls and to combat female infanticide.

Mental health concerns- some studies in south india have found that gender disadvantages, such
as negative attitudes towards womens empowerment are risk factors for suicidal behavior and
common mental disorder like anxiety and depression.
Gender-based violence– domestic violence, rape and dowry related violence are sources of
gender violence
Reason for gender inequality
Patriarchal society

Patriarchy is a social system of privilege in which men are the primary authority figures,
occupying roles of political leadership, moral authority, control of property and authority over
women and children.

Son Preference
A key factor driving gender inequality is the preference for sons, as they are deemed more useful
than girls. Boys are given the exclusive rights to inherit the family name and properties and they
are viewed as additional status for their family.Another factor is that of religious practices, which
can only be performed by males for their parents afterlife.
Discrimination against girls
While women express a strong preference for having at least one son, the evidences of
discrimination against girls after they are born is mixed.In impoverished families, these scholar
found that daughters face discrimination in the medical treatment of illness and in the
administration of vaccinations against serious childhood disease. These practices were a cause of
health and survival inequality for girls.
Dowry
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In india , dowry is the payment in cash or some kind of gifts given to bridegrooms family along
with the bride. The dowry system in india contributes to gender inequalities by influencing the
perception that girls are a burden on families. The payment of a dowry has been prohibited under
the 1961 Dowry Prohibition Act in Indian civil law.

Gender equity
Gender equity puts the focus on fairness and justices regarding benefits and needs for women and
men, girls and boys. Equity is used for example within the education, health and humanitarian
sector referred to the equal distribution of resources based on the needs of different group of
people. The concept gender equity is also used to detach gender equality from the human rights
agenda and avoid talking about women and girls human rights. It has been picked up by
conservation actors who emphasis the complementarity of women and men, talk about “separate
but equal” and go far in arguing for biologically given roles and obligations for women and men
in society.

Gender based violence

“Gender-based violence (GBV) is the general term used to capture violence that occurs as a
result of the normative role expectations associated with each gender, along with the unequal
power relationships between the two genders, within the context of a specific society.”
Forms of violence against women
Domestic violence

• Pattern of perpetrator behaviors used against a survivor.

• The pattern consists of a variety of abusive acts, occurring in multiple episodes over the
course of the relationship
• e.g., punching, name calling, threats, or attacks against property,a slap, a “certain look”,
physical assault, name calling or intimidating gestures, physical assault, sexual assault,
menacing, arson, kidnapping, harassment, name calling, interrogating children, denying
the survivor access to the family, automobile.
• All parts of the pattern interact with each other and can have profound physical and
emotional effect on survivors.

Sexual violence

• A person can be sexually violated by one individual or several people (e.g. gang-rapes);
the incident may be planned or a surprise attack.
• Although sexual violence occurs most commonly in the survivor's home (or in the
perpetrator’s home), it also takes place in many other
settings, such as the workplace, at school, in prisons, cars, the streets or open spaces (e.g.
parks, farmland).
• The perpetrator of a sexual assault may be a date, an acquaintance, a friend, a family member,
an intimate partner or former intimate
partner, or a complete stranger, but more often than not, is someone known to the survivor.
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There is no stereotypical perpetrator;

sexually violent men come from all backgrounds, rich and poor, academic and uneducated,
religious and non-religious.

Perpetrators may be persons in positions of authority who are respected and trusted (e.g. a
doctor, teacher, tourist guide, priest, police
officer) and thus less likely to be suspected of sexual violence.

Other forms of sexual violence include, but are not limited to:

sexual slavery, sexual harassment (including demands for sex in exchange for job promotion
or advancement or higher school marks or grades), trafficking for the purpose of sexual
exploitation, forced exposure to pornograph, forced pregnancy, forced sterilizati, forced
abortion, forced marriage, female genital mutilation, virginity test and incest

Threats of violence and harm

The perpetrator’s threats of violence or harm may be directed against the survivor or others
important to the survivor or they may be suicide threats. Sometimes the threat includes killing
the victim and others and then committing suicide. The threats may be made directly with
words (e.g., “I’m going to kill you,” “No one is going to have you,” “Your mother is going to
pay,” “I cannot live without you”) or with actions (e.g., stalking, displaying weapons, hostage
taking, suicide attempts).
Physical violence
Physical abuse may include spitting, scratching, biting, grabbing, shaking, shoving, pushing,
restraining, throwing, twisting, slapping, (with open or closed hand), punching, choking,
burning, and/or use of weapons (e.g., household objects, knives, guns) against the survivor.
The physical assaults may or may not cause injuries.

Emotional violence

Emotional abuse is a tactic of control that consists of a wide variety of verbal attacks and
humiliations, including repeated verbal attacks against the survivor’s worth as an individual or
role as a parent, family member, friend, co-worker, o community member. In domestic
violence, verbal attacks and other tactics or control are intertwined with the threat of harm in
order to maintain the perpetrator’s dominance through fear.

Emotional abuse may also include humiliating the victim in front of family, friends or
strangers. Perpetrators may repeatedly claim that survivors are crazy, incompetent, and unable
“to do anything right.” Not all verbal insults between partners are acts of violence. In order for
verbal abuse to be considered domestic violence, it must be part of a pattern of coercive
behaviours in which the perpetrator uses or threatens to use physical force.
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Isolation

• Perpetrators often try to control survivors’ time, activities and contac with others.
• Perpetrators’ use of disinformation tactics such as distorting what is real through lying,
providing contradictory information, or withholding information is compounded by the forced
isolation of the survivors
• For example, perpetrators may lie to survivors about their legal right or the outcomes of
medical interventions. While many survivors are able to maintain their independent thoughts
and actions, others believe what the perpetrators say because the survivors are isolated from
contrary information. Through his survivor’s isolation, the perpetrato prevents discovery of
the abuse and avoids being held responsible for it.

Use of children

• Some abusive acts are directed against or involve children in order to control or punish the
adult victim (e.g., physical attacks against a child, sexual use o children, forcing children to
watch the abuse of the survivor, engaging children in the abuse of the survivor).
• A perpetrator may use children to maintain control over his partner by not paying child
support, requiring the children to spy, requiring that at least one child always be in the
company of the survivor, threatening to take children away from her, involving her in long
legal fights over custody, or kidnappg or taking the children hostage as a way to force the
survivor’s compliance. Children are also drawn into the assaults and are sometimes injured
simply because they are present (e.g., the victim is holding an infant when pushed against the
wall) or because the child attempts to intervene in the fight.

Economic Violence

• Perpetrators control survivors by controlling their access to all of the family resources:
time, transportation, food, clothing, shelter, insurance, and money.

• They may actively resist the survivor becoming financially self-sufficient as a way to
maintain power and control.

• He may expect her to be the family “bookkeeper,” requiring that she keep all records
and write all checks, or he may keep financial information away from her(or vice versa).
In all instances he alone makes the decisions.

• Survivors are put in the position of having to get “permission” to spend money on basic
family needs.

• When the survivor leaves the battering relationship, the perpetrator may use economics
as a way to maintain control or force her to return:
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• refusing to pay bills, instituting legal procedures costly to the survivor, destroying assets
in which she has a share, or refusing to work “on the books” where there would be legal
access to his income. All of these tactics may be used regardless of the economic class of
the family.

Gender based violence against men

• India has been a male-dominant society from ages, and it is hard t believe that male can
be a victim and female a perpetrator.

• Domestic violence against men in India is not recognized by the law as well. However,
contrary to common belief, there are a growing number of men who are at the receiving
end of harassment and face psychological and physical abuse by women.

• 1 in 9 men in the United States of America experiences some sort of domestic violence
from their Intimate partner or from their wives. 1 in 7 men has been the victim of some
sort of physical violence by their wives or by their intimate partner.

Gender-based violence through the lifecycle

• Violence against girls and women occurs at different points in their lifecycle.

• Many women experience multiple episodes of violence that may start in the prenatal
period and continue through childhood to adulthood and old age.

• The lifecycle approach to gender-based violence helps one understand the cumulative
impact of violence experienced by girls and women, especially in terms of its physical
and mental health consequences.

Gender Minorities

• Sexual and gender minority is an umbrella term that encompasses populations

included in the acronym "LGBTQIA+"

• In some contexts, asexual people suffer from social exclusion due to cultural pressure
to marry and have children, while people involved in sex work often suffer multiple
forms of exclusion.

• Nevertheless, asexual people and people involved in sex work were not explicitly
included in the research, except when they overlapped with the other categories
described above (for example, male sex workers with male clients, or transgender
asexual people).
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• The concept of sexual and gender minorities includes considerable diversity as

well as a multiplicity of identities and behaviours.:

• For example, a transgender woman may herself be heterosexual, homosexual,

bisexual or asexual.
• It is important to note that exclusion and discrimination against sexual and gender
minorities can also directly affect people who do not see themselves as such minorities;
• feminine boys and masculine girls are often bullied in school as a result of such
discrimination, although they may mature into heterosexual and gender typical
adults.
• Discrimination against sexual and gender minorities also has clear impacts on their
families, such as when children of gay men or lesbians are excluded from school or
when entire households suffer due to the presence of a single family member who is
seen as part of a sexual or gender minority
• It is extremely difficult to confidently estimate the population size of sexual and gender
minorities.
Associated health , environmental, economical, social issues

Stress
Social issues may lead to possible health and psychological issues, especially in youth.
It has been found that sexual minorities face increased stress due to stigmas.

This stigma-related stress creates elevated coping regulation and social and cognitive
processes leading t risk for psychopathology

Risky behavior

One small study showed that LGBT adolescents were victimized more often, had higher
rates of psychopathology, left home more frequently, used highly addictive substances
more frequently, and wer more likely to have more multiple sex partners than
heterosexual adolescents.

Development

Based on studies of adolescents, it is concluded that sexual minorities are similar to

heterosexual adolescents in developmental needs and concerns. However, research has
suggested that sexual minori youth (more specifically GLBT youth) are more
susceptible to psychological and health issues than heterosexual youth.
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Epidemiology
Sexual minorities tend to use alternative and complementary medicine alternative methods of
addressing thhealth needs more often than heterosexuals. Sexual minority women have a higher
incidence of asthma, obesity, arthritis and cardiovascular disease than other groups. Adolescent
sexual minorities report a higher incidence of the following when compared to heterosexual
students:

• feelings of not being safe travelling to and from school or in school.

• not going to school because they did not feel safe
• forced to do sexual things they did not want to do by someone they were dating or
going out with one or more times during the 12 months (touching, kissing, or
physically forced to have sexual intercou
• had sexual intercourse
• first had sex before age 13.
• had sex with at least four other people.
• not using birth control.
• had experienced sexual violence.[4
• When compared to the general population, sexual minorities have a higher risk for self-
injury The treatment of aging sexual minorities seems to be influenced more by ageism.
Support for aging sexual minorities appears to be common.
Discrimination

• When gay, lesbian, and bisexual adults reported being discriminated against, forty-two
percen credited it to their sexual orientation.

• This discrimination was positively associated with both harmful effects on quality of
life an indicators of psychiatric morbidity.

In the med

• Sexual minorities are generally portrayed in the mass media as being ignored.
• The term symbolic annihilation accounts for their lack of characterization due to not
fitting into the white, heterosexual, vanilla type lifestyle.
• The media has a big role to play in promoting inclusive language, including gender-
inclusive language, to help educate the general public about diversity. In the same
way as inclusive language social groups increases wellbeing within the group,
inclusive language in media representation does the same for society as a whole.
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UNIT 2:
ROLE OF WOMEN AND GENDER MINORITIES IN DEALING WITH
ENVIRONMENTL, ECONOMICAL, SOCIAL ISSUES.
ROLE OF WOMEN

• Women play a critical role in managing natural resources on family and community levels
and are most affected by environmental degradation.

• In communities around the world, women manage water, sources for fuel, and food, as well
as both forests and agricultural terrain.

• Women always plays a pivotal role whether it was conservation of biodiversity or water
resource or against the construction of hydroelectric project.

• Women produce 60 to 80 percent of food in developing countries, while inheritance laws and
local customs often prevent them from owning or leasing land and securing loans or
insurance.

• From the high level to the grassroots, the 1992 UN Earth Summit, India’s Chipko movement
and Kenya’s Green Belt Movement all highlighted the role of women’s voices and
perspectives in sustainable development.

• Women play a critical role in managing natural resources on family and community levels
and are most affected by environmental degradation.

• In communities around the world, women manage water, sources for fuel, and food, as well
as both forests and agricultural terrain.

• Women produce 60 to 80 percent of food in developing countries, while inheritance laws and
local customs often prevent them from owning or leasing land and securing loans or
insurance.

• From the high level to the grassroots, the 1992 UN Earth Summit, India’s Chipko movement
and Kenya’s Green Belt Movement all highlighted the role of women’s voices and
perspectives in sustainable development.

• The government of India has adopted various policies and programs which include women as
decision-makers when making environmental policies by increasing women participation in
the grassroots level and spread awareness towards conservation of environment. But India long
miles to go to make equitable gender sensitive environmental policies in true sense. Various
environmental movements like Bishnoi movement, Chipko Movement, Aapiko movement,
Silent valley movement and Narmada Bachao Andolan are the significant environmental
movement of India that reflect the integral leadership of women.
PROGRAMS

• 1) Environmental Gender Index(EGI),which ranking the countries on how they mandate gender
and environment into their policies and planning. It monitors gender equality and women’s
empowerment in the environmental arena. India’s rank is 46th out of 72 countries.
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• 2) National Forest Policy 1988 and Joint Forest Management (JFM) program of the 1990s
mandated that women comprise 33% of the membership of the Vana Samarakshana Samitis.
The reason of this creation was that the problem of deforestation could be well managed if the
state Forest Departments worked out joint management agreements with local communities to
reforest degraded forest.

• 3) The National Policies for Women 2016 also give importance to women and adopted policies
and programmes gender sensitive. As women get equitable ownership of control and use of
natural resources and also secure the asset as the poor women can counter poverty.

• 4) Women participation will be ensured in the use of environment friendly technologies and
organically grown produce will be promoted to provide viable livelihood options to women.
The gender and environmental nexus

• While men and women must work hand in hand to confront the environmental challenges
of our time, considerations of gender and environment are crucial to our ability to achieve
a just and sustainable future.
• Gender inequalities, such as weak rights to own land and reduced access to energy, water
and sanitation facilities for women, have a negative impact on human health, the
environment and sustainable development. Therefore, mainstreaming gender into the
global environmental agenda is essential to strive for a healthier planet for all.
• Ecofeminism Bringing together feminism and environmentalism, ecofeminism argues that
the domination of women and the degradation of the environment are consequences of
patriarchy and capitalism. Any strategy to address one must take into account its impact
on the other so that women's equality should not be achieved at the expense of worsening
the environment, and neither should environmental improvements be gained at the expense
of women. Indeed, ecofeminism proposes that only by reversing current values, thereby
privileging care and cooperation over more aggressive and dominating behaviors, can both
society and environment benefit.
1. Women and sustainable consumption

• Sustainable consumption is using resources in a way that minimises harm to the

environment while supporting the well-being of people.
• In terms of resource impacts, women tend to leave a smaller ecological footprint than men
due to their more sustainable consumption patterns. Impressing a more feminine footprint
would result in a smaller impact on the environment as well as better access to goods and
services that take into account the needs of both women and men.
• Women’s consumption reflects that they generally earn less than men and have less money
at their disposal. They are more likely to buy the cheaper basic essentials such as food,
clothing and household articles.
• Surveys show that women tend to be more sustainable consumers. Women are more likely
to recycle, buy organic food and eco-labelled products and place a higher value on energy-
efficient transport (OECD, 2008a). They make more ethical consumer choices, paying
closer attention to issues including child labour and sustainable livelihoods and are more
apt to buy socially labelled goods such as Fairtrade.
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• Assessments find that girls more than boys report higher levels of concern for the
environment and a greater sense of responsibility for sustainable development starting as
young as 15. Although consumer choices are influenced by income levels, social conditions
and biases, gender is also a major factor. In their consumption choices, women throughout
their lives affirm their reproductive role and concern about the longer-term well-being of
families and children.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS:

• Governments can build on female consumer preferences to promote more sustainable

consumption patterns to benefit the economy and society.
• In surveys, women support more government intervention in the marketplace to promote
sustainable consumption behaviour. They advocate bans on unsustainable products, lower
prices for environmentally-friendly goods, and better labelling of the environmental and
social impacts of products and their production. But since far more women live in poverty
than men, they are less able to afford the effects of bans, standards and taxes on the prices
of sustainable products.
• Governments need to consider the income effects of fiscal measures, subsidies and other
instruments for sustainable consumption, and make sustainable products more affordable
through grants and differential taxation since women may want to increase the
sustainability of their purchases and are willing to change their lifestyles and consumer
habits, but they need assistance in reducing their impacts on the environment.
• For example, financial assistance can be provided to environmental and social labelling
programes which are shown to appeal to women, coupled with lower taxes on labelled
goods.
2. Women and Sustainable Production

• Women are increasingly visible in export-oriented sectors in middle income developing

countries, where they comprise up to 90% of workers. Females now tend to dominate in
low-skill, labour-intensive jobs in textiles, clothing, pharmaceuticals, household goods and
toy production. Much of this employment is located in export processing zones, which
account for between 33% and 88% of production and exports depending on the sector. In
2005, it was estimated that there were 50 million jobs in export processing zones worldwide
and that 80% of these were held by women.
• In countries such as India, women represent 96% of workers not represented by unions.
Wages remain significantly lower than in other manufacturing sectors where the majority
of workers are men. In comparable jobs, women’s earnings represent about 73% of men’s
earnings. Less than 20% of this gender wage gap can be explained by male female
differences in education and work experience or by the types or characteristics of their jobs.
• The situation is comparable in export-oriented agricultural sectors such as food-processing
and horticulture, where women also make up the majority of workers in many countries.
Because jobs are not adequately remunerated and lack full labour rights, women are
deprived of opportunities to improve their livelihood and status.
• Other deficiencies include long and irregular working hours which are destructive to family
life, lack of health benefits and maternity leave, poor health and safety conditions, and lack
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of union representation or legal employment contracts. The result is female working

poverty, the profits of which are reaped by actors further up the supply chain.
POLICY IMPLICATION

• Governments can promote sustainable corporate production through support to reporting

systems and international instruments. More companies are now publishing corporate
reports to inform consumers of their environmental and social values and practices at home
and abroad.
• More large companies are providing information in connection with global sustainability
instruments and codes of conduct, including the OECD Guidelines for Multinational
Enterprises, the UN Global Compact, and the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI). These are
comprehensive frameworks which cover environment, social and corporate governance
issues.
• More than half of the world’s largest companies now provide reports on environmental,
social and ethical performance.
• While the top-down approach to promoting sustainable production is gaining ground, the
lower reaches remain neglected with controversial and embarrassing results for larger
multinationals. Companies should be made responsible for the production impacts of their
suppliers, including the environmental, safety and health, and worker rights dimensions.
More international codes of conduct should include reporting and monitoring on how a
company’s product range supports sustainable production all along the global supply chain.
3. Women and Climate Change

• Women tend to be affected differently, and more harshly, by climate change because of
their social roles and more impoverished status.
• In developed countries, women are among the most vulnerable groups owing to a reduced
ability to access finance, technology and information needed to adapt to climate change
impacts. In the case of Hurricane Katrina in the United States, for example, those who were
hardest hit and had the least ability to recover included women, who represent the majority
of the poor.
• Increased costs for energy, transportation, health-care, and food caused by the disrupting
effects of climate change disproportionately affect women, especially single mothers.
• In poorer countries, climate change can adversely affect crop yields and thus the livelihoods
and food security of women who are largely responsible for food production as well as
family nutrition.
• Supplying water and fuel for families, which is typically the responsibility of women,
becomes more difficult as environmental changes negatively affect clean water supply,
existing infrastructure, and urban and rural settlements.
• Coping with the damage of extreme weather events such as storms, floods, and cyclones
may also fall more on women who hold together families and households.
• Climate change can lead to shortages of resources and unreliable job markets, causing male
emigration in the search for work and increasing the agricultural and household duties of
women.
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• Women and children are far more likely to die than men during extreme weather events
linked to climate change owing to their greater vulnerability. In the 1991 cyclone disasters
in Bangladesh, 90% of victims were women.
• For mitigating climate change, women propose more comprehensive approaches to those
advocated by men, but they have less power and influence to affect public policy.
POLICY IMPLICATIONS

• The role of women in confronting and adapting to climate change should be increased in
order to draw on a wider range of mitigation actions and better targeting of adaptation
strategies. More balanced and effective approaches could be developed if international
climate change negotiation processes as well as national climate policies considered gender
aspects.
• By increasing the female presence in climate decision-making, holistic solutions to mitigate
adverse effects would be given greater weight.
• Women, whose carbon footprint is smaller than that of men, should play a larger role in
confronting climate change since they make the majority of consumption decisions for
households.
• As the primary caregivers and educators of the next generation, women give greater
emphasis to the role of communications and education in mitigating climate change.
• In poorer countries, the female role in helping communities adapt to the adverse effects of
climate change should be factored into development assistance policies and climate change
strategies.
ECONOMICS AND GENDER

• A wise man of great intellect and power once said, “The best measure of a nation’s
progress is the way it treats its women.” For centuries, women have faced challenges
and hurdles and that has bestowed on them infinite patience, perseverance and have
only helped them emerge stronger. Over the past few decades, women working
professionals have worked assiduously, with their talent, dedication and enthusiasm.
• They contribute massively towards India’s economic growth and prosperity. At present,
there are 432 million women of working-age in India, out of which 343 million are
employed in the unorganized sector. Even in rural India, women have been achieving
new milestones everyday.
• Despite social and familial exclusion, women have asserted their right to financial
independence, built businesses from the scratch and inspired those around them. In the
panchayat system, 50% reservation is offered to women while many national programs,
such as ‘National Rural Livelihood Mission’, are providing leadership opportunities to
them at the grassroots level. Government initiatives like the ‘Swachh Bharat Mission’
and ‘Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act’ has provided
women workforce with supervisory job opportunities.
• Today, India is the 3rd largest ecosystem in terms of Startups in the world and also, the
3rd largest in the Unicorn community. However, only 10% of them have been led by
women founders. The need of the hour is to mobilize more support – mentally and
financially – for women entrepreneurs and help them kickstart their journey.
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Fortunately, the last few years have seen a paradigm shift in the entire process of women
becoming business leaders and founding companies.
• The way to enhance women’s economic empowerment is not just by increasing female
employment opportunities, but also reducing the double shift burden women face.
There is a need for adoption of the 3Rs approach, which involves Recognising,
Reducing and Redistributing the unpaid care work done by women in all areas of
policymaking.
• This can be done by facilitating women’s work as investment in public-sector care
infrastructure. Public investment of just 2% of India’s GDP in the care economy, could
not only generate 11 million jobs, but could also increase women’s economic and social
welfare as they venture out into formal work.
• It is pivotal to have women-centric and women-friendly policies in place with an aim
to encourage and support women entrepreneurship in India. There is also an urgent need
to ensure that significant interventions take place to provide easier access to banks and
other financial institutions, as well as tax incentives.
• The CII National Committee on Women Empowerment works with industry to
strengthen women’s role and participation in the economic sphere and community
affairs, focusing on gender equality and prevention of sexual harassment at workplace
and women empowerment at the community level.
• CII has also instituted the annual CII Woman Exemplar Award for women who have
worked towards development initiatives in the fields of education and literacy, health
and micro enterprises. The Committee, along with partner organizations like the United
Nations Fund for Women (UNIFEM), conducts periodic studies on women
empowerment in the workplace and holds conferences, seminars, workshops, gender
sensitization programmes.
• Women empowerment with gender equality is the key to fundamental human rights and
is pivotal in our journey towards a more peaceful, progressive and sustainable world.
Evolving and closing gender divide is inevitable and is being made possible through
equal opportunities and equal representation for women.
1. WOMEN AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
• Women, which constitute half of the world’s human capital, are one of its most
underutilised resources. Sustainable economic growth at national and global levels
depends on women joining the labour force and fuller use being made of their skills and
qualifications.
• More working women would also help offset the negative effects of declining fertility
rates and ageing populations in many OECD countries.
• The rate of female participation in the labour force is significantly lower than that of
men in all countries. On average in OECD countries, about 60% of women are
employed.
• However, there are wide variations stemming from social and economic factors as well
as public policies. The employment gender gap is most pronounced in countries such
as Turkey, Mexico, Italy and Greece, where less than 50% of women work.
• Female employment rates are highest at over 70% in Iceland, Denmark, Norway,
Sweden and Switzerland.
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• Women are far more likely to work part-time than men. Nearly three out of four part-
time jobs are held by women, and more than one in four women work part-time.
• The economic contributions of women fall far short of their potential owing partly to
their reduced working schedules.
• Even when women work the same hours, they earn less than men due to persistent
gender wage gaps. The average difference in pay for men and women in full-time jobs
is more than 18%.
• Women’s work in the home is also undervalued. In all countries, women perform the
bulk of household duties without pay, even while working in the labour force.
POLICY MAKING:
• As the labour supply decreases, more women in the workforce can help drive economic
growth as well as fund social security systems and raise living standards. Governments
should remove obstacles that make it hard for women with children to work and provide
other incentives to increase the female presence in the labour force.
• Women are disadvantaged in the workplace by time poverty, intermittency, and lack of
mobility. Countries which have mandated and funded family-friendly policies to
address these anomalies are those which are reaping the economic benefits of more
working women.
• Greater access to childcare facilities, subsidised and monitored by public authorities, is
the most effective way that governments can enable women to work.
• Other family-friendly practices, including paid leave and flexible work arrangements,
can have net benefits in terms of overall productivity, work performance and growth.
Paid parental leave allows both women and men to take care of children for prescribed
periods, without suffering adverse income and employment effects. Governments can
also legislate flexible work approaches which allow employees with young children to
change their working hours, reduce their hours, request modified schedules or engage
in more teleworking.
• Monetary incentives are also needed. Governments can take steps to better remunerate
women’s work, which is often assigned a lower value in terms of skill requirements and
pay.
• Mobilising female and maternal labour supply through explicit targets and programes
is key to sustainable economic growth in the long-term.
2. WOMEN AND POVERTY REDUCTION

• Women represent more than 70% of the world’s poor due to unequal access to economic
opportunities in both developed and developing countries.
• In OECD countries, increasing female participation in the workforce would reduce the
number of people living in poverty since women and children account for most of the
poor even in the richest countries.
• In developing countries, the failure to value women’s work is a significant barrier to
reducing poverty and fostering economic growth.
• The Gender Gap Index shows a correlation between gender equality (as measured by
the economic participation, education, health and political empowerment of women)
and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita.
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• Women and girls in developing countries and poor environments are often the last to
receive health care.
• Women in the labour force in developing countries, including services, agriculture and
manufacturing, do not fare much better.
• Because these women are often denied basic working rights, including minimum wages
and labour representation, market distortions arise as economic resources do not reach
those who could make the most use of them.
• GNP per capita is far lower in countries where females are significantly less well-
educated than men.
• Improving the access of women to education and health care as well as economic
opportunities can have significant positive outcomes for poverty reduction. Lower
fertility rates, better nutrition for all family members, and reduced infant, child, and
maternal mortality are among the social gains from targeting women.

3. WOMEN AND TECHNOLOGY

• Women workers with a science and technology (S&T) background are a key resource
in today’s knowledge-based economies. There is rising demand for S&T workers, and
job growth in this area is being driven by increases in female employment.
• But women remain vastly underrepresented in S&T studies at both secondary and
tertiary levels of education and in the overall technical workforce.
• Greater female participation in computer science, engineering and technology-oriented
jobs would spur innovation and economic advances in all countries.
• The science and technology gender gap relates more to attitudes than to aptitudes. Boys
are more likely than girls to choose science subjects to study in higher education and to
have more positive attitudes towards science generally.
• Natural sciences, engineering and mathematics occupations have the lowest share of
women among the professions.
• Women do occupy more than 60% of ICT-related jobs, but these are mostly secretarial
and clerical positions. With regard to ICT-specialist positions – those who develop and
maintain computer hardware and software – women account for only 10%-20% of jobs
and this share is stagnating or decreasing in many countries.

4. WOMEN AND MANAGEMENT

• Women’s representation in management positions in both the private and public sectors
is markedly low and evidences another failure to make full use of available human
capital.
• In OECD countries where women are 40%-50% of the labour force, they account for
less than 8% of top managers. Worldwide, this share is even lower and declining.
• Known as the “glass ceiling” phenomenon, women have a difficult time climbing the
leadership ladder. The result of this managerial gender gap is the reduced performance,
innovation and effectiveness of firms and governments.
• This managerial gender gap persists despite evidence that women managers can
improve the economic performance of companies and organisations.
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• In general, women managers bring a wider range of perspectives to bear in corporate

decision-making, contribute team-building and communication skills, and help
organisations adapt to changing circumstances.
• Including more women in managerial teams has been found to increase the innovation
capacity of companies.
• In an international study of large corporations, those with a higher proportion of women
in top management demonstrated the best performance in terms of work environment,
innovation, accountability and profits.

5. WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS

• Entrepreneurs, or individuals starting up new firms, are crucial to productivity and

growth in all countries.
• The number of women entrepreneurs, as seen in female to male start-up ratios, is also
growing fastest in these countries, which include the United States and Canada. While
a growing number of women are becoming entrepreneurs, women-owned ventures are
as yet an untapped source of business and job creation.
• Women often become entrepreneurs out of a desire to exploit innovative ideas or market
niches. They may venture into entrepreneurship as a way out of “no point” jobs, to gain
independence from exploitative practices or to be one’s own boss.
• The ability to work flexible hours is very attractive to women who want to combine
work and family responsibilities.
• Women confront barriers to creating and developing enterprises and becoming
entrepreneurs.
• Women entrepreneurs often have less experience than men dealing with complicated
procedures, including financial arrangements, and little information about sources of
help. They may also gravitate towards self-employment because of a lack of alternative
positions, blocked mobility or the inability to find a job that fits their skills.
• Entrepreneurship and self-employment may sometimes be a survival strategy for those
who cannot find any other means of earning an income.
• Women also have more problems obtaining business credit in all countries. This is
despite evidence that women demonstrate high loan repayment rates as well as default
rates significantly lower than those of men.
Role of women and social issues

• Women have significant roles to play within society. In social, political, economic,
cultural and religious spheres, the role of women is well recognised. In these areas, they
are capable of effectively participating because they have effective skills and abilities.
• Women need to raise awareness of the contributing factors as well as skills and abilities.
Knowledge of these factors also allows them to overcome the obstacles that may occur
during the performance of roles. If women play different kinds of positions, they need
to ensure that the wellness of their families and communities is promoted effectively.
In other words, it must be ensured that their participation is helpful for people.
• The key aspects of the discussion here include the importance of women's roles in
society, factors that influence women's involvement, styles of social roles and roles of
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women in working environments. "Females" is a strong term. It's charming because it

reflects love, care, nourishment, obligations, responsibilities, strength, eternity,
maternity and so on.
• A woman is the mirror of the society in every society. When it is marginalised, it is
oppressed; if it is brought up, society is brought up; if it is strengthened, it is empowered
. A woman is like a society atom, without which nothing would be there. She maintains
culture and customs and brings them out. She's the one who cares about her husband
and his family. In other words, she creates everything in society. A woman (mother) is
her child, the first teacher; she is the first doctor to treat her children lovingly. She is
the first teacher to teach her children, the first partner to play games with her children.
Her function is enormous in the development of her child. A woman cannot be thanked
enough for her indefinite position and constant responsibility towards her children,
family, community and society.
• Factors that affect women's participation: Following factors affect or influence women
who participate in different tasks and activities:
• Socio-Cultural Factors
• Infrastructural Factors
• Economic Factors
SOCIETY AND GENDER
1. WOMEN AND EDUCATION

• Raising the education levels and literacy rates of women is one of the most effective
investments for increasing female productivity as well as enhancing the well-being of
families and children.
• In the OECD area, where women are becoming more educated than men, the challenge
is making better use of women’s qualifications.
• In developing countries, reducing gender inequality in literacy and in primary and
secondary education is essential to reducing poverty and accelerating economic
development.
• The educational gender gap in favour of women starts young in the OECD area. Girls
now tend to do better at school than boys in almost all countries.
• More women are now getting university degrees than men. In many OECD countries,
well over half of all university degrees are being awarded to women. The gender gap
in favour of women is greatest in countries such as Canada, Finland and Sweden.
2. WOMEN AND HEALTH

• Health care financing, health system reforms, health education, and health policies and
programes could increase their cost effectiveness by considering gender dimensions.
Increasing the quality and lowering the expense of health care is one of the highest
social priorities in all countries and demographics play a major role in achieving these
aims.
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• Women live longer than men due to genetic factors but also to different behavioral,
lifestyle and working patterns. For the world as a whole, female life expectancy is about
6% higher than for men.
• Addressing the health care issues associated with ageing populations must also account
for gender. Expenditures on long-term care for older people are rising significantly,
largely because of increasing numbers of elderly women. Disability is much more
prevalent among elderly women than elderly men.
• Prevention and treatment should be planned and costed on the basis of gender. Females
(as well as males) require specific health services for gender-specific diseases (breast
cancer, cervical cancer), reproduction (pregnancy, menopause, osteoporosis), and
socio-economic concerns (eating disorders, violence against women, work-related
stress). For example, breast cancer is the most common cancer among women and
survival rates depend on early detection and treatment.
• Women are more prone than men to self-declared ill-health, reduced work capacity due
to illness, and mental disorders related to stress (WHO, 2006). These physical and
mental health problems may be due to discriminatory workplaces as well as male
violence against women in all countries.
3. WOMEN AND MIGRATION

• Women make up more than 50% of all new immigrants to OECD countries and their
migration patterns and effects on home and host countries differ from those of male
migrants. International migration can contribute to economic growth by alleviating
labour shortages caused by declining fertility rates. At the same time, migration can
contribute to development in sending countries through remittances and repatriation of
skilled migrants.
• Most women migrate for family reasons – to form or reunify families. Migrant women
often enter countries as wives and dependents of men who sponsor their admission, and
they are less likely than men to migrate on economic or humanitarian grounds.
• However, more women are now migrating independently for employment instead of
following male relatives. These women as well as those who enter for family reasons
tend to have greater difficulties than men in finding income-generating opportunities.
• The employment rate of immigrant women is far lower than that of their male
counterparts and also lower than that of native-born women.
• Women immigrants often confront two-fold discrimination in being foreign and female
constituting what is termed a “double disadvantage”.
• Migrant women face a gender-stratified labour market where they find themselves at
the low-skill rather than high-skill end.
• Skilled migrant women often go into welfare and social professions including education
and health care.
• The emigration of women, both skilled and unskilled, can be damaging to growth in
sending countries given the key role played by women in poverty reduction.
• The main positive contribution of female migration to developing countries is the
money which they earn and send back home. Low-skilled migrants, particularly
women, tend to send more money home than high skilled migrants of both sexes.
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• Temporary unskilled migration, where women are largely concentrated, results in

higher flows of remittances even though women earn less than the average male
migrant.
4. WOMEN AND GOVERNANCE

• Although women make up half of the world’s population and despite their achievement
of equal citizenship status to men, they remain vastly under-represented in governance
forums. In most countries, there is a clear absence of women involved in decision-
making processes at local, regional and national levels.
• Factors contributing to the lack of female participation in decision-making processes
include their low labour force participation and time poverty in relation to men as well
as stereotypical attitudes towards the societal roles of women and men.
• In parliamentary decision-making, women are outnumbered by men in all countries.
On average, less than 25% of parliamentary seats are occupied by women.
• Women’s engagement in political life tends to reflect in part their participation in the
economy.
• There are a number of barriers which women confront in getting involved in politics.
Historically, it is men that have held power in society and stereotypes about women’s
leadership and capabilities often prevent women from assuming a larger governance
role.
• Women tend to lack the experience and self-confidence of men who feel more at home
in the political realm. They may have limited understanding of political processes.
• Due to their double productive and family roles, women often do not have the time to
participate in political debate and decision-making processes.
• Due to somewhat different priorities, women in government are more likely to work
towards passing laws that benefit families, women, children, and traditionally
marginalised groups. Surveys of women holding political office find that respondents
evidence a different view of politics and of society than their male counterparts.
• They give greater emphasis to social welfare, legal protection and transparency in
government and business. They tend to introduce more legislation reinforcing labour
rights, social security, education, land redistribution, and electoral initiatives.

UNIT 3: GENDER MINORITIES. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN

DEALING WITH GENDER MINORITIES.

• A social and cultural construct, which distinguishes differences in the attributes

of men and women, girls and boys, and accordingly refers to the roles and
responsibilities of men and women. Gender-based roles and other attributes,
therefore, change over time and vary with different cultural contexts. The
concept of gender includes the expectations held about the characteristics,
aptitudes and likely behaviours of both women and men (femininity and
masculinity).
• What does being a minority mean?
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• The definition of a minority is a group of people that differ in some way from
the majority of the population, or any part of a whole that is smaller than the
other parts.
• Sexual and gender minority is an umbrella term that encompasses populations
included in the acronym "LGBTI" (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and
intersex), and those whose sexual orientation or gender identity varies. It
includes those who may not self-identify as LGBTI (e.g., queer, questioning,
two-spirit, asexual, men who have sex with men, gender variant), or those who
have a specific medical condition affecting reproductive development (e.g.,
individuals with differences or disorders of sex development, who sometimes
identify as intersex).

• Most sexual and gender minorities begin to self-identify as such during their
childhood, often around puberty. As many parents know, much younger children
express gendered behavior, typically but not always aligned with their birth sex.
• A child who is gender non-conforming may or may not to grow up to be lesbian,
gay, bisexual or transgender – but such children are often presumed to be sexual
and gender minorities and can suffer from lack of parental acceptance,
ostracization by peers and teachers and bullying.

• Sex discrimination and discrimination against sexual and gender minorities

share common roots in patriarchy and misogyny.Gender stereotypes impact
everyone, can influence or even restrict choices and freedoms, and can lead to
bias and inequality, with sexual and gender minorities often suffering the
consequences alongside girls and women in general.Increasing awareness of the
social construction of gender and increasing commitment to challenging
oppressive gender norms simultaneously empowers women and girls and sexual
and gender minorities.

• There is no universally accepted English language word, phrase or acronym for

people whose biological sex, sexuality, gender identity and/or gender
expression depart from majority norms.

• ‘sexual and gender minorities’

➢ These phrases are meant to include lesbians, gay men, bisexuals and transgender
people (LGBT);

➢ intersex people (people whose bodies do not have typically male or female sex
characteristics due to variations in chromosomes, gonads, sex hormones and/or
genitals);
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➢ gender non-conforming people who may not see themselves as transgender; and
people involved in same-sex relations who may not see themselves as lesbian, gay or
bisexual, possibly preferring another word to self identify (such as polyamorous, queer
or two-spirited) or possibly preferring no label at all.

• A more expansive definition of sexual and gender minorities, includes for

example asexual people (those without sexual feelings or associations) and sex
workers.In some contexts, asexual people suffer from social exclusion due to
cultural pressure to marry and have children, while people involved in sex work
often suffer multiple forms of exclusion.

• People, policies and actions that are hostile to or discriminatory against sexual
and gender minorities are referred to as “homo/ transphobic”. It is important to
note that exclusion and discrimination against sexual and gender minorities can
also directly affect people who do not see themselves as such minorities;
feminine boys and masculine girls are often bullied in school as a result of such
discrimination, although they may mature into heterosexual and gender typical
adults.

• Discrimination against sexual and gender minorities also has clear impacts on
their families, such as when children of gay men or lesbians are excluded from
school or when entire households suffer due to the presence of a single family
member who is seen as part of a sexual or gender minority.
• Sexual and gender minorities—lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT)
persons—are a diverse and multifaceted population.

• Lesbians, gay or bisexual men or women-the focus here is on the individual’s

sexual orientation, which is defined by the identity of the person to whom an
individually is physically and emotionally attracted.

• The term ‘transgender’ is focused on issues of gender identity and expression

and represents a range of individuals who express gender in ways that do not
confirm to cultural norms. This may include people those who want to transition
to other sex/gender both socially and physically through surgical procedures
those who live in the role of the other gender without surgical/hormonal
intervention
• those who appear to be ambiguous in their gender presentation
• those who are cross-dressers and others who are gender variant.

• A transgender individual’s sexual orientation is not defined by her or his gender

nonconformity; thus, transgender people may experience sexual attraction to
females, males or both.
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o December 2007, Supreme Court of Nepal issued a groundbreaking verdict in favor of

gender minorities and recognition of a third gender and in 2015 to issue passports to
gender minorities (Huffington Post Canada, 2015)
o November, 2013 Germany became the first European country to officially recognize a
third gender for babies born with ambiguous genitalia (Nandi, 2013) April, 2014 India
Supreme Court recognized “T” as third gender.
o Role of Gender Minorities
o • Social Equality and Advocacy: Gender minorities often lead the fight for social
equality and advocate for the rights of marginalized communities. They raise awareness
about discrimination, promote inclusivity, and work towards dismantling gender-based
barriers. Their activism helps create more inclusive societies and challenge harmful
stereotypes.
o • The first codified legislation on homosexuality in India was Section 377 of the IPC.
From 1861 to 2018, for nearly 157 years, being a queer person in India could land you
in jail for 10 years for the "unnatural offence" of having "carnal intercourse against the
order of nature."
o • The law that enabled this was drafted by Lord Thomas Babington Macaulay, as
Section 377 of the IPC, when India was under colonial rule. The law allowed the
judiciary to "punish" LGBT individuals with up to 10 years in jail as well as a fine.
o • Even in the years just prior to Independence in 1947, being outspoken about
"unnatural sexuality" was often met with harsh consequences under the law.
o • In 2009, the Delhi High Court, in Naz Foundation vs NCT of Delhi, ruled that Section
377, which criminalised same-sex relationships, was unconstitutional, and struck the
law down decriminalising homosexuality in India for the first time.
o The verdict, which was hailed as a victory for LGBT rights, was challenged by several
anti-gay rights groups on religious, political, and social grounds, who claimed that the
right to privacy did not include the right to commit an offence, and that decriminalising
homosexuality would affect the institution of marriage.
o • In 2013, in Suresh Koushal and Anr vs Naz Foundation and Others, the SC reversed
the Delhi HC's decision to decriminalise homosexuality, stating that "it was up to the
Centre to legislate on the issue.“
o • Jump to 2018, and a five-judge SC bench, which included the then-Chief Justice Dipak
Misra, would pass a historic order. The verdict came in a petition by Indian
choreographer Navtej Singh Johar and 11 others challenging the constitutional validity
of Section 377.
o • On 6 September 2018, the SC read down the provisions of the clause in as much as
they pertain to consensual same-sex relationships.
o • In his verdict, the then Chief Justice Dipak Misra wrote: "Social exclusion, identity
seclusion and isolation from the social mainstream are still the stark realities faced by
individuals today and it is only when each and every individual is liberated from the
shackles of such bondage and is able to work towards full development of his/her
personality that we can call ourselves a truly free society.”
o Economic Empowerment: Gender minorities make valuable contributions to the
economy by participating in the workforce, starting businesses, and driving innovation.
They bring diverse perspectives and skills that contribute to economic growth and
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development. However, they may also face economic disparities and barriers such as
workplace discrimination, wage gaps, and limited access to resources.
o • Diversity and Inclusion in Organizations: Gender minorities contribute to creating
diverse and inclusive work environments. Research shows that diverse teams perform
better and are more innovative. By actively including gender minorities, organizations
benefit from a wider range of perspectives, ideas, and experiences, leading to better
decision-making and problem-solving.
o Environmental Justice: Gender minorities are involved in environmental activism and
contribute to addressing environmental issues. They recognize the intersectionality
between gender, race, and class, and how it affects environmental justice. They
advocate for sustainable practices, climate action, and the protection of marginalized
communities disproportionately impacted by environmental degradation.
o • Mental Health and Well-being:Gender minorities often face unique challenges related
to mental health and well-being due to societal stigma and discrimination. Their
experiences contribute to the understanding of mental health disparities and the need
for inclusive healthcare services. They play a crucial role in advocating for policies and
programs that address mental health needs specific to gender minorities.
o • Representation and Visibility: By being visible in various fields and platforms, gender
minorities challenge societal norms and provide representation for others who may
identify similarly. Their visibility helps break stereotypes and fosters acceptance and
understanding among the general population.

Economic Security

• A lifetime of discrimination, especially in housing and employment, and a long-

term lack of legal and social recognition combine to create deep economic
insecurity for LGBT elders.
• 42% of LGBT adults reported being very or extremely concerned that they will
outlive their retirement savings as compared to 25% of non-LGBT adults.
Social Connections

• A reliance on “chosen family” due to family rejection and legalized discrimination, creates
social isolation and vulnerability for LGBT older adults.

• 9 out of 10 LGBT older adults have no children to help care for them as compared to 2
out of 10 heterosexual older adults.
• Friend networks don’t have the legal recognition to take time away from work, share
health insurance plans, or make medical decisions for one another.
Health & Well being
Long-term discrimination, combined with a lack of competent, inclusive healthcare leads
to difficulties in accessing care and specific mental and physical health disparities for
LGBT older adults.
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● LGBT older adults face difficulties when accessing health care including legal
restrictions on visitation, medical decision making and family leave for friends and chosen
family, and overt discrimination from health care providers.
● LGBT older adults have a significantly higher rate of psychological distress than
heterosexual older adults
● LGBT individuals are 2 to 3 times more likely to live alone. Living alone increases social
isolation and loneliness which are significant predictors of depression among older adults.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

1. ADVOCACY

• Display some signs of acceptance

• Family support groups
Most transgender support groups focus on either transgender individuals or a combination
of individuals and their families • Some support groups charge fees to attend.

RWJ transgender family support group serves the needs of spouses, families and allies
• Support group is free
• Organizations supports the group

• Transgender Eduport Program (education and support) – free education and support
program which creates a safe space for learning through peer support and resources
• Standards of care
• WPATH: World Professional Association for Transgender • Health Equality Index by
HRC • LGBT Health Laws
• Department of Health
• The Joint Commission

• Callen-Lorde Community Center Revised Guidelines (2012)

• USCF Center of Excellence (2009)
• Fenway Institute LGBT Health Guide (2007)

2. LEADERSHIP
Robert Wood Johnson University names hospital names Jackie Baras LGBT Health
Navigator.
Outcomes of Statewide Efforts to Date
• Doubled the number of N.J. hospitals designated “LGBTQ Healthcare Equality Leader”
in two years, from 8 (2016) to 16 (2018)
• Increased number of collaborative efforts between hospitals and LGBT organizations
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• Inclusion of LGBT individuals in Patient and Family Advisory Councils

• Increased number of hospital-based LGBT support groups
• More than 1000 Transgender patients have been served by PROUD Family Health

LGBT Training, Workshops and Conferences are conducted to spread awareness, correct
misconceptions.
PROUD Family Health
• Opened January 2017
• 1st in NJ to offer primary health care services to the LGBTQIA community

• Services include: Primary medical care, Hormone therapy, HIV Care and Health
education and counselling.
3. COMMUNITY COLLABORATION
PROUD Community Outreach REACH!

• Respect – GLSEN
• Educate – Rutgers University
• Advocate – NJ GSAs
• Career – Johnson & Johnson
• Health – Robert Wood Johnson Univ. Hosp. 85
• On-going “Bridging the Gap” events - designed to connect Local NJ community
resources to support the journey of LGBT youth as they transition to become
contributing adult community members. The strategy focuses on 5 pillars with the
acronym REACH!
• PROUD Community Advisory Panel
• GENDER CENTER OF NJ
• Gender Affirming Surgery TEAM
• PROUD AWARDS – it recognize and honour community leaders and advocates, as
well as RWJBarabas Health Leadership, for their outstanding commitment and
tremendous contributions to the advancement of the LGBT Community’s
•
• Respect for Autonomy: Gender minorities have the right to self-identify and
express their gender in ways that align with their identity. It is important to respect
individuals' chosen names, pronouns, and gender identities and to avoid making
assumptions based on appearance or previous information.
• Non-Discrimination: Gender minorities should be treated fairly and without
discrimination. This includes providing equal opportunities in employment,
education, healthcare, housing, and other areas of life, while actively combating
gender-based biases and stereotypes.
• Informed Consent: When conducting research or collecting data on gender
minorities, informed consent is crucial. Researchers should clearly explain the
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purpose, risks, and benefits of the study and ensure that participants understand and
voluntarily agree to participate.
• Confidentiality and Privacy: Protecting the confidentiality and privacy of gender
minorities is paramount. Any personal information shared should be kept
confidential, and individuals should have control over the disclosure of their gender
identity or status, unless there are legal or safety considerations that require
exceptions.
• Cultural Sensitivity: Gender minorities are diverse and may have unique cultural,
religious, or social backgrounds. It is important to approach interactions with an
open mind and cultural sensitivity, understanding that different communities may
have distinct beliefs and practices related to gender identity and expression.
• Support and Inclusion: Creating inclusive environments is crucial for gender
minorities to thrive. It is important to provide resources, support networks, and
policies that accommodate the needs and rights of gender minorities, fostering an
inclusive and safe space for all individuals.
• Ongoing Education: Staying informed about gender-related issues, challenges,
and advances is essential. Continuous education helps individuals understand the
complexities of gender diversity and keeps them updated on best practices for
providing support and advocating for gender minorities.
• GOVERNMENT POLICIES FOR GENDER MINORITIES:
• Legal Recognition of Gender Identity: Governments can enact policies that allow
individuals to change their gender markers on identification documents, such as
passports, driver's licenses, and birth certificates, to reflect their gender identity.
These policies can include streamlined processes, reduced barriers, and recognition
of non-binary or third-gender identities.
• Anti-Discrimination Laws and Equal Employment Opportunities:
Governments can pass legislation that prohibits discrimination based on gender
identity or expression in various areas, including employment. These policies
promote equal opportunities for gender minorities and protect them from
discrimination and harassment in the workplace.
• Health and Healthcare Policies: Governments can establish policies that ensure
gender-affirming healthcare is accessible and affordable for gender minorities. This
can include coverage for hormone therapy, gender-affirming surgeries, mental
health support, and other necessary medical interventions.
• Education and Awareness Initiatives: Governments can implement policies
aimed at promoting awareness and understanding of gender diversity in educational
institutions. This can involve incorporating inclusive curricula, providing training
for educators, and fostering safe and supportive environments for gender minority
students.
• Social Services and Support Networks: Governments can allocate resources to
establish social services and support networks specifically tailored to meet the
needs of gender minorities. This can include funding for organizations that provide
counseling, support groups, and other services to help address the unique challenges
faced by gender minorities.
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• Hate Crime Legislation: Governments can enact laws that specifically address
hate crimes or bias-motivated violence against gender minorities. These policies
aim to provide enhanced legal protection, ensure thorough investigations, and
impose stricter penalties for crimes committed based on gender identity or
expression.
• Gender Data Collection and Research: Governments can develop policies that
encourage the collection of gender-disaggregated data to better understand the
specific needs and challenges faced by gender minorities. This data can inform
evidence-based policymaking and help tailor interventions and support services
accordingly.
• LEGAL ACTS FOR GENDER MINORITIES:
• The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019: This act provides
legal recognition and protection for transgender persons in India. It prohibits
discrimination against transgender individuals in various areas, including
education, employment, healthcare, and access to public facilities. It also
establishes mechanisms for obtaining identity certificates and allows individuals to
self-identify as "transgender."
• National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) judgment: In 2014, the Supreme
Court of India issued a landmark judgment recognizing the rights of transgender
persons. The judgment recognized the rights to self-identification, equal protection
under the law, and access to affirmative action and welfare schemes.
• Reservation and Welfare Schemes: The Indian government has implemented
reservation policies in education, employment, and political representation for
transgender individuals. Additionally, various welfare schemes have been
introduced to provide financial support, healthcare, and skill development
opportunities for transgender persons.
• Health and Education Initiatives: The government has initiated programs to
address the healthcare needs of transgender individuals. This includes providing
access to gender-affirming healthcare services, HIV/AIDS prevention and
treatment, and mental health support. Efforts have also been made to promote
inclusive education and create safe and supportive environments for transgender
students.
• Anti-Discrimination Laws and Legal Aid: While comprehensive anti-
discrimination legislation specifically addressing gender identity is yet to be
enacted, several legal frameworks, including the Indian Penal Code and the
Protection of Civil Rights Act, can be invoked to address discrimination and
violence against gender minorities. Legal aid and support services are also available
to assist transgender individuals in accessing justice.
• Social Welfare Boards: State-level Transgender Welfare Boards have been
established in some states to address the concerns and promote the welfare of
transgender persons. These boards work towards the effective implementation of
policies, provide support services, and facilitate redressal of grievances.
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• RESEARCH
• Recognition of Transgender health needs as medically necessary
• Studies on Non Binary Individuals
• Accurately data on LGBT Americans nationally
• Prevention of violence toward LGBT in schools, in workplace, etc.
• LGBT Parenting issues throughout the life course
• LGBT Elders health and well being
• Exploration of sexual/ gender identity among youth and elderly
• RESOURCES
• LGBT Aging Center
• Lamda Legal
• National Gay and Lesbian Task Force
• National Center for Transgender Equality
• Garden State of Equality
• Gay and Lesbian Medical Association (GLMA)
• Callen-Lorde Center
• Fenway Health
• The Williams Institute
• National Research Center on LGBT Aging
• National Coalition for LGBT Health

Unit 4:
Socialization process of girls in different social classes.

PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION

• Socialization is the process through which people are taught to be proficient members
of a society.
• It describes the ways that people come to understand societal norms and expectations,
to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values.
• Socialization is not the same as socializing (interacting with others, like family, friends,
and coworkers); to be precise, it is a sociological process that occurs through
socializing.
• Human infants are born without any culture.
• They must be transformed by their parents, teachers, and others into cultural and
socially adept animals. The general process of acquiring culture is referred to as
socialization.
• During socialization, we learn the language of the culture we are born into as well as
the roles we are to play in life. For instance, girls learn how to be daughters, sisters,
friends, wives, and mothers.
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• In addition, they learn about the occupational roles that their society has in store for
them. We also learn and usually adopt our culture's norms through the socialization
process.
• Norms are the conceptions of appropriate and expected behavior that are held by most
members of the society. While socialization refers to the general process of acquiring
culture, anthropologists use the term enculturation for the process of being socialized
to a particular culture. You were enculturated to your specific culture by your parents
and the other people who raised you.

SOCIALIZATION AND PERSONALITY FORMATION

• Socialization is important in the process of personality formation. While much of human

personality is the result of our genes, the socialization process can mold it in particular
directions by encouraging specific beliefs and attitudes as well as selectively providing
experiences.
• This very likely accounts for much of the difference between the common personality types in
one society in comparison to another.
• Successful socialization can result in uniformity within a society. If all children receive the
same socialization, it is likely that they will share the same beliefs and expectations.
• This fact has been a strong motivation for national governments around the world to
standardize education and make it compulsory for all children. Deciding what things will be
taught and how they are taught is a powerful political tool for controlling people.
• Those who internalize the norms of society are less likely to break the law or to want radical
social changes. In all societies, however, there are individuals who do not conform to
culturally defined standards of normalcy because they were "abnormally" socialized, which is
to say that they have not internalized the norms of society. These people are usually labeled
by their society as deviant or even mentally ill.
SOCIALIZATION AND GENDER ROLES

• Society expects different attitudes and behaviors from boys and girls. Gender Socialization is
the tendency for boys and girls to be socialized differently.
• Boys are raised to conform to the male gender role, and girls are raised to conform to the female
gender or role.
• A Gender Role is a set of behaviors, attitudes, and personality characteristics expected and
encouraged of a person based on his or her sex.
• Gender role socialization begins at birth and continues throughout the life course.
• Our society is quick to outfit male infants in blue and girls in pink, even applying these color-
coded gender labels while a baby is in the womb.
• Gender, like race is a social construction with very real consequences. The drive to adhere to
masculine and feminine gender roles continues later in life.
• Men tend to outnumber women in professions such as law enforcement, the military, and
politics. Women tend to outnumber men in care-related occupations such as childcare,
healthcare (even though the term “doctor” still conjures the image of a man), and social work.
• Children learn at a young age that there are distinct expectations for boys and girls.
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• Cross-cultural studies reveal that children are aware of gender roles by age two or three. At
four or five, most children are firmly entrenched in culturally appropriate gender roles (Kane
1996).
SCHOOLS

• The reinforcement of gender roles and stereotypes continues once a child reaches school age.
Until very recently, schools were rather explicit in their efforts to stratify boys and girls. The
first step toward stratification was segregation.
• Girls were encouraged to take home economics or humanities courses and boys to take math
and science.
• Studies suggest that gender socialization still occurs in schools today, perhaps in less obvious
forms (Lips 2004). Teachers may not even realize they are acting in ways that reproduce gender
differentiated behavior patterns. Yet any time they ask students to arrange their seats or line up
according to gender, teachers may be asserting that boys and girls should be treated differently
(Thorne 1993).
• Schools subtly convey messages to girls indicating that they are less intelligent or less
important than boys. For example, in a study of teacher responses to male and female students,
data indicated that teachers praised male students far more than female students. Teachers
interrupted girls more often and gave boys more opportunities to expand on their ideas (Sadker
and Sadker 1994).
• Further, in social as well as academic situations, teachers have traditionally treated boys and
girls in opposite ways, reinforcing a sense of competition rather than collaboration (Thorne
1993).
• Boys are also permitted a greater degree of freedom to break rules or commit minor acts of
deviance, whereas girls are expected to follow rules carefully and adopt an obedient role
(Ready 2001).
Mass media serves as another significant agent of gender socialization.

• Women tend to have less significant roles and are often portrayed as wives or mothers. When
women are given a lead role, it often falls into one of two extremes: a wholesome, saint-like
figure or a malevolent, hypersexual figure (Etaugh and Bridges 2003).
• Women are almost exclusively present in ads promoting cooking, cleaning, or childcare-
related products (Davis 1993).
Social Class

• Every social class has its own special culture represented in values, beliefs, and behavior
patterns. It forms a framework which is a base for parental practices in socialization.
• Kohn, explored differences in how parents raise their children relative to their social class.
• Kohn found that lower class parents were more likely to emphasize conformity in their
children whereas middle-class parents were more likely to emphasize creativity and self-
reliance.
• For example, parents who belong to low social classes appreciate and value respect,
obedience, and principle compared with middle-class parents.
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• The former concentrate on a child’s internal development, on developing a sense of

responsibility and its bearing, on a child’s self-control, on achievement and accomplishment
aims.
• In general, a social class has an effect on children at their different age stages for its basic role
in building their personalities and perfectness, and through which children can gain customs,
habits, attitudes, and values prevailing and common in their social environment.
• Ellis et. al. proposed and found that parents value conformity over self-reliance in children to
the extent that conformity superseded self-reliance as a criterion for success in their own
endeavors. In other words, Ellis et. al. verified that the reason lower-class parents emphasize
conformity in their children is that they experience conformity in their day-to-day activities

Problems faced by girls of the lower social class

• Cost of education higher, therefore education emphasis on boys, not girls.
• Girls are not considered as earners, rather someone who takes care of the husband and other
family members.
• Married off after 18 years of age.
• Physical/Mental/ Verbal abuse by members of the family and society.
• Loans leading to debt
• No access to food/electricity/books etc
• Women are discriminated at the workplace, society and even at home.
• Women don’t get paid as men equally. In some workplaces, women face exploitation and
harassment by their superiors. (Even in other social classes).
• Depression and other psychological problems due to the oppression and lack of support from
family.
Is there a possibility of social change in gender issues through behaviour modification?

UNIT 5:
Discuss: Possibility of Social Change in Gender Issues Through Behavior Modification.

• Behavior modification can play a role in shaping individual attitudes and actions, it is
important to recognize that gender issues are deeply rooted in cultural, societal, and
systemic structures. Achieving significant and lasting social change requires a multi-
faceted approach that encompasses various strategies, including legal reforms,
educational initiatives, policy changes, and shifts in societal attitudes.
• Behavior modification techniques can be effective in addressing certain aspects of gender
issues. For instance, interventions aimed at challenging gender stereotypes and promoting
gender equality can influence individual behaviors and attitudes. By encouraging
individuals to question traditional gender roles and expectations, behavior modification
programs can help foster more egalitarian relationships and create space for diverse
expressions of gender identity.
• However, it is essential to acknowledge the limitations of behavior modification in the
context of broader social change. Gender issues are deeply ingrained in societal norms,
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cultural traditions, and power structures. Changing these deeply embedded beliefs and
structures requires collective action and systemic transformations.
• To achieve meaningful progress, it is necessary to address the root causes of gender
inequality, such as patriarchy, sexism, and discrimination. This involves challenging and
transforming institutional practices, advocating for legal protections and rights, promoting
inclusive education, and creating supportive environments for marginalized gender
identities.
• Moreover, it is crucial to engage in dialogue, empathy, and education to challenge and
dismantle deeply held biases and prejudices. Empowering marginalized voices and
providing platforms for open discussions can contribute to raising awareness and creating
social change
STRATEGIES FOR BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

• Informing women of their rights

• While in many countries, the problem lies in the lack of adequate legislation, in others the
principal problem is not as much the lack of a legal framework, but the fact is that most
women do not know their legal rights.
• This is especially the case as many of the laws dealing with women's rights are of recent
date. This lack of knowledge enables to abusers to lead the victims (explicitly or
implicitly) to believe that their abuse is within their rights.
• This may apply to a wide range of abuses, ranging from domestic violence to
employment discrimination The United Nations Development Programme states that, in
order to advance gender justice, "Women must know their rights and be able to access
legal systems".
• The 1993 UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women states at Art. 4
(d) "States should also inform women of their rights in seeking redress through such
mechanisms".
• Gender mainstreaming
• According to the Council of Europe definition: "Gender mainstreaming is the
(re)organization, improvement, development and evaluation of policy processes, so that a
gender equality perspective is incorporated in all policies at all levels and at all stages, by
the actors normally involved in policy-making.
• Gender mainstreaming "involves ensuring that gender perspectives and attention to the
goal of gender equality are central to all activities”
• Gender equality in intimate relationship
• We know that physical or psychological abuse is created by a power inequality within an
intimate relationship. This discrepancy then leads to an abuse of that power. Research
shows when a partner dominates or over-powers another, it is a prime deterrent to a
successful relationship (Greenberg & Goldman 2008).
• Western culture’s patriarchal influence on social norms and prac-tices has played an
important role in creating these power differences between men and women.
• To work toward an equal relationship, women and their partners need to pay attention to
how they may have adapted to these existing social and gender norms in relationships—
even subconsciously.
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• It’s important to recognize we create social norms by what we do. Changing what we do
can, in turn, create new social norms. Equality in relationships, although not fully
supported by many social institutions, is still progressing.
• One study of couples (Haddock & Bowling 2001) believed to be successful at achieving
work-family balance identified that having equality and a true partnership were the keys
to success.
• Communication initiatives aimed at changing individual attitudes and behaviours
• It initially adopted a diffusion approach, involving large-scale media and social marketing
campaigns and other one-way communications.
• More recently, focus has been on adopting interpersonal (one-on-one or small group
communication) and participatory approaches.
• Entertainment education (edutainment) has in some cases been a powerful mechanism to
achieve change. Participatory methods can be integrated into many edutainment
initiatives. In some instances, edutainment initiatives have incorporated skills
development and capacity building.
• Community-based initiatives can be effective in mobilizing communities,
empowering women and promoting community dialogue and changes on issues of
gender equality.
• The emergence of community leaders, including women leaders, as advocates for greater
gender equality has been particularly beneficial. Group education is considered effective
in promoting attitudinal and behavioural change. The aim is to promote critical reflection
on how gender norms are social constructed. Community educators and facilitators can be
trained to lead and moderate sessions, contributing further to community participation.
Educative methods (workshops, peer groups and mass media) have been found to be
effective in contributing to improved health and gender outcomes (Rottach et al., 2009).
• There is a growing recognition of the need to understand the role of men and boys in
achieving gender equality and to involve them in gender equality efforts. Many of the
successful gender-transformative interventions in HIV/AIDS prevention have been ones
that have engaged and targeted young men (C-Change, 2009).
• Group education activities
• Group education activities have been found to be particularly effective in engaging men
and boys in issues of gender equality and equity in health, and in some cases contributing
to changes in attitudes and behaviours (Barker et al., 2007).
• Group education is considered effective in promoting attitudinal and behavioural change.
The aim is to promote critical reflection on how gender norms are social constructed.
• Community educators and facilitators can be trained to lead and moderate sessions,
contributing further to community participation.
• Educative methods (workshops, peer groups, and mass media) have been found to be
effective in contributing to improved health and gender outcomes (Rottach et al., 2009).
• A recent review of interventions, including social norm initiatives and educational
campaigns, in eleven countries targeting individuals and groups found substantial
evidence of the effectiveness of such interventions in improving the attitudes of young
men and boys toward gender-based violence and rigid gender stereotypes that condone or
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allow violence. There was little evidence available, however, of actual changes in
behaviour in the long-term.

MODULE 5 : Psychology of Deprivation

Unit 1: Poverty and deprivation concepts- realistic and perceived, levels and kinds of
deprivation, factors affecting deprivation in India.

Poverty is a state or condition in which a person or community lacks the financial resources
and essentials for a minimum standard of living. Poverty means that the income level from
employment is so low that basic human needs can't be met.India is a developing nation.
Although its economy is growing, poverty is still a major challenge.Poverty-stricken people
and families might go without proper housing, clean water, healthy food, and medical
attention.
Each nation may have its own criteria for determining how many of its people are living in
poverty.

Common traits for those living in extreme poverty include:

Little or no education
Under age 18
Work in farming or agriculture

Poverty in India impacts children and individuals in a variety of different ways through:
High infant mortality
Malnutrition

Child labour
Lack of education
Child marriage

HIV / AIDS
This idea of poverty is closely linked to the notion of inequality.
In terms of non-income dimensions of poverty too, such as infant and maternal mortality
rates, literacy levels and gender inequalities, India continues to display 'intense poverty'.
The impact of poverty on children is substantial. Children who grow up in poverty
typically suffer from severe and frequent health problems; infants born into poverty have an
increased chance of low birth weight, which can lead to physical and mental disabilities.
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Relative poverty locates the phenomenon of poverty in the society under study. From this
perspective, a person is considered poor when they are in a clearly disadvantaged situation,
either financially or socially, with regards other people in their environment.
Absolute poverty is defined as a situation in which the individual's basic needs are not
covered, in other words, there is a lack of basic goods and services (normally related to food,
housing and clothes).
Defining Poor

Who are poor and who should be the beneficiaries of the welfare schemes?
Without a proper criterion of poverty, proper policy framework for inclusive growth
cannot be developed. Efforts have been put taking calorie values, wages etc. as
criteria of defining poverty line. The lacuna of poverty definition also impacts the
other associated areas such as employment schemes and subsidies for the poor. All
this have repercussions on inclusive growth. Govt. is on the observation the reducing
rate of poverty which has come down to the level of 35% but the inequality has
increased at the same time.

Fiscal Deficit

Development schemes run by the govt. have created a dilemma of expanding fiscal deficit.
India’s current fiscal deficit situation has limited the prospect of development schemes. India
has significantly high debt to GDP ratio, balance of trade (negative) and current account
deficit (CAD).

Last year’s estimates were: fiscal deficit: 5.2% of GDP; CAD: USD 92 billion; stimulus
package: Rs. 1.84 lakh crore (3% of GDP). The govt. has set a target of reducing fiscal deficit
to the level of 3 per cent by 2016-17. Fiscal deficit also creates the problem of inflation
which in turn makes the poor even more vulnerable.
Increasing CAD is comparatively more detrimental to INCLUSIVE GROWTH than fiscal
deficit.
Deprivation
Deprivation is the removal, denial, or unavailability of something needed or desired. Relative
deprivation is formally defined as an actual or perceived lack of resources required to
maintain the quality of life (e.g. diet, activities, material possessions) to which various
socioeconomic groups or individuals within those groups have grown accustomed, or are
considered to be the accepted norm within the group. Deprivation is the consequence of a
lack of income and other resources, which cumulatively can be seen as living in poverty.
The relative deprivation approach to poverty examines the indicators of deprivation, which
are then related back to income levels and resources. There is another concept called multi-
dimensional deprivation that is closely linked to social exclusion and is related to
deprivation or the lack of access to certain goods and services considered necessary for
society, whether a basic need or not. Poverty is measured with non-monetary variables and
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deprivation indicators, using breakdowns of these indicators to construct poverty measures.

This type of multi-dimensional deprivation has also been called severe poverty.
In 1979, Peter Townsend constructed a multi-dimensional deprivation index using sixty
indicators that reflected living conditions and which gave information on food, clothes,
health, leisure, household equipment, durable goods, etc. The indicators were built up from
items covering: Diet, clothing, fuel and light, home amenities, housing and housing facilities,
the immediate environment of the home, the general conditions and security of work, family
support, recreation, education, health, social relations.

A lack of or non-participation in these indicators was seen as an indicator of deprivation. A

‘score’ for different forms of deprivation could be ascertained and related to household
income.

Realistic and Perceived deprivation

Relative deprivation is formally defined as an actual or perceived lack of resources required
to maintain the quality of life (e.g. diet, activities, material possessions) to which
various socioeconomic groups or individuals within those groups have grown accustomed, or
are considered to be the accepted norm within the group.
Absolute deprivation or absolute poverty is a potentially life-threatening situation that
occurs when income falls below a level adequate to maintain food and shelter. It is also
important to distinguish between absolute and relative deprivation
Perceived deprivation describes a feeling of not eating what or as much as one would like,
despite being in energy balance. The concept of deprivation has generally been dealt with by
researchers in relative terms.
Relative deprivation as proposed by Runciman in 1966 - defined as the difference between
personal wellbeing and the wellbeing of others in society. Yitzhaki in 1979 provided a
quantification of Runciman’s concept of relative deprivation by expressing it as the sum of all
the income gaps in the society normalised by population.
The concept was introduced as a result of studies of morale in the U.S. Army during World
War II; conducted by U.S. sociologist Samuel A. Stouffer (1900–1960) and colleagues, the
studies indicated that soldiers were dissatisfied if they believed they were not obtaining as
many military rewards and benefits as their peers.
In 1966, British sociologist Walter Garrison Runciman distinguished between egoistic
relative deprivation, the perceived discrepancy between an individual’s own current position
and the comparison standard, and fraternalistic relative deprivation, the perceived
discrepancy between the position that the person’s in group actually has and the position the
person thinks it ought to have.
According to some research, social unrest tends to be greatest in areas with high levels of
relative deprivation.
Measuring relative deprivation allows an objective comparison between the situation of the
individual or group compared to the rest of society.
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Relative deprivation may also emphasise the individual experience of discontent when
being deprived of something to which one believes oneself to be entitled, however
emphasizing the perspective of the individual makes objective measurement problematic.
Relative deprivation refers to inequality: the idea that people are deprived (materially or in
other ways) compared with others in society. Left realists suggest that this, alongside
marginalisation and subcultures, is a significant cause of crime. For example, an employee
who feels they should have gotten a promotion that went to another employee may feel
egoistically relatively deprived.
According to the APA, Relative Deprivation is the perception by an individual that the
amount of a desired resource (e.g., money, social status) he or she has is less than some
comparison standard.
▪ 1. the removal, denial, or unavailability of something needed or desired. See cultural
deprivation; maternal deprivation.

▪ 2. in conditioning, reduction of access to or intake of a reinforcer.

This standard can be the amount that was expected or the amount possessed by others with
whom the person compares himself or herself.
Relative Deprivation Theory Definition
Development of the concept of relative deprivation is often attributed to American sociologist
Robert K. Merton, whose study of American soldiers during World War II revealed that
soldiers in the Military Police were far less satisfied with their opportunities for promotion
than regular GIs.
In proposing one the first formal definitions of relative deprivation, British statesman and
sociologist Walter Runciman listed four required conditions:
▪ A person does not have something.

▪ That person knows other people who have the thing.

▪ That person wants to have the thing.
▪ That person believes they have a reasonable chance of getting the thing.

Critiques of Relative Deprivation Theory

• It fails to explain why some people who, though deprived of rights or resources, fail
to take part in social movements meant to attain those things. During the Civil Rights
Movement, for example, Black people who refused to participate in the movement
were derisively referred to as “Uncle Toms” by other Black people in reference to the
excessively obedient enslaved person depicted in Harriet Beecher Stowe’s 1852 novel
“Uncle Tom’s Cabin.”
• However, proponents of relative deprivation theory argue that many of these people
simply want to avoid the conflicts and life difficulties they might encounter by joining
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the movement with no guarantee of a better life as a result. It does not account for
people who take part in movements that do not benefit them directly. Some examples
include the animal rights movement, straight and cis-gendered people who march
alongside LGBTQ+ activists, and wealthy people who demonstrate against policies
that perpetuate poverty or income inequality. In these cases, participants are believed
to act more out of a sense of empathy or sympathy than feelings of relative
deprivation.
Poverty and Deprivation - the level of aspiration of disadvantaged Sections

• Individual in disadvantageous section will begin to get frustrated, the children

becoming aware of the situation in one's family are more likely to drop out of school
to look for job, there are evidence indicating that lower economic family have
increased rate of dispute, family problem due to psychological, social and economic
reason.
• Children and adul of lower economic section will begin to accept reality that “hard
work” is futile and are more likely to succumb to a state of learned helplessness.
• There are also increased risk of engaging in nefarious activities due to financial
scarcity.

Levels and kinds of deprivation

Seven different domains of deprivation from the indices of deprivation:
➢ Income Deprivation
➢ Employment Deprivation
➢ Education, Skills and Training Deprivation
➢ Health Deprivation and Disability
➢ Crime
➢ Barriers to Housing and Services
➢ Living Environment Deprivation
• Seven main types of deprivation are considered in the Index of Multiple Deprivation
2019

– income, employment, education, health, crime, access to housing and services, and living
environment –
and these are combined to form the overall measure of multiple deprivation.

• Types ( based on different criteria such as social, economic, political, educational,

environmental factors)
➢ Organismic Vs, Environmental - food, water, good air, sex,vs edn, social

Objective Vs. Subjective - being deprived vs feeling deprived. is your situation getting
better or worse? Do you think you were as well off, say, ten years ago as you are now?
Women more than men, older more than younger. nearly 90 per cent of those always feeling
poor and 80 per cent of those feeling poor sometimes, had household incomes below the
mean of their type
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Absolute vs relative - Measures of deprivation are not the same as measures of income –
they relate to how people live. Deprivation is the consequence of a lack of income and other
resources, which cumulatively can be seen as living in poverty. Lack of participation in these
events are seen as deprivation :diet, clothing, fuel and light. home amenities, housing and
housing facilities, the immediate environment of the home, the general conditions and
security of work, family support, recreation, education, health, social relations.
Social Deprivation

• Social deprivation is the reduction or prevention of culturally normal interaction between an

individual and the rest of society.
• This social deprivation is included in a broad network of correlated factors that contribute to
social exclusion; these factors include mental illness, poverty, poor education, and low
socioeconomic status.
• Pierson has identified five key factors that set social exclusion in motion – poverty, lack of
access to jobs, denial of social supports or peer networks, exclusion from services, and
negative attitude of the local neighbourhood.
• It is also associated with abusive caretaking, developmental delay, mental illness and
subsequent suicide.
Causes and Consequence of Social Deprivation
o Social deprivation is usually measured on the emphasis of lack of material, financial
resources or education
o Consequence of social deprivation in children: at ealry peiod (critical period) can lead to
cognitive decline (reduced development in prefrontal, temporal, orbitofrontal cortex and,
inadequate development of social skills, poor language skills, inablitiy to initiate action
based on social and biological cues (imbalance of hormone).
o It is also while noting that early prenatal developmental issues, still birth among are
corelated highly with deprivation of more than one means.
o Socially deprived children are more likely to commit crimes and are tend to get arrested.
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Factors affecting deprivation in India

• Institutional and structural causes of poverty and deprivation.

• Institutional Factors:
• Governance.
• Developing Countries.
• Inequality.
• Labour Market.
• Political Factors.
o Poverty as capability deprivation, as articulated by Amartya Sen (1987), looks at
well-being arising through people’s ability to function in society.
o Poverty arises when people lack key capabilities and so have ‘inadequate income or
education, or poor health, or insecurity, or low self-confidence, or a sense of
powerlessness, or the absence of rights such as freedom of speech’.
o Viewed in this way, poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon and less amenable
to simple solutions. For instance, while higher average incomes will certainly help
reduce poverty, these may need to be accompanied by measures to empower the poor,
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or insure them against risks, or to address specific weaknesses such as inadequate

availability of schools or a corrupt health service.
o Four institutions of poverty within economies; those are lack of assets, lack of
accountability, lack of income predictability, and unfavorable spatial distribution.
o Institutions are the fundamental cause of poverty and inequality in developing
countries. Institutional poverty is the source of income inequality and
underdevelopment. Weak institutions provide room for the exploitation of public
resources by politicians and government officials for their own interest. Corruption
and ineffective governments lead poverty by increasing income inequalities
o Institutional reforms may require the restructuring and improvement of the legal
framework, taking a carrot-and-stick approach to ensure accountability and
transparency, enforcing rule of law and ensuring political stability.
o Without addressing institutional poverty, the dream of no poverty and zero hunger can
never materialise.
o Up to 20% of the world’s poor live in India,
o one quarter of the population in India lives below the poverty line. 6.7% extreme
poverty. May 2021
o 68.8% of the Indian population lives on less than $2(Rs.150) a day, Over 30% even
have less than $1.25 (Rs.100) per day available
o 1.4 million children die each year in India before their fifth birthday.
o More than 200 million people don’t have sufficient access to food, including 61
million children.
o 12.5 million children between the ages of 5 and 14 are working.
o 44.5% of girls are still married in India before they are of legal age.
o 57.4% of Scheduled Tribe households with children lead a deprived life compared to
24.1% among forward caste.
o 88% of the rural poor households in Kerala, constituting 44% of the population, are at
various stages of indebtedness.
o 60% of the poor still reside in the states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya
Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The reason for these states to be
in the category of the poorest state is because 85% of tribal people live there. Also,
most of these regions are either flood-prone or suffer from calamities. These
conditions hamper agriculture to a great extent, on which the household income of
these groups depends.
o Between 2005-06 and 2015-16, the incidence of multidimensional poverty in India
was almost halved, climbing down to 27.5 percent from 54.7 percent as per the 2018
global Multidimensional Poverty Index report.
o Within ten years, the number of poor people in India fell by more than 271 million
(from 635 million to 364 million).
o This MPI index measures progress across 3 key dimensions of health, education and
living standards, and uses 10 indicators – nutrition, child mortality, years of
schooling, school attendance, sanitation, cooking fuel, drinking water, electricity,
housing and assets.
o People who lag behind in at least a third of the MPI’s components are defined as
multidimensionally poor.
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Structural Factors
o The structural factors producing a high rate of poverty are the reproduction of the
class system, macroeconomic policies, the vicious circle of poverty, the structure of
the electoral process, the structure of the economy, institutionalized gender
discrimination, and institutionalized ethnic discrimination.
o Cited examples of structural causes include trends in unemployment and poverty, the
housing market, the structure of the economy generally, and large-scale social
policies.
o Examples given of individual causes include mental illness, alcoholism, substance
abuse, and lack of a work ethic.
o The structural approach points to systemic reasons for poverty such things as racial
and gender discrimination embedded in our markets and institutions; the profit motive
and consequent low wages making it difficult for some families to escape poverty;
and the failure to invest sufficiently in education, health care, and social insurance.
o According to this view, all of these factors reduce opportunity and increase economic
insecurity. The failure to correct and accommodate the natural differences between
people results in an uneven playing field and promotes the creation of poverty.
o Structural approaches to poverty shine a light on patriarchy, capitalism, white
privilege, and racism as being at the root of much of the poverty in western
economies.
o Thus, the structural approach has come to be associated with those on the political
left.
o Not all of those who emphasize structural causes of poverty buy into the anti-
capitalist/racism/patriarchy rhetoric.
o To the extent that the structural approach focuses primary attention on fundamental
heritable differences between people (over which they have no control) as well as
barriers to opportunity (often unconscious) in our customs and institutions, then there
is a reasonable case to be made that different starting points may influence where we
end up.
o In other words, bad luck can affect how far we progress in life. It would be more
difficult, of course, to argue that ending up in poverty is due solely or principally to
structural factors.
o Causes of poverty in India
o Population explosion- past 45 years, it has risen at a rate of 2.2% per year, which
means, on average, about 17 million people are added to the country’s population
each year. It is expected that the population in India will reach 1.5 billion by 2026 and
then India will be the largest nation in the world. But India’s economy is not growing
at the same pace.
o Under developed economy/ Rural economy
o Unemployment and under employment
o Unequal distribution of land/resources- global average for wealth ownership of the
top 1% is 51%. India, the top1 owns 58% of the wealth (2018), Belgium top 1%-18%
o Increase in prices
o Shortage of Entrepreneurship
o Lack of skilled peop
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o Colonial Exploitation
Poverty Alleviation Programs in India
o Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)
o Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
o Jawahar Rozgar Yojana/Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana
o Rural Housing – Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY)
o Food for Work Programme
o National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS)- 1500 /month
o National Rural Livelihood Mission: Aajeevika
o National Urban Livelihood Mission: Deen Dayal Antyodaya Yojana (DAY) -
training, subsidies, SHG mobilization, shelters, vendor markets
o Mid day meal schemes in govt schools also helped alleviate poverty

To what extent do people in kerala live in poverty? How has kerala dealt with
poverty and what are the challenges faced?
Poverty as “not just a lack of money; it is not having the capability to realise one’s full
potential as a human being”.

o The global poverty line set at $1.90 using 2011 prices estimates that over 900 million
people globally lived under this line in 2012. The World Bank estimate shows that one
in five Indians are poor and 80 per cent of them are in rural areas.
o The incidence of poverty is high among the Scheduled Tribes followed by Scheduled
Castes. By virtue of the unique development path followed in the State, the poverty
index of Kerala shows that only 11.3 per cent of population falls under the poverty
line as compared to 29.5 per cent in the country in 2011-12.
o The success of Kerala in poverty reduction is reflected in the sharp reduction in the
proportion of poor both in rural and urban areas.
o In Kerala, factors such as land reforms, spread of education, and health care,
decentralisation, pension schemes, public distribution system, Kudumbashree, and the
consolidated efforts through Plan schemes have played an effective role in reducing
the poverty ratios
o Nava Keralam Karma Padhathi (NKKP) is a new initiative implemented through four
innovative Missions in the State for the benefit of the vulnerable sections.
o Haritha Keralam, Aardram, LIFE and Education Rejuvenation are the four missions.
o Haritha Keralam is an environment friendly approach, focusing on organic farming,
water conservation and waste management.
o The Mission Aardram aims to create ‘People Friendly’ Health Delivery System in the
State through improving universal healthcare and addressing second generation health
care issues.
o LIFE (Livelihood, Inclusion and Financial Empowerment) Mission aims to provide
safe and secure house for all landless and homeless family.
o Education Rejuvenation Mission aims to take forward the State from universalisation
of education to modernisation of education, with smart classrooms, digital libraries,
IT enabled learning and contemporary syllabus.
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o While Kerala is better off than most other States in terms of average poverty
estimates, there are still several pockets of deprivation in the State.
o Poverty in Kerala is mainly concentrated in some social categories and groups such as
scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, fishermen communities, potters and artisans.
o This points to the need of additional central assistance to support the State
programmes and redesigning livelihood programmes in these areas to eliminate
absolute poverty from the State.
o The Scheduled Caste Development Department, Scheduled Tribes Development
Department and Fisheries Department are implementing several poverty
reduction/livelihood programmes for the upliftment of the people in these
communities.
How real is poverty in India
o In 2019, the Indian government stated that 6.7% of its population is below its
official poverty limit. The extreme poverty count fell from 22.5% in 2011 to 10.2% in
2019 and the decline in rural areas
o The Suresh Tendulkar Committee estimated over 430 million (37.2%) below the
poverty line based on a bundle of deprivations.
o An expert committee headed by former Reserve Bank of India governor C.
Rangarajan revised the poverty line and put the number of poor people at 363 million
in the same year, with 260.5 million in rural areas and 102.5 million in urban areas.
o The committee also increased the poverty line to Rs 972 in rural areas and Rs 1,407 in
urban areas. The Rangarajan committee's findings were not adopted as the official
poverty line.
o NITI Aayog's National Multidimensional Poverty Index (MDPI) estimates that a
quarter of the Indian population (322.5 million of the projected population in 2016)
was "multidimensionally" poor in 2015-16.
Unit 2
psychological consequences and management of resource deprivation and poverty

Psychological research on poverty and deprivation

▪ Psychological studies have generally centered on the following aspects
▪ Psychological impacts of malnutrition
▪ Perceptual and cognitive domains
▪ impact of personality and motivation
▪ Poverty and Rosenthal effect
▪ attribution studies
▪ Intervention studies

Malnutrition and its psychological impact

• malnutrition frequently associated with population living in poverty, and

adverse socio economic circumstances
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▪ Studies conducted in India and other parts of developing world shows apart
from physical growth, it adversely psychological process , physical growth,
and development of linguistic and cognitive behavior,.
▪ Verbal reasoning, comprehension, communication,
▪ IQ- normal intelligence but has poor academic performance

Impact on cognitive functioning

▪ Memory, concept formation, perceptual and cognitive skills are affected
▪ Impairment in cognitive functioning due to poverty.
▪ School- very low enrolment, irregular attendance, high dropout rate

Impact in personality and motivation

▪ Deprivation has been associated with neuroticism, introversion, social

adjustment, immaturity, autism
▪ Grater fear of failure, lack of initiative, aggression
Poverty and Rosenthal effect
▪ Rosenthal effect/ Pygmalion effect
▪ Fixed label like class, caste, untouchability, are frequently used in categorizing
pupils. Pupil perform according to the expectation of their teacher.
▪ Labeling of poor as lacking abilities and expecting them to poorly performed
in examination affect the students performance adversely.
Attribution studies
▪ Low income people attribute it to more to fate and luck than higher income
people.
▪ Tend to blame themselves for poverty
▪ Attributed success more to luck , god and chance(externalize)
▪ Absolute poverty: the complete lack of necessary to meet basic personal
needs such as food, clothing and shelter
▪ Relative poverty occur when a person cannot meet a minimum standard of
living compared to others in the same time and place.
Poverty and deprivation in India

▪ Up to 20% of the world’s poor live in India,

▪ one quarter of the population in India lives below the poverty line. 6.7%
extreme poverty. May 2021
▪ 68.8% of the Indian population lives on less than $2(Rs.150) a day, Over 30%
even have less than $1.25 (Rs.100) per day available
▪ 1.4 million children die each year in India before their fifth birthday.
▪ More than 200 million people don’t have sufficient access to food, including
61 million children.
▪ 12.5 million children between the ages of 5 and 14 are working.
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▪ 44.5% of girls are still married in India before they are of legal age.
▪ 57.4% of Scheduled Tribe households with children lead a deprived life
compared to 24.1% among forward caste.
▪ 88% of the rural poor households in Kerala, constituting 44% of the
population, are at various stages of indebtedness,

Consequences of poverty and deprivation

1. health, nutrition and development
▪ lack of economic resources of the poor restrict the quality and quantity of their
nutritional intake,
▪ Adversely affect cognitive function and basic cognitive processes such as
attention, increases the chances of poor health, and lack of immunity.
▪ Protein energy malnutrition is commonly found in extreme poverty.
▪ Birth weight 3.2 kg for high socio economic status, 2.8 kg in low economic
status
▪ Low birth weight associated with later physical growth and development.
▪ Agarwal & upadhyaya , In their large scale study on 6 to 8 years of rural children
found that the adverse effects of malnutrition on intelligence increased with its
severity
▪ Cognitive and other task- fine motor and gross motor skills and personal-social
and language tasks, infants mental and motor development and social maturity.
▪ Anemia, deficiencies of iodine, thiamine, niacin related to cognitive and
behavioral function.
▪ Incidence of psychiatric disorders among the poor and disadvantaged group is
much higher than advantaged group.
▪ Experiences in low class lead to low self esteem, intellectual rigidity, sense of
fatalism, and grater suceptability to stress
▪ Conditions of poverty and disadvantage lead to emotional disturbances and
neurotic traits and restlessness among children.

Management of Resource Deprivation and Poverty

Interventions

• Variety of governmental and non governmental intervention was taken up to help

people outgrow the poverty trap. Psychological intervention also have been tried
out. Focus of governmental intervention on macro level policy changes.
Psychological intervention tried out in a micro level to address issues with
individual, or a small group.
Psychological Interventions
• Psychological interventions are generally aimed strengthening and equipping
individuals from disadvantaged and deprived backgrounds with skills and
competencies necessary for effective functioning in the society.
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• Rath has suggested complementary programmes to enrich the cognitive background

of the disadvantaged children for increasing their academic motivation to effect
changes in the living condition.
• Sandeep and pushpa propose to coordinated efforts for developing curriculum,
teacher training, innovation in teaching method etc for the disadvantaged pupils.
• Lidhoo and khan demonstrated counselling of bright underachievers from rural
background led to self acceptance, self understanding and enhanced academic
performance.
• Since deprived and poor children lack parental competence and support singh
argued that school need to function as a substitute for parents and families. He
support the creation of ashram type schools for rescuing socially disadvantaged
from the impact adverse home condition.
• Sinha has argued that intervention should start at an early stage. And attention to be
paid at their family atmosphere.
• Evidence from the tribal children of madhyapradesh suggest that educational
intervention produced positive gains in language and cognitive development.

Psychologist Role:

• Psychologists as researchers, service providers, educators, and policy advocates have a

responsibility to better understand the causes of poverty and its impact on health and
mental health, to help prevent and reduce the prevalence of poverty and to effectively
treat and address the needs of low-income individuals and families by building on the
strengths of communities

• Psychologists remain ethically guided to “respect the fundamental rights, dignity, and
worth of all people” (American Psychological Association, Resolution on Poverty and
Socioeconomic Status, 2000) and are aware of their professional and scientific
responsibilities to the community and the society in which they work and live” (American
Psychological Association, Resolution on Poverty and Socioeconomic Status, 2000);

• Engage in continuing education and training to better understand issues related to social
class, including poverty and wealth for low-income and economically marginalized
people.

• Train graduate and postgraduate education students better understand the causes and
impact of poverty, the psychological needs of poor individuals and families, and to be
culturally competent and sensitive to diversity around issues of poverty.

• Debunk myths, prejudices, and negative attitudes about those living in poverty through
research, practice, and advocacy.
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Governmental Interventions

• The national planning committee in 1938 under the chairman ship of Nehru considered
elimination of poverty is an important goal.
• Five year plans

• Various Programme and Schemes under the Government of India were launched to eradicate
poverty and for providing basic amenities to the poor households.

• Schemes like Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana and Housing for All by 2022 were developed to
provide housing to the rural and urban poor. The latest government schemes like Start-Up
India and Stand Up India focuses on empowering people to earn their livelihood.

• •Role of Public Distribution System in Poverty Alleviation

• The Public Distribution System (PDS) which evolved as a system of management for food
and distribution of food grains plays a major role in poverty alleviation. This programme is
operated jointly by the Central

• Government and the State Government of India. The responsibilities include:

• Allocations of commodities such as rice, wheat, kerosene, and sugar to the States and Union
Territories.
• Issue of Ration Cards for the people below the poverty line.
• Identification of families living below the poverty line.
• Management of food scarcity and distribution of food grain

• What are the reasons for the ineffectiveness of poverty alleviation programs?

• The major reasons for the ineffectiveness of the poverty alleviation programs are mentioned
below:

• The poverty alleviation program may not properly identify and target the exact number of
poor families in rural areas. As a result, some of the families who are not registered under
these programs are benefited by the facilities rather than the eligible ones

• Overlapping of similar government schemes is a major cause of ineffectiveness as it leads to

confusion among poor people and authorities and the benefits of the scheme do not reach the
poor.

• Overpopulation of the country increases the burden of providing the benefits of the schemes to a
large number of people and thus reduces the effectiveness of the programs.
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• Corruption at various levels of implementation of schemes is another major reason

• Mid Day Meal Scheme

• It was started in India from 15th August 1995 under the name of ‘National Programme of
Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE)’. In October 2007, NP-NSPE was
renamed as ‘National Programme of Mid Day Meal in Schools,’ which is popularly known as
Mid-Day Meal Scheme

UNIT 3
Inequality of inclusion in economic development gender, class, caste

• Economic development is a crucial aspect of societal progress, but it is often marked

by gender inequality.
• Inequality refers to the phenomenon of unequal and/or unjust distribution of resources
and opportunities among members of a given society.
• This inequality manifests in various forms, such as wage gaps, limited access to
resources, and underrepresentation in decision-making positions.
• Understanding and addressing gender-based inequality in economic development is
essential for achieving sustainable and inclusive growth.
I. Gender Wage Gap:
• The gender wage gap refers to the disparity in earnings between men and women
performing similar work.
• Factors contributing to the wage gap include occupational segregation, discrimination,
and biases in hiring and promotion practices.
• Studies consistently show that women earn less than men, highlighting a significant
barrier to economic inclusion and development.

II. Limited Access to Resources:

• Women often face restricted access to financial resources, credit, and capital necessary for
entrepreneurship and business development.
• Lack of access to land ownership, property rights, and inheritance further exacerbate
economic disparities.
• These barriers prevent women from participating fully in economic activities and hinder
their potential to contribute to economic development
III.Underrepresentation in Decision-Making:

• Women are frequently underrepresented in leadership and decision-making roles in both

the public and private sectors.
• Limited representation means women's perspectives and needs are often overlooked in
economic policy formulation and implementation.
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• Increasing women's participation in decision-making processes is crucial for fostering

inclusive economic development.
IV. Education and Skills Gap:
• Gender disparities in education and skills development perpetuate economic
inequality.
• Girls and women face obstacles such as limited access to education, gender-based
violence, and cultural biases against their educational attainment.
• Addressing these gaps through targeted interventions and promoting equal access
to quality education can contribute to women's economic empowerment.
V. Unpaid Care and Domestic Work:
• If you are able to explain why a particular behaviour occurs, you can control that
behaviour by making changes in its antecedent conditions.
• Control refers to three things: making a particular behaviour happen, reducing it, or
enhancing it.
• For example, you can allow the number of hours devoted to study to be the same, or
you can reduce them or there may be an increase in the study hours.
• The change brought about in behaviour by psychological treatment in terms of
therapy in persons, is a good example of control.
VI. Addressing Gender Inequality in Economic Development
• Implementing policies and legal frameworks that promote gender equality in the
labor market, such as pay equity legislation and anti-discrimination measures.
• Creating inclusive financial systems that provide equal access to credit, loans, and
financial services for women.
• Promoting women's entrepreneurship and supporting initiatives that enhance their
participation in economic activities.
• Investing in education and skills development programs that empower girls and
women to pursue diverse career paths.
• Encouraging gender-responsive budgeting and planning to ensure adequate allocation
of resources for addressing gender-based economic disparities.
• Enhancing social protection measures, including affordable childcare and parental
leave policies, to alleviate the burden of unpaid care work.

Inequality of Inclusion in Economic Development: Class

Economic Development
Economic development, the process whereby simple, low-income national economies are
transformed into modern industrial economies. Although the term is sometimes used as a
synonym for economic growth, generally it is employed to describe a change in a country’s
economy involving qualitative as well as quantitative improvements. The theory of
economic development—how primitive and poor economies can evolve into sophisticated
and relatively prosperous ones—is of critical importance to underdeveloped countries.
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Class
Social class refers to a hierarchical system that categorizes individuals or groups based
on their economic, social, and cultural status within a society. It is a way of classifying people
into different strata or levels based on factors such as income, wealth, occupation, education,
and lifestyle. Social class is often linked to access and distribution of resources, opportunities,
and power within a society. The concept of social class is shaped by various factors, including
economic systems, social structures, and cultural norms.

The different classes in society

• Upper class
o The term "upper class" generally refers to the socio-economic group at the highest end of the
social hierarchy. Members of the upper class typically have significant wealth, social status,
and influence in society. They often enjoy privileges, opportunities, and access to resources
that are not available to individuals in lower social classes.

o The upper class is typically associated with substantial financial assets, including significant
income, property, investments, and inheritances. Many members of the upper class have
received high-quality education, often attending prestigious schools and universities. They may
hold influential positions in professions such as law, finance, business, or politics. The upper
class tends to have extensive social networks and connections, including influential friends,
business associates, and political contacts. They may be involved in exclusive clubs,
organizations, or social circles that provide further opportunities for socializing and
networking. Members of the upper class often enjoy a luxurious lifestyle characterized by
expensive homes, high-end vehicles, fine dining, travel, and access to exclusive recreational
activities. They may have staff or servants to assist with various aspects of their daily lives.
The upper class tends to have a refined taste in art, literature, music, and other cultural pursuits.
They may support or patronize the arts, museums, and other cultural institutions.

Middle Class

• The middle class is a social class that is typically characterized by a moderate level of income,
education, and occupation. It is considered to be the socioeconomic group between the upper
class and the lower class. In general, the middle class is often associated with a comfortable
standard of living, access to education, and professional or skilled occupations.
• Members of the middle class usually have the ability to afford basic necessities, such as
housing, healthcare, and education, as well as some discretionary spending on non-essential
goods and services. The middle class is often seen as an important driver of economic growth
and social stability, as they are typically the largest consumer group in many economies. They
play a vital role in the workforce, encompassing a range of professions, including teachers,
nurses, engineers, managers, and small business owners. it is worth noting that the middle class
can face economic challenges and uncertainties, such as income stagnation, rising costs of
living, and job insecurity. The size and strength of the middle class can also be influenced by
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various factors, including economic policies, technological advancements, and social mobility
opportunities within a given society.
Working class

• The working class refers to a social class of people who typically engage in manual labor or
non-executive positions in industries such as manufacturing, construction, agriculture, service
sectors, and more. Members of the working class often earn wages or salaries in exchange for
their labor. The working class is characterized by having limited ownership or control over the
means of production, such as factories, land, or capital.
• They usually rely on their physical or mental skills to perform tasks and contribute to the
production of goods and services. Members of the working class often face challenges such as
lower wages, job insecurity, lack of social mobility, and limited access to resources and
opportunities compared to other social classes. They may also be more vulnerable to economic
fluctuations and downturns. Historically, the concept of the working class emerged during the
Industrial Revolution when large numbers of people left agricultural work to seek employment
in factories. Since then, the working class has evolved and diversified, adapting to changes in
technology, industry, and the economy. It's important to note that the definition and
composition of the working class can vary across different countries and contexts, and there
may be different ways of categorizing social classes depending on cultural, economic, and
sociopolitical factors.
Poor

• Individuals and families in lower socioeconomic classes often face a range of challenges related
to their financial resources, access to opportunities, and overall quality of life. Poverty can have
a significant impact on various aspects of a person's life, including housing, education,
healthcare, employment opportunities, and social mobility.
• Poor individuals often have limited access to quality education due to financial constraints.
This can perpetuate a cycle of poverty as education is crucial for acquiring the skills and
knowledge necessary for better employment opportunities. Poverty can restrict access to
healthcare services, including preventive care, medical treatment, and medications. Poor
people may face difficulties in affording health insurance or may not have access to nearby
healthcare facilities. Low-income individuals often struggle with inadequate housing and living
conditions. They may live in substandard or overcrowded housing, lacking basic amenities
such as clean water, sanitation, or heating.
• Limited job opportunities and lower levels of education often contribute to high rates of
unemployment or underemployment among poor people. This can further perpetuate the cycle
of poverty and make it challenging to escape financial hardship. Poor individuals may lack
access to affordable credit, loans, or financial services, making it difficult for them to invest in
income-generating activities or deal with emergencies. Poverty can lead to social exclusion and
stigmatization, which can affect individuals' mental well-being and self-esteem. Poor people
may face discrimination or biases that limit their opportunities for social interaction and
community participation.
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• Poor people often have less political representation and influence compared to wealthier
individuals or interest groups. This can result in their voices and concerns being marginalized
in decision-making processes and policies that affect their lives.
Inequality of these classes in economic development

• The upper class generally consists of individuals with significant wealth, assets, and access to
power. They tend to have high levels of education, influential social networks, and opportunities
for economic advancement. In terms of economic development, the upper class often benefits the
most, as they have access to investment opportunities, favorable business conditions, and policies
that cater to their interests. This can lead to a concentration of wealth and power, exacerbating
income inequality and limiting opportunities for others.
• The middle class typically includes individuals who have achieved a moderate level of
economic stability and have access to basic necessities, such as education, healthcare, and housing.
They often have steady employment and some degree of disposable income. The middle class is
essential for economic development as they contribute to consumer spending, innovation, and
entrepreneurship. However, if the middle class experiences limited upward mobility and faces
economic pressures, it can hinder economic development and exacerbate social and economic
disparities.
• The working class consists of individuals engaged in manual labor, hourly wage jobs, or other
forms of employment that require limited specialized skills. They may struggle with financial
instability, limited social protection, and fewer opportunities for advancement. Economic
development should aim to improve the conditions and opportunities for the working class by
providing better job prospects, fair wages, social safety nets, and access to quality education and
healthcare. A thriving working class contributes to economic growth through productivity,
consumer demand, and social stability.
• The poor class represents the most vulnerable and economically disadvantaged segment of
society. These individuals often lack access to basic needs, including adequate food, clean water,
housing, healthcare, and education. Poverty can be both a cause and a consequence of limited
economic development. Inclusive economic development strategies should prioritize poverty
reduction, social protection programs, skills training, and opportunities for income generation to
uplift the poor and break the cycle of intergenerational poverty.
• Addressing the inequality of inclusion requires comprehensive policies and interventions.
Governments, along with civil society and the private sector, need to focus on creating an enabling
environment that promotes equal opportunities, social mobility, and equitable distribution of
resources. This may include investing in education and skills training, promoting fair labor
practices, implementing progressive taxation, providing social safety nets, and fostering inclusive
economic growth that benefits all segments of society.
o In short….
o Income and wealth disparity
o Employment opportunities
o Access to education and training
o Social mobility
o Access to resources and services
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INEQUALITY OF INCLUSION IN ECONOMIC “DEVELOPMENT”: CASTE

• Caste plays a role at every stage of Indian economic life. Several international human
rights organizations insist that worldwide over 260 million people suffer from
discrimination based on caste, that caste is “a fundamental determinant of social
exclusion and development”, and affects some 20–25 percent of the world’s population.
His caste will determine the type of school he has access to, the way he is treated by his
teachers, and his interactions with his classmates.
• In young adulthood, his caste will determine whether or not he benefits from
affirmative action in higher education and access to government jobs.
• Despite laws that aim to create equality, the caste system in India continues to have a
strong impact on society.
• Hindus are divided up into four classes based on the principle of "varna," which
literally means "color": the Brahmins (the priestly class); the Kshatriyas (the ruling,
administrative, and warrior class); the Vaishyas (the class of artisans, tradesmen, farmers,
and merchants); and the Shudras (manual workers).
• There are also people who fall outside the system, including tribal people and the
Dalits, previously known as "untouchables,"( street cleaners, menial tasks ).

• The work is prohibited for specific castes in some areas. In many cases, the work is
not given to the deserving candidates but given to the person belonging to a particular
community. So this gives rise to unemployment.

• A sweeper or a cobbler, for example, cannot be permitted to devote himself to any

educational or scientific profession, even when he has a natural aptitude and physical and
intellectual equipment for it.

• Caste has been the central feature in Nepal to describe the level of poverty, education,
health status, and a host of other development issues.
• Caste/ethnic inequalities have now become important agendas of multilateral funding
agencies. However, the inequality is further complicated by interaction with class, gender,
and region within each group.
• The village-level data clearly shows that poverty varies within the caste/ethnic
groups, between those with regular cash income and without a regular income, and with
land and without land.
• Overall, the Brahmins were economically better than other groups. However, the
Brahmin households self-employed in agriculture were poor than the Dalit households
engaged in business.
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Unit 4: Consumerism and materialism: psychological significance of possessions

Consumerism

Consumerism is basically a theory and a social and economic order that encourages the
acquisition of goods and services in increasing amounts. According to this theory,
increasing the consumption of goods is economically desirable. It describes the tendency
of people living in a capitalist economy to engage in a lifestyle of excessive
materialism, which revolves around wasteful or conspicuous overconsumption.
Overconsumption have larger impacts on the environment, including direct effects like
overexploitation of natural resources or large amounts of waste from disposable goods,
and larger effects like climate change. Consumerism can be seen in many economically
developed countries. Mass production of luxury goods, rising levels of personal debts are
some indicators of an increase in consumer spending. A rise in consumer spending can
lead to an increase in production as well as economic growth. However, there are many
adverse social, economic and environmental consequences

Relation between consumerism and resource depletion

Consumerism is the idea that increasing the consumption of goods and services is
always a desirable goal and that a person wellbeing and happiness depends
fundamentally on obtaining more consumer goods and material possessions.
Examples: Buying a car, going to private hospitals, buying a bigger house. Resource
depletion is the consumption of a resource faster than it can be replenished. Natural
resources are commonly divided between renewable resources and non-renewable
resources. Use of either of these forms of resources beyond their rate of replacement is
considered to be resource depletion. The value of a resource is a direct result of its
availability in nature and the cost of extracting the resource, the more a resource is
depleted the more the value of the resource increases.
There are several types of resource depletion, the most known
being: Aquifer depletion, deforestation, mining for fossil fuels and minerals, pollution or
contamination of resources, slash-and-burn agricultural practices, soil erosion,
and overconsumption, excessive or unnecessary use of resources.
Resource depletion is most commonly used in reference
to farming, fishing, mining, water usage, and consumption of fossil fuels. Depletion of
wildlife populations is called de-faunation. The negative effects of consumerism include
the depletion of natural resources and pollution of the Earth. The way the consumer
society is working is not sustainable.
Positive impacts of consumerism
❖ Increases economic output that creates jobs.

❖ Leads to increases in wealth for companies.

❖ Promotes competition between companies.
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❖ Allows for a large variety of goods and services.

❖ Improves the quality of life for people.
Negative impacts of consumerism

❖ Causes more pollution.

❖ A major contributor to resource depletion.
❖ Leads companies to develop low quality products

❖ Promotes poor labor standards and pay for workers.

❖ Does not necessarily lead to increased happiness beyond a certain point.
❖ Depletion of finite resources such as oil, gas, useable water or minerals is likely to impact
on world GDP well before the worst impacts of global warming.
Consequences

❖ Soil erosion, Global Warming caused by the rise of greenhouse gases

❖ Extinction of species and loss of biodiversity.
❖ Flooding and drought.

❖ Resource Depletion occurs when the renewable and non-renewable natural resources
become scarce because they are consumed faster than they can recover.

❖ The term resource depletion is commonly associated with water usage, fossil fuel
consumption, trees and fishing. All of these resources have been depleted primarily
because of human activities.
❖ The modern society of consumerism and rampant ‘development’ is destroying our world.
❖ The biggest problem with consumerism is the fact that people do not realize that there
is a problem.
❖ We are already consuming resources at an alarming rate and quicker than our planet is
able to replenish.

Characteristics affecting consumer behavior

❖ Culture - set of basic values, perceptions and behavior learned by a member of society
from family and other institutions

❖ Subculture - a group of people with shared value systems based on common life
experiences Social class- relatively permanent and ordered divisions in a society whose
members share similar values and behavior.
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Social factors
❖ Groups - 2 or more people interact to achieve mutual goals. Reference groups serve as
points of comparison and influence buyer behavior. Opinion leaders drive trends and
influence mass opinion
❖ Family - buying roles have changed with evolving consumer lifestyles. Wives, children
play a larger role.
❖ Roles & Status - a person plays different roles in their lives and is accorded a status
based on these roles.

Personal factors
❖ Age & life-cycle stage - impact of the family life cycle needs to be considered.
Occupation Economic situation.
❖ Lifestyle- depicts a person’s pattern of living. Lifestyle profiling helps to understand
persons method of interaction with the world
❖ Personality & self-concept - can be used to describe certain characteristics like
sociability, aggressiveness, etc.

Psychological factors
❖ Motivation - a need that is sufficiently pressing to direct the person to seek satisfaction
Perception- process by which people select, organize & interpret information to form a
meaningful picture
❖ Learning – changes in an individual’s behavior arising from experience
❖ Beliefs & Attitudes - belief is a descriptive thought that a person has about something.
Attitude describes a person’s consistent tendency towards and object/idea. Attitudes are
difficult to change.

Materialism

In philosophical usage, materialism originally referred to the notion that nothing exists
except matter and its movements. Materialistic consumers do rely on physical
(material) possessions to manifest and perceive invisible personal characteristics such as
happiness, status and social competence. This reliance on material objects for meaning is
reminiscent of the philosophical use of the term. Materialism is a philosophical doctrine
which holds the belief that the only thing that can be truly proven to exist is matter.
For the materialists, all the things are composed of matter and all the phenomena are the
result of material interactions. A general concept in metaphysics, it is the most
specifically applied to the mind body problem in Philosophy of mind. Materialism can be
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viewed as a type of monism as opposed to Dualism or pluralism. It can also be

considered a variety of Naturalism (the belief that nature is that exists and that all the
things supernatural do not exist) Materialism excludes the existence of entities that are
radically different from or superior to the matter of our ordinary experience. In
philosophy, the theory of materialism holds that the only thing that exists is matter or
energy. That all things are composed of material and all phenomena, are the result of
material interactions; in other words, matter is the only substance and reality is identical
with the actually occurring states of energy and matter.

Psychological significance of Possessions

Materialists view themselves and others as successful to the extent they can possess
products that project these desired images. Thus the possessions are used in order to form
impressions of others and projecting images of the self. The desire to obtain more
goods or possessions is widely credited as an important motivation for work.
Materialists have a stronger desire than others for goods, and thus can be expected to
work more or strive for higher paying jobs. The important goals of spending and
consumption, from an economic perspective, are utility, satisfaction, and improved
quality of life. Throughout the world, economic advancement is valued for its ability to
improve the quality of life. But some evidence suggests, however, that increased
economic well-being does not do a great deal to improve the happiness or life satisfaction
of a society at large. And may also lead to poorer social adjustment and mental health.
Social communication and economic goods: It is well recognized that one’s sense of self
stems in part from the possessions one owns. Although not tested empirically, it has
been suggested that materialists are more likely than others to define their selves through
possessions. Several studies have examined the symbolic meaning of possessions as they
relate to identity. It is found that materialists are more likely to value possessions for
their status, appearance-related, and utilitarian meaning while those low in
materialism are more likely to derive value from a possession’s symbolic ties with other
individuals or its potential for hedonic satisfaction. An obvious example of the use of
economic goods for social communication purposes is the exchange of gifts. Gifts have a
number of functions, including the expression of feelings for the recipient and the
strengthening of social ties. Another use of gifts, in some cases, is to communicate
aspects of the self to others. To the extent they desire to communicate their status or
success to others, materialists would be motivated to give gifts whose meanings are
consistent with this status. As we all know, our relationship to the things we own goes far
beyond utility and aesthetics. Simply put, we love our stuff. Morris’s contemporary, the
psychologist William James, had a notion why our possessions, he argued, define who
we are: “Between what a men calls me and what he simply calls mine the line is difficult
to draw.” Our possessions represent our extended selves. They provide a sense of past
and tell us “who we are, where we have come from and perhaps where we are going”,
says Russell Belk, who studies consumerism at York University in Toronto, Canada. Our
things are “repositories of ourselves”, says Catherine Roster at the University of New
Mexico in Albuquerque. “It might be a sweater, a lamp, an umbrella – an object doesn’t
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have to have material value to have emotional value. “Our ability to imbue things with
rich meaning is a universal human trait that develops early in life, and develops as
we get older. One important implication of the proposed social constructionist
perspective on material possessions as symbols of identity is that the identity of others
is visible in objectified form, as well as one's own. This leads to the proposition that
people place and evaluate others in a social context in which possessions form an
important part: first impressions formed about others are heavily influenced by the
material objects they own - appears that possession-based inferences about others'
identities involve, first of all, categorical judgements about social identity (e.g., social
class, lifestyle, occupation) which, in turn, give rise to self-expressive evaluations about
personal identity (individual qualities and values)

Why are some people more materialistic?

❖ First, people are more materialistic when they are exposed to messages that suggest
such pursuits are important, whether through their parents and friends, society, or the
media.

❖ Second, and somewhat less obvious — people are more materialistic when they feel
insecure or threatened, whether because of rejection, economic fears or thoughts of their
own death.

❖ Media and materialism: The research shows that the more that people watch television,
the more materialistic their values are. That’s probably because both the shows and the
ads send messages suggesting that happy, successful people are wealthy, have nice
things, and are beautiful and popular. (TV owned by people who make money by
selling advertisements) the more that advertising dominated the economy, the more
materialistic youth were. Studies also show materialism is higher as social media use
increases.
Material possessions and social class

❖ Social classes differ in self-concept, values and consumption goals.

❖ Working-class people have a short-term outlook on consumer goods with a preference
for instrumental and recreational possessions to ease everyday life and fill their leisure
time.
❖ In contrast, middle-class people value possessions which serve symbolic needs in
terms of status, personal history and self-expression, showing a long-term
perspective.
❖ This suggests that, firstly, endorsement of materialistic values may be related
systematically to a person's social-material position, possibly reflecting differential
concerns with material and psychological security.
❖ Secondly, perception of others' identities on the basis of material possessions may differ
according to the perceiver's social-material background.
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❖ The implication that people from different socio-economic backgrounds may therefore
form different impressions of affluent and less affluent individuals is supported by
social identity theory, which essentially postulates that people are motivated to view
members of their own and similar social categories in a positive light (in-group
favouritism), which bolsters their self-image.

❖ Working -class adolescents should perceive an affluent person (or a less affluent person)
differently to middle-class adolescents.

❖ People become affluent because they are intelligent, hard-working, skilful and successful,
whereas less affluent people are viewed as lazy, unmotivated and lacking in abilities and
skills.
❖ At least indirectly, such notions can be regarded as dominant representations in the sense
that the status quo must be fair if wealth differentials are seen as the product of individual
merit, and in the sense that they entail self-blame for the poor and disadvantaged.
❖ Work on political and economic socialisation indicates that children and adolescents
come to increasingly endorse dominant representations about the social and economic
world, quite irrespective of social class.
Unit 5
Dalit and poverty

• In India, as well as other countries in South Asia like Nepal and Sri Lanka, the caste
system has been a large part of society and still remains, though to a lesser extent, to
be a part of society. This may be in an official or unofficial sense because most South
Asian countries have either outlawed the caste system or are trying to move away
from it. The caste system is basically a way of dividing people into different social
classes, beginning with Brahmins as the highest (Priests and teachers), Kshatriyas
(warriors and rulers), Vaisyas (farmers, merchants, and artisans), and Sudras
(laborers); see Figure 1. Untouchables, also known as Harijans or Dalits, fall outside
of the caste system all together. These were the original caste groupings as made clear
by one Hindu Holy Scripture called the Bhagvad Gita.

• Initially, the system was created “to promote the harmonious workings of society”,
but eventually, it has—mostly through corruption reached the prejudice and
discrimination- filled system it is today (Kar, 2007). This corruption began with
Colonialism and has had a profound impact on the modern day caste system. It is
thought that “Indian society was highly fragmented into communal groupings that
served as centers for social identity. In trying to make sense of these groupings, the
Portuguese first suggested caste identities. The British expanded on that idea to
promote order in Indian society” (Pye, 2002, p. 177).
• This article is structured as follows. The next section provides a brief review of the
literature. The third section provides some empirical background on poverty in South
Asia and especially India. The subsequent three sections (IV-VI) review the linkage
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between poverty and the caste system, in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka, respectively.
The last section provides some conclusion.
Brief Literature Review
• There is a large amount of literature on poverty and the caste system in India. The
sources often describe the link between the two. There are also many sources solely
focused on poverty and solely focused on the caste system in India without linking
them. However, there is not much literature about the effects of the caste system on
South Asia as a whole. Information is also scarce when dealing with the caste
system’s effects in specific South Asian countries other than India. There are a few
sources that focus on the caste system’s effects in Nepal and Sri Lanka, though they
do not contain a lot of empirical data.

• Edited by Chaudhary (2005), there is a set of five volumes on Human Rights and
Poverty in India, addressing a variety of theoretical issues and empirical evidences.
The 94 papers in these five volumes analyze the interface between human rights and
poverty, with particular reference to India. Dealing with conceptual theoretical and
philosophical dimensions of poverty and human rights, they address a wide range of
issues pertaining to the situation of human rights and poverty among different social
groups in different states of the country. Various contributions provide information on
the history of poverty in India as well as the consequences of such poverty. The
contributions attempt to analyze how poverty accelerated in India and the
complications in trying to end it. Overall, the five volumes come to the conclusion
that the case system is one of the factors that has contributed to poverty as well as
complicated the process of alleviating poverty in India.

• Silva and Hettihewage (2001) focus on poverty, social exclusion and the impact of
selected legal measures against caste discrimination in South Asia. They analyze how
the lowest caste is looked at in terms of how they are affected by their position in
society and discuss the issues involved with the reservation system in trying to help
the untouchables get out of poverty. Based on their analysis, they conclude (p. 69) that
“[e]ven though the caste system primarily encompasses a value system applicable to
ritual domain and social relations, it also determines the relative worth and level of
dignity of human beings, affecting their overall position including their livelihood
security, freedom, and adaptation to a modern market economy.”

• Rose (1967) discusses the effects of various sociological factors such as joint family,
caste system and Hindu religious values on economic development in India. He also
provides possible solutions for increasing economic efficiency.

• Kar (2007) wrote an article on religion and the roots of India’s caste system for the
New York Times, in which he reported on the origins of the caste system. He
discussed what the Hindu scriptures say about caste as well as what the caste system
actually turned out to be. The Gita, which is one of the Hindu scriptures, states that
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caste is not determined by birth but by behavior. However, today people’s castes are
determined as soon as they are born signifying an outside influence on the modern
day caste system.

• With regards to Nepal and Sri Lanka, the literature on linking poverty and caste is
very thin. Shrestha (2002) offers some insights on how Dalits in Nepal are
discriminated against. Heitzman (1990) discusses the history of the caste system in Sri
Lanka and how the Portuguese and the British played a part in shaping it into what it
is today in Sri Lanka. Heitzman also describes the impacts of caste on the lives of low
caste citizens in Sri Lanka.

Empirical Background

• South Asia is one of the most poverty ridden regions in the world. Although the
poverty rate (defined as the percent of people living below $1.25-a-day) has decreased
from about 60 percent in 1980 to 51.7 percent in 1990 and to 40.3 percent in 2005
(see Figure 2), there were still about 600 million poor people trying to make a living
in South Asia.

• Specifically in India, there are still 350 million people who live on less than one
dollar-a- day (Waldman, 2005). As of 2005, the country ranks 127th out of 177
countries on the United Nations Human Development Index (HDI), which measures
life span, education and living standard. Nearly half of India’s children are
undernourished, a level worse than sub-Saharan Africa (see Waldman, 2005). These
horrible conditions are magnified by the fact that India has such a large population
(over 1.1 billion people), which is growing at 1.4 percent a year; see Table 1. This
adds more competition to the workforce as well as puts extra strains on families by
forcing them to provide for more people. Although this is definitely a factor in the
continuing poverty in India, the caste system that had been present for hundreds of
years had a large role in creating these poverty rates.
The Caste System in India
1. Economic State of Untouchables in India

• The caste system that was established in India forced many people who belong to the
lower castes into poverty. There are approximately 180 million to 220 million people
who are considered to be in the lowest caste in India (Ninian, 2008). These lower
castes or “Dalits” (broken people) are essentially shunned from society (Thekaekara,
2005). It is not that they have earned such isolation, they “experience absolute
exclusion from the cradle to the Grave” (Thekaekara, 2005). Many are forbidden to
hold jobs because their caste may be one of an untouchable, or a person with basically
no rights. Out of the 180-220 million Dalits, 40 million are essentially doing slave
labor because they must work off the debts of their ancestors (Ninian, 2008). These
people are taught to expect nothing in life but to work all day in the sun and hope that
someone will buy their labor or produce, which is in fact uncommon because those of
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higher castes often refuse to touch anything an untouchable has touched. This practice
is due to the reasoning that people feared that even a simple glance at an untouchable
could pollute your standing in a higher caste position and aid in the eventual
downgrade of caste in the next life (Standing, 2007). Because of this discrimination
and work bondage, it is difficult for many people of a lower caste to have a steady
income, therefore keeping them in extreme poverty.
• Another rule within the caste system is that you cannot marry outside of your caste.
This notion has helped in preserving the poverty level in India as well. Although India
has supposedly denounced the caste system currently, the people still unofficially go
by this marriage rule because of social pressures (Banerjee et al., 2009). Evidence of
this comes from the first hand experience of a 24-year old male graduate student who
was born and raised in south India. He belongs to the Kamma caste which is a sub-
caste of the Brahmin caste. Based on an interview with him, it seems that the first
thing that is taken into consideration when looking for a mate is still their caste. When
he was asked why people still sought out same caste partners even when the caste
system is eroding, he stated that people are simply expected to do so because that is
how it has been done for years. He continued to explain that society itself is structured
to keep this tradition going. For example, he stated that when taking tests in Indian
schools, just as Americans put down their race, there is a place to mark which caste
you are. On such forms there is no option that says mixed caste. So it is almost a
hassle to move away from the norm because then confusion such as which caste to
mark on official forms will come up. For small inconveniences like these, a whole
nation sticks to the same caste. This creates a very tough situation for people in lower
castes. The inability to marry a person from a different caste further traps the many
people in lower castes within their poverty ridden state.

IV.2. Reservation System Established to Alleviate Poverty

• Today India has rejected the caste system and is trying to shed the effects. Currently
there is a reservation system in India for the lowest caste that is much like affirmative
action policies in the US. For many of India’s poorest people, the reservation system
means a hopeful future. As mentioned earlier, there is already the ever present high
population condition which already hinders the integration of Dalits and threatens the
very idea of successful integration of the Dalits into the rest of society.

• The social and economic conditions in India make it difficult for people to find jobs.
Especially due to an overcrowded population. On top of this general situation, there is
still the unfortunate circumstance of the hundreds of years in which the lower castes
were denied proper education, if they were allowed any education at all for that
matter. In light of this outright disability, the lower ca5 of 10 have been as adequately
prepared as people within higher castes for competing for the same jobs. Therefore
the people within higher castes would receive the job, leaving lower castes to stay
hidden and forgotten in the shadows of India’s filthy gutters. In other words, they
 160

would be back to square one and they will be living their lives as if nothing has
changed.
• An interesting twist on the long-term positive effects Dalits experienced due to the
removal of the caste system is that there seem to have been some initially negative
effects. Silva and Hettihewage (2001, p. 69) reported that “[i]n so far as such
measures have the unintended consequence of removing whatever protection and
social security was provided by the caste system (converting cooperation into conflict
and trust into mutual suspicion in the process) without creating alternative structures
of social welfare, they may be expected to enhance poverty and vulnerability at least
in the short term.”

• Another drawback of trying to get rid of castes and caste discrimination is that it has
negatively affected some of the middle and upper classes as many young people in
higher castes are due to the reservation system – not getting into schools or jobs the
previous generation got easily. Based on the above mentioned interview with a 24-
year old male graduate student, there seems to be a large amount of reservations for
lower castes to get into certain schools or to attain certain jobs. The graduate student
recalled that when he was in high school studying to get into college, one of his
classmates spent day and night studying to get a top score he expected will allow him
to get into a top rated medical college. Unfortunately for him, there were a large
amount of reservations for Dalits and he did not get accepted. Later on the graduate
student found out that the same person decided to get a government job, but remained
unemployed for some time due to a high percentage of reservations for such
government jobs. Stories like these are becoming common.

Women and Poverty

Women and poverty have a complex relationship, and women are disproportionately affected
by poverty worldwide. Here are some key points to consider:

1. Global Gender Poverty Gap: Women are more likely to experience poverty compared to
men. According to the World Bank, in many developing countries, women are
overrepresented among the poor. This gender poverty gap can be attributed to a range of
factors, including gender discrimination, limited access to education and resources, unequal
employment opportunities, and cultural norms.

2. Income Disparity: Women often earn less than men for equivalent work. The gender pay gap
exists in various parts of the world, and women’s income tends to be lower than men’s. This
wage disparity can contribute to higher poverty rates among women, especially single
mothers or female-headed households.

3. Unpaid Care Work: Women typically shoulder a significant burden of unpaid care work,
such as caring for children, elderly family members, and domestic chores. This limits their
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opportunities for paid employment, career advancement, and economic independence. The
undervaluation of care work in economic terms contributes to the feminization of poverty.

4. Access to Education: Limited access to education is another significant factor that

contributes to women’s poverty. In many societies, girls and women face barriers to
education, including cultural norms, early marriage, lack of infrastructure, and safety
concerns. Without education, women may face restricted employment prospects and reduced
earning potential.

5. Health and Poverty: Women’s health issues, such as maternal mortality, reproductive health
challenges, and limited access to healthcare, can exacerbate poverty. High healthcare costs,
coupled with limited financial resources, may force women to choose between seeking
necessary medical care and meeting their basic needs.

6. Social and Cultural Factors: Societal and cultural norms often perpetuate gender
inequalities, restricting women’s access to resources, opportunities, and decision-making
power. Discrimination, violence against women, and lack of legal protection further
marginalize women and contribute to their higher risk of poverty.

Addressing women’s poverty requires a multi-faceted approach that includes:

- Ensuring equal access to education and vocational training for girls and women.
- Promoting women’s economic empowerment through fair employment practices,
entrepreneurship opportunities, and access to financial services.
- Implementing policies and social protection measures that address the specific needs of
women, such as affordable childcare, maternity leave, and healthcare services.
- Challenging gender norms and stereotypes through advocacy and awareness campaigns.
- Encouraging the participation of women in decision-making processes at all levels,
including policy formulation and implementation.

By addressing these issues, societies can work toward reducing gender disparities in poverty
and creating a more inclusive and equitable world for women.

Minority and Poverty

Minority communities, particularly racial and ethnic minorities, have historically faced
higher rates of poverty compared to the majority population in many countries around the
world. This disparity can be attributed to a complex interplay of various factors, including
historical and systemic inequalities, discrimination, socioeconomic barriers, and limited
access to resources and opportunitie.

1. Historical and systemic inequalities: Minority communities have often been marginalized
and subjected to systemic discrimination throughout history. This includes factors such as
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slavery, colonization, segregation, and discriminatory policies that have hindered their
socioeconomic progress and contributed to higher poverty rates.

2. Discrimination: Discrimination based on race, ethnicity, or other factors can limit minority
individuals’ access to quality education, employment opportunities, housing, and healthcare.
Discriminatory practices, biases, and stereotypes can lead to unequal treatment and exclusion
from mainstream economic activities.
3. Socioeconomic barriers: Minority communities may face specific socioeconomic barriers
that contribute to higher poverty rates. These barriers can include limited access to quality
education, skills training, financial capital, and social networks that facilitate economic
mobility. Discrimination and bias in the job market can also restrict their employment
prospect
4. Limited access to resources and opportunities: Minority communities often have limited
access to resources and opportunities necessary for economic advancement. They may reside
in areas with inadequate infrastructure, limited public services, and fewer job opportunities.
Lack of affordable housing, healthcare facilities, and transportation options can further
exacerbate poverty in these communities.
5. Intersectionality: It’s important to recognize that poverty is not solely a result of race or
ethnicity but can be influenced by other intersecting factors such as gender, age, disability,
and immigration status. Individuals who belong to multiple marginalized groups may face
compounded challenges, making it even more difficult to escape poverty.
Addressing the issue of poverty in minority communities requires comprehensive and
multi-faceted approaches. These can include:
1. Policy interventions: Implementing policies that promote equal opportunities, address
systemic discrimination, and provide targeted support for minority communities. This can
involve affirmative action measures, anti-discrimination laws, and social welfare programs.
2. Education and skill development: Improving access to quality education and skill
development programs that equip individuals with the tools needed to succeed in the job
market. This includes investing in early childhood education, reducing educational
disparities, and providing vocational training and job placement services.
3. Economic empowerment: Promoting entrepreneurship and economic development in
minority communities through access to capital, business support programs, and mentorship
opportunities. Encouraging diverse hiring practices and fostering inclusive workplaces can
also contribute to economic empowerment.
4. Healthcare and social services: Ensuring equal access to healthcare, social services, and
safety nets for minority communities. This includes addressing healthcare disparities,
improving access to mental health services, and expanding social welfare programs to
provide a safety net for those in poverty.
5. Community engagement and empowerment: Encouraging community involvement and
empowering minority communities to participate in decision-making processes that affect
 163

their lives. Supporting community organizations, grassroots initiatives, and fostering dialogue
between different stakeholders can lead to more inclusive and effective solutions.

It is important to recognize and address the structural and systemic factors that contribute to
poverty in minority communities. By promoting equality, inclusivity, and equitable
opportunities, societies can work towards reducing poverty and creating a more just and
prosperous future for all.
Solution : Lobbying and Power Brokering

Lobbying

• Lobbying is the act of promoting an organization’s agenda to decision makers, usually

represented by government, in order to influence a specific reform.
• The term ‘public affairs’ is sometimes used instead.
• Lobbying is an important part of democracy.
• The term is almost exclusively associated with politics and public policymaking, and
in corporate settings is often referred to as government relations. .
• Any individual who attempts to manipulate public policy is a lobbyist; however, the
term is generally reserved for individuals whose primary employment function is
influencing public administration.
• These professionals are often employed by interest groups, trade associations,
corporations or unions; however, many professional lobbyists work for pubic relations
or government relations firms. Professional lobbyists predominantly represent highly
regulated sectors such as health care, natural resource development and the
communications industry.
• Lobbying is frequently divided into two sub-groups:
*Direct lobbying
*Indirect lobbying

• Direct Lobbying: Lobbying that involves direct contact between an organization, or their
representatives, and government decision makers.
• Indirect Lobbying: Lobbying that involves efforts to shape, mobilize, and enlist public
opinion, often through the media, in order to influence the policies or priorities of
government.

Power brokering

▪ A power broker is an individual who is able to influence the decisions of other parties. This is
usually done through the power broker’s personal and professional connections rather than
through public means, such as explicitly lobbying for a particular decision.
 164

▪ In the world of finance, a power broker is typically an industry insider who is familiar with
other important individuals and groups. By using these networks, they are able to exert
influence or make decisions.
▪ Power brokers may also be public figures, such as elected officials or well-known business
leaders, who subtly work their connections rather than taking a public stance on a particular
issue.
▪ Power brokers are often sought out by companies in order to rally support for issues that are
vital to a particular industry, such as how they are regulated.
▪ Power brokers can command high fees or future favors in return for their work helping a
company or industry deal with a particular issue or advance on a shared priority.
▪ Generally speaking, a power broker has a deep understanding of the industries they operate
in, particularly when it comes to identifying the key contacts.
▪ Industry lobbyists and media personnel are often viewed as power brokers because they are
familiar with the ins and outs of particular issues and are able to reach and influence
decision-makers faster than those less familiar with key players.
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Module 6- Human rights violations

Unit 1
MARGINALIZATION
Marginality is an experience that affects millions of people throughout the world. People who are
marginalized have relatively little control over their lives, and the resources available to them. This
results in making them handicapped in delving contribution to society. A vicious circle is set up
whereby their lack of positive and supportive relationships means that they are prevented from
participating in local life, which in turn leads to further isolation. This has a tremendous impact on
development of human beings, as well as on society at large. As the objective of development is to
create an enabling environment for people to enjoy a productive, healthy, and creative life, it is
important to address the issue of marginalization. This Imit deals, in detail, the various aspects of
marginalization.

In general, the term 'marginalization' describes the overt actions or tendencies of human societies,
where people who they perceive to undesirabile, or without useful åmction are excluded, i.e.,
marginalized. The people who are marginalized are outside the existing system a of protection and
integration. This limits their opportunities and means for survival. The term has been defined in the
following ways:

Peter Leonard defines marginality as, ".. .being outside the mainstrearn of producfive
Marginalization activity and/or social reproductive activity '.

The Encyclopedia of Public Health defines marginalization as, "To be marginalized is to be placed in
the margins, and thus excluded from the privilege and power found at the center".

Laitin observes that, '"Marginality' is so thoroughly demeaning, for economic well-being, for human
dignity, as well as for physical security. Marginal peoples can always be identified by members of
dominant society, and will face irrevocable discrimination."

Merriam-Webster's online dictionary definition of the term, marginalize, is "to relegate to an

unimportant, or powerless position within a society or group"

Ghana S. Gurung and Michael Kollmair mention that the concept of marginality is generally used to
analyse socioeconomic, political, and cultural spheres, where disadvantaged people sfruggle to gain
access to resources and full participation in social life. In other words, marginalized people might be
socially, economically, politically and legally ignored, excluded, or neglected, and, therefore
vulnerable to livelihood change.

According to Sommers et. al., "Socio-economic marginality is a condition of socio-spatial structure

and process in which components of society and space in a territorial unit are observed to lag behind
an expected level of performance in economic, political and social well being, compared with
average conditions in the territory as a whole"
 166

These definitions ate mentioned in different contexts, and show that marginalization is a slippery and
multilayered concept. To further clari$r the meaning and concept let us discuss certain features of
marginalization:

Sometimes, whole societies can be marginalized at national and global levels, while classes
and communities can be marginalized from the dominant social order within the local level. In some
other contexts, the sarne community can be marginalized in certain country (Jews in Germany or
Russia) whereas they are not marginalized in another country (Jews in the U.S.A.).

Marginalization.also increases or decreases at certain stages of life cycle. For example, the
marginalized status of children and youth may decrease as they get older; the marginalized status of
adults may increase as they become older; the marginalized status of single mother may change as
their children grow up.

Individuals or goups might enjoy high social status at some point of time, but as social change takes
place, they may lose this status and become

Thus, marginalization is a complex as well as shimg phenomenon linked to social status.

Nature of marginalization

Marginalization is a mulüdimensional, multicausal, historical phenomenon. There are no general

laws to understand and comprehend the complex nature of marginalization. The analytical tools that
can be used in most cases include class, in relation to specific social, cultural, economic and political
conditions, as well as ideological systems, social awareness, and human action. The nature of 49

marginalization varies in different settings. For example, the marginalization of women in Iraq is not
the same as in India, though they broadly share some features. The religious, ideological system,
patriarchy, political economy of a county, and the overall social system have an impact on the
marginalization of specific groups or an individual.

The nature of marginalization also varies in relation to elderly people living in different countries and
cultures. In some societies, the elderly are given more respect compared to other and, hence, are
subject to less marginalization. The strong and supportive traditional family system in some cultures
often provides better respect and care to elders than the public aided system available in others.

Similarly, the level of awareness among the marginalized groups plays very important role, and the
nature of marginalization varies accordingly. Organized communities who are aware of their rights,
demand more justice than unorganized

This also depends upon the political- economy of the counüy where they live in. For example,
physically challenged people form organizations in the U.S. and Europe more effectively than in
other countries, and demand justice easily. This cannot always happen if the political-economic
system is not supportive. Usually, democratic institutions are favorable for most of the disadvantaged
groups.

Types of Marginalization
 167

To be marginalized is to be distanced from power and resources that enable self determination in
economic, political and social settings. Though there are various types of marginalization, we
identifr some broad types, such as social, economic, and political marginalization.

i) Social Marginalization Marginalization

Marginality is both ascribed and acquired in a social setting. The experience of marginality arises in
a number of ways. For some people, those severely impaired from birth, or those born into marginal
groupings (e.g., lower castes in India, members of ethnic groups that suffer discrimination - the
Romans in Europe, indigenous people in Australasia, and on the American continent, African
Caribbean people in Britain), this marginality is typically life long and greatly determines their lived
experience. For others, marginality is acquired by later disablement or by changes in the social and
economic system. As global capitalism extends its reach, bringing more and more people into its
system, more communities are dispossessed of lands, livelihoods, or systems of social support.

People who are socially marginalized are largely deprived of social opportunities. They may become
stigmatised and are often at the receiving end of negative public attitudes. Their opportunities to
make social contributions may be limited, and they may develop low self confidence and self
esteem. Social policies and practices may mean that they have relatively limited access to valued
social resources such as education and health services, housing, income, leisure activities, and work.
The impact of marginalization, in terms of social exclusion, is similar, whatever the origins and
processes of marginalization, irrespective of whether these are located in social attitudes such as,
towards impain-nent, sexuality, ethnicity, and so on or, social circumstance such as closure of
workplaces, absence of affordable housing, and so on. Different people will react differently to
marginalization depending on the personal and social resources available to them.

Another problem is that people bom in a marginalized community lack the requited social and
cultural capital to participate in mainstream development processes. Their social networks are weak
and vulnerable. Lack of social capital deprives an individual of access to resources, such as,
economic, educational and cultural and other support systems. This creates social isolation and limits
their participation in the development process.

ii) Economic Marginalization

Economic marginalization as a process relates to economic stuctures, in particular, to the structure of

markets and their integation. To the extent in the markets that some individuals or goups engage in
are segmented from the others in general, these individuals can be said to be marginalized from the
rest of the economy. Segrnentation and exclusion may, however, have non-economic and non-
financial origins, for example in discrimination by gender, caste, or ethnicity. Here, integration takes
on a broader meaning. People who are experiencing marginalization are likely to have tenuous
involvement in the economy. The sources of their income will vary. These experiences affect men
and women differently and vary with age. Poverty and economic marginalization have both direct
and indirect impacts on people's health and wellbeing.

iii) Political Marginalization

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Political marginalization does not allow the group to participate democratically in decision making,
and, hence, they lose their right to every social, economic, and political benefit. Political
empowerment is one of the most important tools for accessing other social and economic privileges.

In every society, lack of political empowerment affects large sections of people, including women,
ethnic minorities, miyants, disabled persons, elderly, etc. So far as gender is concerned, we find that
participation by women is minimized across the globe. It is men who hold power and lead politics
around the world. This is tue at all levels of power in politics, whether it is party leadership, elected
offces, appointed offces, or at policy making levels. This is a particularly acute problem in third
world countries, where women's participation in political affairs is mostly linked with the dominant,
male-oriented social cultural and religious environment. This kind of marginalization is also felt by
ethnic minorities, migrants, disabled persons, elderly, etc.

THE CAUSES OF MARGINALIZATION

Through marginalization, a majority Of people are deprived across the globe. It is a complex
problem, and there are many factors that cause marginalization. Some of the important factors that
are responsible for marginalization discussed below are: exclusion, globalization, displacement,
disaster — natural, and unnatural. i) Exclusion

Marginalization is a process that denies opportunities and outcomes to those 'living on the margins',
while ermancing the opportunities and outcomes for those who are 'at the centre'. Marginalization
combines discrimination and social exclusion. It offends human and it denies human rights,
especially, the right to live effectively, as equal citizens. Caste and class prejudice, in many.societies
across the globe, exclude many grotQs and communities, and hinder üleir prüctive participation in
economic and social development.

1) Globalization

Globalization is a controversial and much debated topic, and the responses are both positive and
negative, in the context of development. As far as marginalization is concemed, globalization played
a certain role. Increased openness has promoted development at the cost of equity. It is viewed that it
has enhanced the gap between haves and have-nots and thus boosted marginalization. Globalization
in the post- 1980 period has marginalized much of the third world and low income, developing
countries. Apart from East and South Asia, all the world's less developed regions grew faster during
the relatively less globalized era of the 1950s and 1960s. Yet, all regions have expanded their
exposure to international trade. While it is hue that some middle income developing counfries, as
well as the most populous countries, India and China, are gaining out of globalization, yet the
impact is not equally universal for all nations of South Asia. The era of globalization is a cause of
concem for many underdeveloped countries. In the case of Africa, Latin America, and some parts of
Asia, the human development indicators have been declining. Simultaneously, the gaps between the
rich and poorer nations have been also increasing.

iii) Displacement

The forced population displacement is caused by development programmes implernented by the

govemrnent of various nation states. The govemment of India admits that there are 15.5 million
 169

displaced persons when it drafted the National Rehabilitation Policy in 1994. enle increasing
constuction of development projects consistently displaced a massive number of tribal, poor, and
weaker secüons. This resulted in further marginalization of already marginalized people. The
ultimate gainer are the contractors, businessmen, industrialists, politically and economically well
ups and the real poor are the underdog. As a consequence, we find social unrest, resistance, and
disharmony in many parts of the globe. More details about displacement and its impact are discussed
in the unit titled, "Inclusive Development'. iv) Disaster- Natural and Unnatural

Disasters, are global phenomena and a serious challenge to development. Vulnerability is linked to
broader social issues, such as poverty, and to social exclusion, conflict, and marginalization. There
are three broad classification of disaster and their combined impact on development is staggering.

Natural: earthquake, volcanic eruption, hun•icane, tomado, ice storm, flood, flashflood, landslide,
insect infestation, and disease outbreaks. These disasters may be further sub classified as
meteorological, oceanographic (tsunami or sea storm), hydrological, or biological events,

Technological: Associated with technological advances, i.e., explosives, unexploded ordinance,

toxic spills, emissions of radio-isotopes, and transportation accidents. It also includes hazmat
(hazardous materials) incidents involving carcinogens, mutagens, or heavy metals; dangers such as
stuctural failure of devices and machines or installations, and plants, such as bridges, dams, mines,
power plants, pipelines, high rise buildings, vehicles, and trains.

Social: These include incidents primarily involving social unrest, such as hijacking, riots,
demonstrations, crowd rushes, and stampedes, terrorist incidents, as well as bombings, shootings,
and hostage taking.

Throughout human history, these disasters have played a major role in retarding the economic
development and affecting survival of humanity. The extent of damage caused by these disasters is
clearly connected to a country's socioeconomic condition. The impact of both natural and unnatural
disasters are closely related to poverty, education, quality of health, gender related issues, and
changing policy scenarios in relation to global socioeconomic characteristics and stakeholder
partnerships. Poorer, illiterate and women are more vulnerable to these disasters and their
preparedness is weak during and after disasters where they are pushed further into marginalization.

THE LEVELS OF MARGINALIZATION

Marginalization happens simultaneously at the micro and macro levels. Often they intersect each
other in many ways. The following section will discuss how marginalization occurs at different
levels, i.e., individual, youp, community, and global.

i) Individual

Marginalization at the individual level results in an individual's exclusion from meaningful

participation in society. An individual can face discrimination across different social institutions,
such as family, schools and neighbourhood, at work places, or places of worship. Single parents,
persons with disability, homosexuals, the elderly, are marginalized individually, as most of them
have little association with communities (not in an organized fonn).
 170

Another example of individual marginalization is the exclusion of individuals with disabilities from
the labour force. Employers view individuals with disabilities as people who potentially jeopardize
productivity, increase the rate of absenteeism, and create accidents in the workplace. Employers are
often concerned about what they consider the excessive cost of accommodating people with
disabilities. The marginalization of individuals with disabilities is prevalent today across the globe
despite legislative protection, the Employment Equity Act, academic achievements, and skills and
fraining.

ii) Communities

Many communities experience marginalization. The example that we will look at in this section is on
aboriginal communities and women in many countries of the world. The marginalization of
aboriginal communities is a product of colonization. As a result of colonialism, aboriginal
communities lost their land, were forced into destitute areas, lost their sources of income, and were
excluded from the labour market. Additionally, abori$nal communities lost their culture and values
through forced assimilation, and lost their rights in society. Today various communities in Europe
continue to be marginalized from society due to the development of practices, policies and progams
that met the needs of white people and not the needs of the marginalized goups themselves.

A second example is the mar$nalization of women. Moosa - Mitha discusses the feminist movement
as a direct reaction to the marginalization of white women in society. Women were excluded from
the labour force, and their work in the home was not valued. Feminists argued that men and women
should equally participate in the labour force, in the public and private sector, and in the home. They
also focused on labour laws that increase access to employment, as well as laws that recognize
childrearing as a valuable form of labour. Today, women are still marginalized fiom executive
positions, and continue to earn less then men in upper management positions. Once Mahatma Gandhi
said "women is described as man's better half as long as she has not the same rights in law as man; as
long as the birth of the girl does not receive the same welcome as that of a boy, so long, we should
know that India is suffering from partial malysis. Suppression of women is denial of Ahimsa".

iii) Global

Earlier, we discussed the impact of globalization and the increasing gap between rich and poor
nations. Globalization (global capitalism), immigration, social welfare, and policy are broader social
structures that have the potential to contribute negatively to the access to resources and services. This
results in marginalization of individuals and groups, as well as nations. Globalization, or. the influx
of capitalism, information technology, company outsourcing / job insecurity, and the widening gap
between the rich and the poor, impacts the lives of individuals and goups in many capacities.

Psychological issues

• Individuals who face marginalization are also more vulnerable to the effects of stress.
• Marginalized individuals or groups often feel or are made to feel less important, less
privileged, and less respected than those who hold more status, power, privilege, and
opportunity in society.
 171

• The prevalence of exposure to trauma is high among those that are marginalized, and coping
with this stress becomes an arduous task due to the potential risk of exploitation and/or
exclusion.
• On an emotional and psychological level, individuals can feel isolated from the social fabric
of their larger communities and can feel a sense of paranoia, which is a function of how they
might be perceived and treated by others.
• They can feel invisible, as though their concerns are not significant enough to be heard, and
self-doubt and frustration are common psychological responses.
• Some marginalized groups are also at higher risk for suicide and self-harm.

Solutions

• Education
• Equal opportunity for general,vocational,technical and professional education. Education as
an equalizer.
• Awareness about legal proviions tha marginalized can resort to incase of infringement of their
rights.
• Awareness about various schemes.
• Sensitize impact of stratification
• Integrate marginalized into the mainstream.
• Labor and employment- getting engaged within employment, performing labor, working,
doing jobs are considered to be the most essential factors that brings empowerment of the
marginalized communities. When a person is engaged in job,he becomes self sufficient,
aware, and would effectively contribute towards the welfare of his family.
• Social movements: social movements play crucial role in the empowerment of marginalized
groups. Empowerment is a contionuos process and this process should be generated from
within society itself and be sustained through continuos mobilization of the marginalized
groups of the society. This process must be generated from inbuilt urge for freedom and
collective action against domination.

Marginalized Groups

The most vulnerable marginalized groups in almost every society.

i) Women

Under different economic conuaüons, and under the influence of specific historical, cultural, legal
and religious factors, marginalization is one of the manifestations of gender inequality.

In other words, women may be excluded from certain jobs and occupations, Marginalization
incorporated into certain others, and marginalized in others. In general they are always marginalized
relative to men, in every country and culture. Women (or, men) don't present a homogeneous
category where members have common interests, abilities, or practices. Women belonging to lower
classes, lower castes, illiterate, and the poorest re$on have different levels of marginalization than
their better off counterparts.

ii) People with disabilities

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People with disabilities have had to battle against centuries of biased assumptions, harmful
stereotypes, and irrational fears. The stigmatization of disability resulted in the social and economic
marginalization of generations with disabilities, and, like many other oppressed minorities, this has
left people with disabilities in a severe state of impoverishment for centuries.

iii) Ethnic Minority

The term, ethnic minority, refers to marginalized people of the same race or nationality who share a
distinctive culture. A minority is a sociological group that does not constitute a politically dominant
voting majority of the total population of a given society. A sociological minority is not necessarily a
numerical minority. It may include any group that is subnormal with respect to a dominant group, in
terms of social status, education, employment, wealth, and political power.

Usually a minority group has the following characteristics

l) It suffers from discrimination and subordination.

2) They have physical and/or cultural taits that set them apart, and which are disapproved of, by
a dominant group.

3) They share a sense of collective identity and common burdens.

4) They have shared social rules about who belongs, and who does not.

5) They have a tendency to marry within the group.

Every large society contains ethnic minorities. They may be migrant, indigenous or landless nomadic
communities. In some places, subordinate ethnic groups may constitute a numerical majority, such as
Blacks in South Africa under Apartheid. International criminal law can protect the rights of racial or
ethnic minorities in a number of ways. The right to self determination is a key issue.

Persons belonging to religious minorities have a different faith from the majority. Most countries
have religious minorities. It is now widely accepted in the West that people should have the freedom
to choose their own religion, including not having any religion (atheism, or agnosticism), and that
this includes the right to convert from one religion to another. However, in many countries, this
freedom is constricted. For example in Egypt, a new system of identity cards requires all citizens to
state their religion, and the only choices are Islam, Christianity, or Judaism (See Egyptian
identification card controversy).

iv) Caste

The caste system is a strict hierarchical social system based on underlying notions ofpurity and
pollution. Brahmins are on the top of the hierarchy and Shudras or Ihits constitute the bottom ofthe
hierarchy. The mar$n.alization ofDalits influences all spheres oftheir life, violating basic human
rights such as civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights.

A major proportion ofthe lower castes and Dalits are still dependent on others for their livelihood.
Dalits does not refer to a caste, but suggests a group who are in a state ofoppression, social disability
and who are helpless and poor. Literacy rates among Dalits are very low. They have meager
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purchasing power and have poor housing conditions as well as have low access to resources and
entitlements.

Stuctural discrimination against these groups takes place in the forn of physical, psychological,
emotional and cultural abuse which receives legitimacy from the social structure and the social
system. Physical segregation of their settlements is common in the villages forcing them to live in
the most unhygienic and inhabitable conditions. All these factors affect their health status, access to
healthcare and quality of life. There are high rates of malnutition reported among the marginalized
groups resulting in mortality, morbidity and anaemia. Access to and utilization of healthcare among
the marginalized groups is influenced by their socio-economic status within the society.

Caste based marginalization is one of the most serious human rights issues in the world today,
adversely affecting more than 260 million people mostly reside in India Caste-based discriminaü)n
entails social and economic exclusion, segregation in housing, denial and restrictions of access to
public and private services and employment, and enforcement of certain types of jobs on Dalits,
resulting in a system of modem day slavery or bonded labour. However, in recent years due to
affrmative action and legal protection, the intensity of caste based marginalizaüon is reducing.

v) Tribes

The Tribes are marginalized across nations, whether it is advanced counties like USA, Australia or
the developing and underdeveloped countries in Asia and Africa. Australian Aborigins and many
European Tribes are subject to marginalization. In India, the Scheduled Tribes population is around
84.3 million and is considered to be socially and economically disadvantaged. They are mainly
landless with little control over resources such as land, forest and water. They constitute a large
proportion of agricultural labourers, casual labourers, plantation labourers, industrial labourers, etc.
This has resulted in poverty, low levels of education and poor access to health care services among
them.

vi) Elderly

Ageing is an inevitable and inexorable process in life. A notable aspect of the global ageing process
is the progressive demographic ageing of the older itself. For most nations, regardless of their
geogaphic location or developmental stage, the 80 year olds, or over-age group is growing faster than
any younger segment of the older population.

The UN Report (2002) on World Population Ageing 1950-2050 reveals that people 80 or older
currently constitute more than 3 per cent of the population of Northern America, and almost 3 per
cent of the population of Europe, compared with less than 0.9 per cent in Asia, Latin America, and
the Caribbean, and less than 0.4 per cent in Africa. A regional difference is projected to persist over
the next 50 years. By 2050, about I in 10 individuals will be aged 80 or older in the more developed
regions, while the corresponding ratio will be 1 in 30 in the less developed regions. In the least
developed countries, only 1 in 100 persons will be 80, or over. By 2050,-19 countries, mostly in
Europe, are projected to have at least 10 per cent of their population aged 80 years or over.

The demographic composition is changing in many counties, i.e., in Eastern and Marginalization
Northem Europe, women currently oumumber men by more than 5 to 3 among the population aged
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60 or over, thus adding not just elderly but also the elderly women as the majority of marginalized
groups among them.

In the modem world, it is seen that the elderly care the most neglected group of population. Children
of elderly in many families consider expenditure on care for elderly such as on their health and
nutrition as wasteful investment. The stereo types, that the old age people are usually subject to such
kind of illness, add further to their neglect. Therefore, most of them are found dejected and
emotionally shaken and some even leave home when the act of neglect cross the limit.

DEINDIVIDUALIZATION

• Deindividuation refers to when a person becomes part of a crowd or group and then begins to
lose their individual identity.
• They become less aware of self and who they are as an individual.
• The more the person becomes involved in the group, the less self-awareness they have, which
includes knowing their morals, characters, and beliefs.
• These qualities start to be replaced by the identity of the group. The individual then begins to
take on the morals and character that is held by the group as a whole.
• People who are rejected based on their group membership
• often increase their identification with the rejected group.
• People who are rejected based on their group membership often increase their identification
with the rejected group.
• If one’s belonging, self-esteem, control, and meaningful existence
• needs are threatened by the marginalization of one’s group, and these needs can be
maintained through identification with the group in which that person is a member, then
rejected persons might cope by increasing their identification with the marginalized group.
• Being a part of the crowd carries you away from your personal identity, and you feel free to
do things you normally wouldn’t.
• People loosen up their self-restraint. They get caught up in the crowd mentality and begin to
act in the way the crowd is acting. They are not choosing to focus on the right or wrong of the
situation. Studies have found that groups will take things further than they would if everyone
was all acting individually.
• There is a sense of anonymity. When acting as a crowd, people feel they cannot be found.
This feeling gives them a sense of freedom to act in ways they might not normally act.
• There is diffused responsibility. When acting as a group, people get the feeling that
responsibility is shared. This makes them take less responsibility for their own actions. They
don’t believe that the consequences will be as drastic, because they will be shared by all
involved.
• When people act as a group, they often get caught up in the emotion of the crowd and they
cross lines they would not normally.
• When someone enters a gang, they take on the identity of that gang. They wear certain colors,
might go by a different name, and lose the sense of what they consider right from wrong.
They give up their individual identity to belong to this group, and that means crossing lines
they wouldn’t cross on their own.
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• Research has shown that deindividuation also strengthens adherence to group norms.
• Sometimes those norms conflict with the norms of society at large, but they are not always
negative. Indeed, the effects of deindividuation can be rather inconsequential (e.g., “letting
loose” on the dance floor) or even positive (e.g., helping people).
• They may also identify so strongly with a group that their individual feelings matter less.
• Religious settings, sports games, political events, and large organizations such as militaries
can all cause members to deindividuate. Peer pressure to go along with groupthink may also
play a role in deindividuation.
• Deindividuation is thought to be facilitated be a few different things, including:
• Anonymity: When people are part of a crowd, their personal identity is less likely to be
singled out. This lack of accountability allows them to engage in behavior that might not be
socially acceptable if they were acting alone
• Contagion: In group settings, behavior is known to spread quickly from person to person
• Suggestibility: It’s theorized that people in crowds may be more suggestible, causing them to
be more open to imitating the beliefs or actions of their group members
• Typically, the larger the group, the more readily people become deindividualized. This is
likely because individuals take increasing comfort in the size of the group and the “strength”
of their numbers. A larger group will likely also contribute more readily to a sense of
anonymity and thus a possible false sense of security.
• Violent gangs may develop partly because select youth feel a sharedsense of rejection by the
societies in which they reside.
• Interviews of these gang members and public figures make apparent that gang membership
can help to maintain psychological needs that are threatened by this rejection. For example,
one gang member described gang life as a “brotherhood.”
• Another said, “You just want to feel like you’re part of something.” These quotes suggest a
sense of belonging that stems from gang membership.
• In sum, members of terrorist cells, gangs, and other tightly knit groups can be expected to
exhibit increased group identification following marginalization.
• If members of marginalized groups feel that their goals are impeded by the source of
marginalization, they may become angry or fearful and seek to retaliate.
• Group marginalization also promotes group identification.
• Threatened psychological need fulfillment and enhanced group identification have a
reciprocal relationship.
• Deindividuation can also contribute to destructive group behavior. Political oppression, mass
violence, riots, and bullying can all stem from deindividuation.
• An individual with strong political convictions, for example, is much more likely to
deindividuate in certain social settings than someone who does not identify strongly with any
political identity.
• research indicates that large groups are more likely to cause members to deindividuate.
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Unit 2 Management of issues of the aged; Institutionalization of aged.

Ageing Scenaio

• With longevity and declining fertility rates, the population of older persons (60 years
and above) is globally growing faster than the general population.
• Three key demographic changes—declining fertility, reduction in mortality and
increasing survival at older ages—contribute to population ageing, reflected in a shift
in the age structure from young to old. The old-age dependency in the population
therefore gradually increases. The shift from a period of high mortality, short lives,
and large families to one with a longer life, far and fewer children is the hallmark of
demographic transition. A top-heavy age structure means that the elderly have to
depend upon incomes and revenues generated by a dwindling number of younger
workers.
• In general, ageing is defined in terms of chronological age with a cut off age of 60 or
65 years.
• In developed countries, the proportion of the elderly will increase from 22.4 percent
in 2012 to 31.9 percent in 2050.ie, when the elderly will outnumber children (below
15 years of age).
• We know that populations are getting older overall. The number of people aged 60
years or older will rise from 900 million to 2 billion between 2015 and 2050 (moving
from 12% to 22% of the total global population). These two maps shows how
populations are changing in different countries around the world.
• We also know that population ageing is happening much more quickly than in the
past.

• For example, while France had almost 150 years to adapt to a change from 10% to
20% in the proportion of the population that was older than 60 years, places such as
Brazil, China and India will have slightly more than 20 years to make the same
adaptation.
• There are two key drivers of population ageing. The first is falling fertility rates, and
the second is people living longer overall.
• Old age is accompanied by role change and, often, role loss.
• Most people can expect transformations in occupational, family, and community
roles, and for many, the number of different roles declines in later life can have a
negative impact on overall health of an older individual.
• Some of the major contributors to social and psychological problems for seniors are
as follows:

1. Ageism: discrimination based on chronological age

2. Loneliness : loneliness is seen as a “hidden killer” of elderly

o Inability to independently manage regular activities of living

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o Difficulty coping and accepting physical changes of aging and Lack of Security in Old
Age.
o Lack of access to old-age benefits and government schemes.
o Social isolation
o Feeling inadequate from inability to continue to work.
o Boredom from retirement and lack of routine activities.
o Financial stresses from the loss of regular income
and gender concerns.
• Mistreatment and Abuse.
• Loss of Spouse and Living Arrangements-Feminization of Ageing

The elderly end up believing the stereotypes

• If people perform as they expect to perform on a given task, they attribute that performance
to stable and internal causes.

• Thus stereotype-consistent performance leads people to believe in and accept the specific
implications of stereotypes about them.

Some Examples • For example, elderly people who are aware of the stereotypes about aging
and memory may expect to perform poorly on memory tasks. • If they do perform poorly;
they assume that it is b/c they are old, and make an attribution that reinforces their
expectations.

These losses/characteristics seem to justify a stereotyped

behavior associated with terms such as "finished", "useless", "sick",

"incapable", "unproductive", "dependent" and "social burden", leading

the person to rejection and social marginalization,

for Loneliness

• Interventions are to be individualized to control expectations as per personal efficiency and

improve capacities to socialize, Behavioral training and feedback regulate behavior and
improve the frequency and degree of loneliness positively

• Strategies to fight against loneliness are: – Keeping self-busy, sharing feelings, involving
self in some activities (spending time together, discussing problems, maintaining
interactions), – Helping others, – Avoiding escapes, – Developing quality relationships with
people who share similar attitudes, interests and/or values, – Collecting good thoughts and
managing unfortunate happenings, – Joining groups of self interest, – Pharmacological
management of physical ailments, and – Staying in contact with family and friends.

• Kudumbashree is a community-based poverty reduction and women’s empowerment

initiative in Kerala with significant scope for direct and indirect benefits to the elderly

Pakal Veedu
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• This is a platform for the elderly people to get together and discuss matters of
common concern, sharing their experience and wisdom for the service of the
community.
• These types of programs may include card games, board games, and creative projects,
such as quilting or putting together puzzles. Among adult day care centers
approximately 80 percent offer memory training, such as through mental stimulation
games or social engagement that encourages a recall of previous events.
• Elderly self-help groups
• help the members to achieve a degree of economic security, confidence and a feeling
of self-worth.
• ESHGs are community-managed collectives of the elderly aimed at improving their
livelihoods and enabling them to become economically active through the
disbursement of small loans and other required support.
• Elderly self-help groups help the members to achieve a degree of economic security,
confidence and a feeling of self-worth
• Benefits:
• improving the quality of life of the elderly members and reducing anxiety,
dissatisfaction and helplessness
• reduce dependency and regain their self worth both within and outside the family
• enhances the overall wellbeing of the members
• enhancing their economic worth and security.
• helping them remain economically engaged,
• moral satisfaction.

India’s policy: National Policy on Older Persons (NPOP)

Policy response in India :

I. feminization of ageing
II. ruralization of ageing reflected in the fact that 71 percent of the elderly live in
rural India

(iii) increasing 80-plus population

(iv) an increasing population of solo-living persons after loss of spouse increasing the
vulnerability of poor older women with no personal income.

• As longevity increases, and “70 becomes the new 60”, the policy response to
ageing must address the significant age-related health care needs of all senior
ages.
• The NPOP in India has been formulated as a forward-looking vision of the
government for improving quality of life of older people in India through
increased income security, health and nutrition, shelter, education, empowerment
and welfare.
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• At the same time, the policy emphasizes the need for developing a formal and
informal social support system, and strengthening the capacity of families to take
care of older persons so that elderly continue to live with their family.
• It aims to strengthen integration between generations and develop a bond between
the young and the old and facilitate two-way flows and interactions.
• It calls for special attention towards older women who often become victims of
triple neglect and discrimination on account of widowhood, old age and gender
biases.
• The policy encourages research on ageing as well as introduction of courses on
geriatric care in medical and paramedical institutions.

Initiatives of the Government of Kerala

1. Vayomithram
2. Aswasakiranam
3. Snehapoorvam:
Institutionalization of elderly & its issues
Institutionalization of elderly people continues to be a national problem. On the one hand
because of the low number of institutions which are capable to take over the increased
number of elderly, and on the other hand due to lack of needed funds for adequate
endowment of this institution. Many of the elderly people’s pensions are ridiculously small
and not meeting the possibilities to satisfy the basic needs, without counting the fulfilment of
some wishes or desires of the elderly. An important role in avoiding institutionalization of
elders is played by family members who have and advise the elders. Counselling is an
important step in determining the abandonment of institutionalization. Elderly families need
to be educated to be able to dispel myths about the elderly and especially must be helped to
overcome them. Also, in many cases, the lack of social support from the enlarged family or
community can lead the elderly to loneliness and social isolation.
Loneliness and Depression: In many cases, the institutionalization of the elders leads to
loneliness. Loneliness, in many cases, can be considered a disease of old age. Unfortunately,
more and more elders are suffering from this scourge of loneliness. The risk of depression
increases in the case of the elderly institutionalized than those who live in the community or
in their own families. Also, in many cases, the lack of social support from extended family or
community can lead to the elderly person’s loneliness and social isolation. When a person
chooses to or is forced to change residence to another home or to a nursing home, where
environmental pressures increase, the elders are increasingly challenged to test their own
limits. If the demands become too large and too heavy for him/her, he/she is experiencing an
overload or excessive stress that can lead to physical and spiritual imbalance. If the pressures
from the environment are much lower than the possibility to adapt of the elderly, the effects
may consist in sensory deprivation, boredom and even addiction. Risk of depression
increases in elderly institutionalized than those who live in the community, in their families.
Depersonalization feelings can occur in institutionalization of the elderly. Depersonalization
is described as feeling disconnected or detached from one's self. Individuals experiencing
depersonalization may report feeling as if they are an outside observer of their own thoughts
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or body, and often report feeling a loss of control over their thoughts or actions. Severe stress,
anxiety, and depression are common triggers for depersonalization

Early death: There are often cases when the elders leave the environment in which they
lived a long time and this thing shortens their lives, even if they are receiving good quality
care. Institutionalized elderly persons are exposed to psychiatric disorders and are especially
vulnerable to depression.. Many of the elderly react adversely to hospitalization, to
institutionalization, because they fear that this is the last road from which they will not be
able to come back home to their loved ones and to their belongings.

Elder Abuse: Elder abuse is an important public health issue with serious social, economic
and health consequences. The global prevalence of past year elder abuse in the community
settings is 15.7%, or approximately one in six older adults. According to a special report on
health and long-term care in the EU, 47% of European citizens think that poor treatment,
neglect and abuse of older adults are common in their country
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), elder abuse is defined as ‘a single, or
repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any relationship where there is an
expectation of trust which causes harm or distress to an older person’. Elder abuse can be
categorized according to: type of abuse—psychological, physical, sexual, and financial abuse
and neglect; type of abuser—family members, informal and formal caregiver, or
acquaintance; or setting in which it occurs—in the community and in an institution.

Within institutional settings, abuse can be broadly categorized into resident to-resident abuse
or staff-to-resident abuse. However, research has shown that elder abuse occurs in every
country with nursing and residential facilities and anecdotal evidence suggests that abuse
may be very prevalent. A survey of nursing home staff in the USA indicated that 40% of staff
admitted to committing psychological abuse in the past year and 10% to committing physical
abuse. A systematic review of institutional abuse indicated that physical abuse often occurs
as a form of staff retaliation against physically aggressive residents. Similarly, staff reported
that they were more likely to withhold choices from aggressive residents. In another US
national study, 1.5% of staff self-reported that they have committed theft. There is significant
awareness of the issue of elder abuse in institutional settings among the population in
European Union (EU) countries.
-------
For most of the elders, the family is the essential and vital factor therefore the family`s
resources should be harnessed to support and care for elders. A partner's death, no group of
friends, feeling of uselessness emerged with retirement can lead to depression, anxiety,
somatic disease worsening. That is why the elderly needs more than ever, in this time of his
life, the support of his family (husband, children, nephews, relatives). In some cases the lack
of family can be substituted by group of friends, support groups, volunteers groups and
eventually by seniors clubs and day care centres.

With the advent of industrialization, globalization and economic liberalization, the

individuals are getting familiar with innovative and modern techniques and methods. The
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youth is occupied with enhancing their career opportunities, middle aged people are engaged
in jobs and earning their livelihoods and the aged individuals are leading retired lives. They
either get occupied in some kind of honorary work, or manage the household chores through
obtaining assistance from the caregivers or they follow their daily routine. The individuals are
gaining more mobility and joint family system is being disintegrated into the emergence of
nuclear family system. The aged people are experiencing changes in their social lives. In
India, there has been an increase in the number of older persons. The aged people within the
country are being provided various facilities and senior citizen benefits. These are beneficial
and render a significant contribution in providing them support, especially when they are
living by themselves.
In the present world, individuals, belonging to marginalized, deprived and
socioeconomically backward sections of the society aspire to earn better career opportunities
and sustain their living conditions. The individuals migrate from rural areas to urban areas in
search for better livelihoods opportunities, leaving their elderly parents. When individuals
live separately from their elderly parents, they may communicate with them and make regular
visits. On the other hand, there are cases of individuals, who do not look after their parents
and mainly focus upon enhancing their own livelihoods opportunities. The levels of savings
and investments are the determinants of growth of the modern sector and, hence, the
generation of employment as well as the process of urbanization. The development of
industrialization has led to migration of individuals to other places, primarily in search for
employment opportunities. The aged people in India, experience various types of problems.
These are social, economic, psychological, health, crime and violence, abuse and other
miscellaneous problems.
Social Problems
The position and status of the aged individuals have been undermined by transformations in
the cultures, values and overall living conditions of the individuals. In the present existence,
technology has gained grounds and individuals belonging to all age groups, categories and
backgrounds are making use of technology in carrying out their tasks and functions. The
elderly individuals are not usually aware of usage of technology, they may just speak on the
phone, watch television or listen to music and religious beliefs on radio or on their mobile
phones. This indicates that they are usually unaware of how to perform various tasks and
functions through the usage of technology. When aged people are unaware of usage of
technology, they may encounter problems in communicating with people at distant places by
sending messages, pictures and videos. Unawareness in terms of technology is one of the
factors that impedes socialization of the aged people.
When individuals belonging to rural communities, migrate to urban areas in search of better
employment opportunities, they usually leave their parents. There are number of reasons for
this, the living accommodation in urban areas is expensive, and the rent is unaffordable for
them. When individuals get engaged in full time jobs, then taking care of the needs and
requirements of the elderly usually becomes a problem for them. The aged people may
experience problems in adjusting to social life of the cities. They usually feel apprehensive in
going to nearby marketplaces and obtain assistance from their family members. The
complexities of modern life and living conditions undermine the traditional values and beliefs
of the aged people. They have their own traditional beliefs and viewpoints, which normally
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are not believed by the youth and the middle aged people, as they are accustomed to modern
values and beliefs. Hence, in this manner, the knowledge and beliefs of the aged people gets
devalued .
Research has indicated that when individuals reach the age of 60 years, they are unable to
realize that they have now reached old age. This means that individuals are not completely
prepared for old age (Singh, 2015). When they have their family members around, relatives
and a good social circle of friends, then it is likely that they may feel secure and supportive.
On the other hand, there are aged people, who are above 80 years of age and live alone. They
do not have family members around and are primarily dependent upon their caregivers. In
these cases, aged people experience social problems. They do not take pleasure in going out
into the social circle. In case, celebrations or ceremonies are organized among their relatives,
friends or neighbours, they do not enjoy going. Hence, when aged people get accustomed to
isolation, they experience social problems. In order to alleviate social problems, it is vital for
the individuals to form a good circle of friends and interact with relatives, friends, caregivers
and neighbours.
Economic Problems
Economic problems are experienced by the aged people, belonging to deprived, marginalized
and socio-economically backward sections of the society. When the individuals are engaged
in minority jobs, when their income is meagre and is not enough to meet their needs and
requirements, then the individuals experience economic problems. Social security and
financial security of the aged people is of utmost significance. In India, majority of the aged
people experience financial problems as they are not in a position to earn their livelihoods.
When their savings are not enough to meet the medical expenses and other household
responsibilities, then they experience financial problems. When they possess finances and
wealth, then usually they are exploited by their family members. In India, more than 65
percent of the aged people are dependent upon others for their daily life activities and
responsibilities. The aged women, who are independent accounted for less than 20 percent,
whereas men were independent to a major extent (Financial Status of Older People in India,
2011).
The financial status of the aged people is directly connected with their financial
independence. With the disintegration of the joint family system and the emergence of
nuclear family system, the aged people prefer to live by themselves and manage all their
finances. The younger individuals are having increasing academic and professional pursuits
and due to this, the elderly are connected with them to a lesser extent. The individuals, who
have accumulated wealth with their hard work have acquired net-worth, and value in terms of
the money matters. The economic problems among the aged people have taken place due to
fast changing socio-economic conditions, ongoing open market policies, and liberalization of
economy (Financial Status of Older People in India, 2011). When individuals have been
engaged in well paid jobs and professions, then they do not experience financial problems.
On the other hand, financial problems of the individuals have been severe, when they have
been unable to make savings for old age.
The major economic problem that aged people have experienced is that of exploitation.
There have been cases of family members and relatives, who keep a watch on the finances
that they possess. In a direct as well as in an indirect manner, they make an attempt to take
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money from them. When individuals are unable to find good employment opportunities or
aspire to seek admission in a reputed educational institution for the pursuance of higher
studies, they exploit the elderly family members and take money from them for their own
benefit. The other problems that aged people experience in terms of finances is robbery and
theft. When outside the home, individuals feel, a person is living alone and possesses
sufficient wealth, they even get subjected to violent and criminal acts. Various areas that
cause economic problems for the aged people have been stated as follows:
Medical and Health Care – With aging, individuals experience health problems and
illnesses. They need regular medical check-ups, they are required to take their medicines and
in case of other health problems are even required to undergo medical treatment. Medical and
health care are regarded as areas that need finances. In some cases, medical treatment is quite
expensive and individuals need to spend money. When they are wealthy, they do not face any
problems, on the other hand, when they are not financially strong, then they experience
problems.
Court Cases – Court cases are regarded as aspects that require spending of money to a large
extent. When individuals are involved in certain disputes or court cases, they feel stressed and
economic problems. Research has indicated that aged people usually feel disturbed mainly
due to legal matters and the cases pending in various courts.
Education of Children – There are aged people, who have to take care of the needs and
requirements of their grandchildren, especially when their parents are not around. Education
of children is regarded as a crucial area. Every parent or grandparent wants his child to
acquire good education and aspires to get him enrolled in good educational institutions.
Reputed educational institutions are expensive. When individuals are not financially strong,
then they experience problems in making provision of good quality education for their
children or grandchildren. When good educational institutions are not available in the region,
where they are residing, then economic problems prove to be impediments within the course
of sending them to other cities to acquire education.
Management of Household – The management of the household is a difficult task. There
are numerous areas that need to be taken into consideration, these include, cleaning, washing,
preparation of meals, gardening, taking care of electricity, water and other civic amenities and
so forth. These tasks demands manual labour as well as finances. The elderly individuals are
usually unable to carry out the household chores on their own and need to hire helpers and
caregivers. When they are financially strong, they will be able to pay their salaries. On the
other hand, when they experience economic problems, they will be unable to hire helpers and
need to formulate measures to manage the household chores on their own.
Financial security of the aged people is proposed by tax benefits and higher rates of interest
on the deposits for the senior citizens. Other measures that have been formulated include,
promotion of long term savings in rural and urban areas, increased coverage and revision of
old age pension schemes for the aged people, who are residing in the conditions of poverty
and backwardness. Pension, provident fund, gratuity and other retirement benefits are various
sources that make provision of financial security to the elderly individuals. The services of
the social workers are utilized in making provision of employment opportunities for the
elderly individuals. They have to ensure that the employment opportunities should be such
that can be appropriately carried out by these individuals. The main objective of getting
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engaged in employment opportunities for the elderly is to alleviate the feeling of loneliness,
helping them in remaining occupied and generating a source of income, so that they are able
to easily meet their needs and requirements
Psychological Problems
An individual lives in a society. Within the society, he has certain roles and functions to
perform. The performance of roles and functions are primarily based upon his occupation.
For instance, if he is a teacher, he will teach individuals and contribute towards their effective
growth and development. If he is a medical doctor, he would get involved in making
provision of medical treatment to the individuals and so forth. With aging, the individuals
generates awareness in terms of values, norms and principles, which they impart to their
family as well as the community members. The aged people have the major task of
adequately guiding the individuals towards the right direction. Hence, they have an important
role to perform towards the progression of their family and society. The psychological
problems among the aged people emerge from loneliness, isolation, powerlessness and
meaninglessness. When they live in isolation, when they are not acknowledged by the other
individuals, and when their contributions or functions have not proved to be meaningful and
beneficial to the individuals, then they experience psychological problems. The different
types of psychological problems have been stated as follows: (Kourkouta, Iliadis, & Monois,
2015).
Dementia – Dementia is referred to more than a mere memory impairment. The five percent
of the population, who is above 65 years of age experience this problem. The individuals
experience this problem, depict the symptoms of short term memory loss, word finding
difficulty, capability problems, difficulty in handling complex daily routine tasks, apathy,
irritability, apraxia, loss of speech intelligibility, loss of ability to walk and physical
irritability. The main problems are identified in the consciousness, orientation, memory,
thinking, attention and behaviour. When a person reaches the age of 70 years, he usually
experiences a decline in vocabulary and usage of words. He experiences problems in getting
engaged into lengthy conversations with others. In some cases, this problem imposes
detrimental effects upon the individuals. Whereas, there have been cases, when elderly
individuals have not experienced any major disadvantages. This is primarily due to, when
they have support and assistance available from others.
Aging is a process — boredom is the danger
No one likes to be bored, at any age. Senior citizens are no different. Your parents have led
productive and active lives, but may suddenly find themselves ill or injured to the point
where they can't get around as well as they used to. Those individuals are at an increased risk
of boredom and feelings of uselessness, which may lead to severe episodes of depression.
Preventing such feelings should be a major concern of health care providers and caregivers to
the elderly — as high on the list of importance as adequate medical care and supervision.
Boredom leads to multiple emotional issues, including:
• Feelings of worthlessness
• Feeling that life is no longer worth living
• Feelings of intense restlessness
• Feeling unloved or uncared about
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Such issues are extremely difficult to tackle, so preventing them in the first place is the best
approach to fighting the debilitating effects of boredom and depression. How can caregivers
fight boredom?
Develop new interests
Family caregivers can encourage parents to develop new interests at any age. Who says you
have to be in school to learn a new language or skill? Studies have shown that stimulating the
mind can help exercise not only the body, but the brain as well. Learning something new at
any age helps promote new neural cell growth, improves concentration and increases
adequate oxygenation, creating healthier, more active cells.
Depression – The elderly individuals do feel despondent and downhearted at times. But
when these feelings remain within them for a long period, then it is referred to as depression.
Among the aged people, depression is more prevalent as compared to the youth and the
middle aged people. When the elderly people feel depressed, they normally develop a
pessimistic outlook towards life. They prefer to remain in isolation and do not take pleasure
in communicating with the other individuals. They normally keep to themselves and lose
interest in the performance of other activities and functions. These include, physical
activities, watching television, going out into the social circle and so forth. The living
environmental conditions and the biological functions are the major causes of depression.
Individuals do put into practice the measures that are needed to curb depression. Family
members, caregivers, and other community members help these individuals in alleviating the
feelings of depression and lead an efficient life.
Lowered self esteem
As age increases elder people are secluded and stigmatized by society that they are good for
nothing. This lowers their self-esteem and isolates them from others. Self-esteem is defined
as how person perceives himself. Positive self-esteem is characterized as useful evaluation of
self, which makes one to feel commendable and glad. Low -esteem is characterized as
negative image of self, which gives sentiments of uselessness and disgrace (Baumeister et al.,
2003). It is concluded that low self-esteem is common problem among elderly and it has a
huge influence on society. We can view self-esteem in different context for instance social
and religious aspects. Different factors like negative thinking, loss of spouse, physical
dependence, and less interaction can cause low self-esteem. Low self-esteem has lots of
destructive impacts like depression and suicidal ideations. Maslow hierarchy model helps us
to understand how self-esteem develops and what strategies we can provide to uplift it.
Social Exclusion – Social exclusion is referred to the problem that the aged people
experience as a result of loss of job opportunities, absence of family members, relatives, and
friends. In other words, when they do not have anyone to interact with, they experience social
exclusion. Social exclusion gives rise to psychological as well as health problems. It is vital
to implement the measures that are needed to eliminate social exclusion. Hence, for this
purpose, aged people get enrolled into educational institutions, training centres, and seek
certain benefits due to their aging. In the present existence, within the country, there have
been establishment of adult education centres, health care centres, medical facilities, social
security, pension, and micro-finance for the aged people. The aged people, when feel that due
to their illness, health problems, inability to communicate and so forth, would not be able to
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interact with others or get involved in a social gathering, then they form the feelings of social
exclusion.
Anxiety and Phobias – Anxiety and phobia due to some factors also adds to psychological
problems among the aged people. Stress is one of the factors that shows both psychological
and physical signs and symptoms. When individuals feel stressed regarding something, then
it is likely that they feel anxious and apprehensive. These may arise due to number of factors.
For instance, when they are experiencing health problems and illnesses, they may feel
anxious in making a visit to the medical and health care centre and may require assistance.
When they have to visit a temple or a religious place, then they may need company from
others, as crowded places may make them feel apprehensive. Other tasks and functions that
make elderly people anxious include, making visits to market places, carrying out banking
transactions and so forth. These may take place, especially when they are not familiar with
the region.
Loneliness – Loneliness is referred to the chronic and distressful state that impedes the
mind-sets of the individuals. It imposes detrimental effects for the physical as well as
psychological health of the individuals. The aged people look for ways to eliminate the
feelings of loneliness. When they have family members around, they try to establish close
relationships with their children and grandchildren, so that they provide them support and
assistance. When family members are living at a distance, then they want them to make
regular visits to them. On the other hand, when they do not have family members, they
establish good terms and relationships with their caregivers and create a social circle. One
may be introvert or less interactive in nature, but loneliness is regarded as a severe problem,
which needs to get alleviated in every possible manner.
Role of the Family – The role of the family is regarded as imperative in taking care of the
needs and requirements of their aged family members. They provide all kinds of support and
assistance, which can help the aged people in alleviating their problems. When the family
members are compassionate, caring and thoughtful, they not only provide aged people moral
and emotional support, but also take care of their financial requirements, health care, security
and listen to their problems and grievances and provide effectual solutions to them. When
they experience illnesses or health problems, which are common as the person ages, then
support of family members is vital. With caring family members, the elderly people not only
feel contented and pleased, but remain free from all kinds of problems to a major extent.
They take pleasure, when their grandchildren communicate to them regarding their school
experiences, planning a visit to a religious place gives them pleasure along with family and
so forth
Health Problems
As the individual ages, health problems among them are common. There are various kinds of
health problems experienced by the aged people. These include, visual impairments, hearing
impairments, speech impairments, decline in word usage and vocabulary, pain in the joints,
high or low blood pressure, and other illnesses. Older individuals may live longer but they
may get prone to illnesses and diseases. World Health Organization defines health as a state
of complete physical, mental and social well-being. It is not merely absence of a disease.
Health is considered more important for the aged people, as they are the ones, who primarily
experience a decline in the health conditions in old age. The Constitution of India envisages
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the establishment of a new social order based on equality, freedom, justice and dignity of the
individual. It aims at the elimination of poverty, ignorance and ill-health and directs the State
to increase education, nutrition levels and standards of living among individuals. Bringing
about improvements in the health care is regarded as one of the primary duties. The
maintenance of the health and strength of the workers, men, women, children and the aged
people is implemented, when they are provided with opportunities and facilities to enhance
their living conditions in a well-organized manner (Chapter VI, n.d.).
The health of the aged people gets affected by primarily two factors. These are due to the
environmental conditions and biological conditions. When environmental conditions are
taken into consideration, both home as well as outside the home influence their health. Within
the home, when any kinds of conflicts and disputes takes place between individuals, then
aged people in some cases feel stressful and they have an effect upon their health. These
conditions usually affects the mind-sets of the individuals. As a result, they may not consume
their proper diet and nutrition, may not obtain adequate sleep and as a result, they experience
a decline in their health conditions. The biological conditions that have an impact upon the
health of the individuals include, visual impairments, hearing impairments, pain in the joints,
nervous disorders, weakness, heart complaints, asthma, tuberculosis, skin diseases, and so
forth. Women usually report more health problems as compared to men (Balamurugan, &
Ramathirtham, 2012).
Not only in India, but in other countries of the world as well, aging of the population is on
the rise. Progression in the health care and medical facilities, improvement in the living
conditions and the general quality of life and operative measures of birth control could be
attributed to the emerging global phenomenon. The population is stated to be aging, in which
the proportion of the aged people is said to increase. India is passing through technological,
social, cultural and demographic transition. The individuals began to realize that health is
important and they need to implement appropriate measures to take care of their health care
requirements. With the improvement in health care facilities, the individuals are able to meet
their health care requirements appropriately. Eventually, there has been a decline in the
mortality rate due to an increase in life expectancy, which ultimately leads to an increase in
the population of the aged people (Balamurugan, & Ramathirtham, 2012).
The aged people, who are above the age of 60 years and are living below the poverty line,
account for seven to eight percent of the population. The aged people in the unorganized
sector like the agricultural labourers, casual workers or landless labourers have to look after
their family and household responsibilities and financial problems are the major causes of
barriers within the course of achievement of their desired objectives. Aged people need
assistance and support from their family members and caregivers in taking care of their
health conditions. When they receive support and assistance, they are able to maintain good
health and live longer. On the other hand, when they are lonely and lack the support and
assistance, then they are unable to meet their health care requirements in an appropriate
manner (Balamurugan, & Ramathirtham, 2012).
The main factors that lead to health problems among the aged people have been stated as
follows:
Neglect – When aged people are not acknowledged, when they are not communicated in an
appropriate manner by the other family members, when their caregivers regard them as a
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burden and do not take proper care of them, then they feel neglected. Neglect by others,
especially family members causes despondency and depression among the individuals and as
a result, it has an impact upon their health. In order to maintain good health, it is vital to form
a social circle, comprising of relatives and friends. It is vital for the aged people to get
engaged into effective communication with others in order to lead a healthy life.
Financial Problems – Aged people are required to take medicines and obtain regular
medical check-ups. When they are financially strong, they do not experience any problems
and are able to meet their expenses appropriately. On the other hand, financial problems
experienced by the individuals, leads to deprived health conditions. The reason being, in case
of illnesses and diseases, they are unable to obtain medical treatment or even medicines.
Hence, to maintain good health, these individuals either prefer to obtain free medical
checkups or if they are engaged in jobs, then medical assistance and other benefits is
provided to them by their employers. There have been establishment of organizations that
provide health care and medical facilities to individuals belonging to deprived and
economically backward sections of the society.
Inappropriate Dietary Intake – For the aged people, it is vital to consume adequate diet.
Healthy and a nutritious diet should comprise of carbohydrates, minerals, proteins, vitamins,
and fats. It is essential for the individuals to consume minerals such as, iron, potassium,
calcium etc. It is essential to obtain the required nutrition in order to prevent any kinds of
deficiencies. Inappropriate dietary intake is regarded as one of the apparent causes of health
problems and illnesses among the aged. When they will not obtain the proper nutritional
requirements, then it is likely that they will not be able to meet their health care requirements
in an appropriate manner. A proper diet should comprise of milk, fruits, vegetables, cereals
and bread.
Accidents – Accidents are regarded as aspects that affects the health of the individuals.
Accidents may be major or minor. They may affect the health of the individuals either
permanently or temporarily. For instance, if a person has been prone to an accident and
experiences difficulty in walking, then his problem may be temporary or permanent. Minor
accidents may affect the health of the individuals usually on a temporary basis. When aged
people get adapted to some kinds of accidents, it usually has an impact upon their mind-sets.
Hence, it is vital for them to take precautions, when going out of their homes. Use of walking
sticks, spectacles and other devices, such as hearing aids are essential, especially when
individuals experience hearing impairments. Lack of these devices may cause accidents.
Physical Activities – It has been found out that aged men and women usually go to parks
every morning to get engaged in physical activities and meet their friends. They perform
activities, such as yoga and meditation, walk, and socialize with individuals. Physical
activities and meeting friends in the morning is regarded as an important aspect in the
maintenance of good health of the aged people. When aged people are not ambulatory and
use wheel chairs, then they make visits to parks and other places along with their family
members or caregivers. On the other hand, when the individuals do not go for morning walks,
or get engaged in any kinds of physical activities and stays at home, then they usually
experiences depression and it has a negative impact upon their health conditions.
Other Problems – For the aged people, it is vital that they should perform the activities of
daily living in an appropriate manner. They need to wear proper attire in accordance to the
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weather conditions. Particularly, in the winter season, they need to keep themselves covered
with woollen clothes. Especially when they are going out of the house, it is vital that they
should put on proper woollen garments in order to prevent themselves from cold. Stress and
tension are regarded as aspects that affect the health conditions of the individuals. High blood
pressure is a major problem that takes place due to stress. On the other hand, when elderly
individuals get subjected to crime and violence, then it has a severe impact upon their health
conditions. They may even get hospitalized and need medical treatment.

Unit 3: Issues of urban slums (social and psychological issues; cognitive.

crowding, dehumanizing, criminality, prostitution, human trafficking)
A slum is usually a highly populated urban residential area consisting mostly of closely packed,
decrepit housing units in a situation of deteriorated or incomplete infrastructure, inhabited primarily
by impoverished persons.

Slums are characterized by:

• Lack of basic services

• Substandard housing or illegal and inadequate building structures

• Overcrowding and high density

• Unhealthy living conditions and hazardous locations

• Insecure tenure, irregular or informal settlements

• Poverty and social exclusion

• Minimum settlement size

also called shanty town, skid row, ghetto, bidonville, taudis, bandas de miseria, morro, loteamento,
barraca, musseque, tugurio, solares, mudun safi, kawasan kumuh, karyan, medina achouaia, brarek,
ishash, galoos, tanake, baladi, chalis, katras, zopadpattis, basti, watta, udukku, and chereka bete.

Some numbers

India -17.4% of total urban population or 5.5% of the total population, 65.5M,

Africa 61% of urban, asia, 42%

Maharastra-23% of slums, aP-14%, Wbengal-12%

SC higher in slums (20.45) than in on slum areas (12.6%)

58% have open or no drainage, 43% must bring water from outside, 26% no access to clean drinking
water, 34% no public toilets, 2 power outages.

Why do we have slums

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1.Natural by products of urbanization - Urbanization requires various kinds of consumer services. So

slums usually found close in proximity to cities/employment areas

2.In Labour surplus economy, cheap labour is in plenty, so informal sector develops to complement
the formal sector. Most of those in the informal sector can afford only low cost housing

3.Rural-urban migration for survival and continuing poverty also causes slums

4. Poor City planning -Insufficient financial resources and lack of coordination in government
bureaucracy are two main causes of poor house planning

5.Politics- for power and vote bank, social and political groups have vested interests to encourage
migration by ethnic groups that will help maintain the slums, and reject alternate housing options

Tho there are welfare schemes like JNNURM National urban renewal mission or Rajiv Awas Yojana,
only 24% of slums have benefitted

Slums represent a failure of governance. Exponential population growth is taking place without the
corresponding ability of many cities in the developing world to expand public provision of adequate
shelter, basic infrastructure and services, and gainful employment.

Health

• Globally, the poor bear a heavy burden from both communicable and noncommunicable
diseases and slum dwellers and informal settlers are the most vulnerable groups in the urban
setting.
• In a study in the largest slum of Bangalore - A total of 1186 households were surveyed and
3693 people were screened.
• More than three fourth (70.4%) of the population were below poverty line. Only one third
had a regular job and the average daily income was 5.3$ and 2.6$ in men and women
respectively.
• The prevalence of hypertension (35.5%), diabetes (16.6%) and anaemia (70.9%) was high in
the screened slum population
• Almost half of the children under the age of five years were stunted.
• Communicable diseases such as diarrhea, epidemics is high,
• road accidents, injury, violence
• Mental health disorders and substance use are also high
• Air pollution and second hand smoke

Overcrowding
• Overcrowding is another characteristic of slums.
• Many dwellings are single room units, with high occupancy rates. Each dwelling may be
cohabited by multiple families. Five and more persons may share a one-room unit; the room is
used for cooking, sleeping and living.
• Overcrowding is also seen near sources of drinking water, cleaning, and sanitation where one
toilet may serve dozens of families.
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• In a slum of Kolkata, India, over 10 people sometimes share a 45 m2 room. In Kibera slum of
Nairobi, Kenya, population density is estimated at 2,000 people per hectare — or about 500,000
people in one square mile.
• Effects on quality of life due to crowding may include increased physical contact, lack of sleep,
psychological distress, lack of privacy and poor hygiene practices

Infrastructure

• Insecure tenure, substandard housing

• Slums often have very narrow alleys that do not allow vehicles (including emergency
vehicles) to pass.
• The lack of services such as routine garbage collection allows rubbish to accumulate in huge
quantities. Fires are often a serious problem..
• From safe drinking water to electricity, from basic health care to police services, from
affordable public transport to fire/ambulance services, from sanitation sewer to paved roads,
slums usually lack all of these
• The lack of infrastructure is caused by the informal nature of settlement and no planning for
the poor by government officials.

Other issues
• Vulnerability to natural and man-made hazards
• Violence- crime higher in slums, homicide, rape, armed violence, inadequate policing,
and insufficient law enforcement
• Unemployment and informal economy
• Drug trafficking, brewing,
• Prostitution, gambling, gang fights
• Women in slums are at higher risk of physical and sexual violence.
• SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ISSUES:
Psychological distress is a major contributor to the slum's overall burden of functional
impairment.
• The non-notified status plays a central role in creating psychological distress—by
creating and exacerbating deprivations that serve as sources of stress.
• Chronic illness once detected leads to emotional dysfunction among participants, like
anxieties, uncertainties, fears and losses.
• the financial insecurities related to living in a slum settlement, which directly affects their
social life and consumption patterns.
• This results in feelings of isolation, loss of self-esteem and feelings of hopelessness that
affect their mental wellbeing.
• The cycle of family poverty reaching its zenith in slum dwellers predetermines that the
children will be malnourished, have repeated bouts of illness, and lack even basic
education, all of which ensnares the young adult in low-paying jobs or no job at all,
perpetuating the cycle of poverty.
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• Growing up in a poor household increases the risk of exposure to adversities such as

social vulnerability, delinquency, deprivation and violence, all of which are risk factors
for a mental disorder.
• Conversely, mental disorder contributes to educational underachievement, loss of
employment, and increased health-care costs.
• The constant fear of eviction and abuse make these children vulnerable to behavioural
and emotional problems compared with children living in rural areas or non-slum locales.
• Witnessing and being victims to a child and spousal abuse is highly correlated with
negative physical and mental health outcomes in children.
• Young women are also at greater risk of mental distress. Hormonal factors related to the
reproductive cycle may play a role in women's increased vulnerability to depression. In
India, the absence of any clear policies for the welfare of severely ill women, and the
social stigma further compounds the problem.
• The migrant labourers have constant stress of moving to a new area, finding a job,
looking for shelter, perception of safety, financial precariousness and ensuring survival.
• Influences of the slum environment on residents’ health perception are pervasive and span
across the psychological domain, where job insecurity induces worries and distress that
inhibit a sense of well-being. Rather than favouring the development of strong and stable
social bonds, the proximity of people in slum areas leads instead to heightened
competition for scarce resources, lack of privacy, spread of epidemics and diseases, and
therefore to an environment more prone to conflict and criminal activity, with related
psychological distress.
• Reasons for psychological distress:
• Non notified status
• Chronic illness
• financial insecurities: feelings of isolation, loss of self-esteem and feelings of
hopelessness that affect their mental wellbeing.
• The perpetual fear of eviction or evacuation by the landlords and pandemics.
• OVERCROWDING:
• Overcrowding has been associated with a low space per person living in an area, high
occupancy rates, cohabitation by different families and a high number of single-room
units.
• Mostly slum-dwelling units are overcrowded, with five to six and more persons sharing a
one-room unit used for cooking, sleeping and living.
• Risk of diseases and lack of treatment.
• Unsanitary conditions.
• CRIMINALITY:
• The four categories are:
• Political violence
• Institutional violence
• Economical violence
• Social violence
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• The poor often have to deal with violence in an endemic, complex and category-
overlapping manner.
• It can affect every aspect of daily live; livelihood security, access to resources, social
constraints, but also the insecurity because of the failure of government protection they
are supposed to be entitled to.
• Violence is motivated, consciously or unconsciously by the gain or maintaining of power.
It is therefore paramount to analyze who are the stakeholders of these power issues when
looking at violence and potential solutions.
• Intimate partner violence against women in slums in India
• In the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3), the prevalence of violence against
married women in various slum areas in India was reported to be between 23 and 62 per
cent.
• The factors associated with intimate partner violence were early marriage, husband's
alcohol use, women's employment, and justification of wife beating.
• Slum environment is characterized by low socio-economic status, unhealthy living
conditions, and lack of basic services. These aspects play a role in women's vulnerability
to abuse and their inability to break free from abusive relationships.
• A short elaboration on the model:
• The individual level addresses the biological and personal history factors that influence
the risk on violence. Examples are age, gender, education, psychological disorders,
substance abuse and a history of aggressive behavior.
• The second level looks at the influence relationships can have on the risk of violent
behavior. For example peer pressure in gangs might encourage violent behavior, but
friends and family can also be protective.
• The community –schools, workplaces, neighborhoods-, are the context in which factors
like high unemployment, population density, substance abuse and organized crime can
promote violence.
• The societal level is the political, economical and cultural environment which allows for
violence to take place. Norms tolerating male dominance over women and children or
excessive use of force by police. Policies about health and education that allow for a
continuation or exacerbation of inequalities between different groups of people (WHO,
2002).
• Dehumanization
• Defecation out in the Open: This is one of the most dehumanizing effects of the slums.
• There is no planning when slums are created therefore there is also no planning of the
sanitation facilities in the slums. Toilets are almost unavailable in the slum area and even
if there is one it is poorly maintained.
• Detrimental for the health of the slum population particularly those of women.
• Organismic Defect: The Shelter -Less Population:
• most of the people living in it are shelter-less and their homes are not legitimately
recognized.
• Harassment from the local authority.
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• The Negligence of the State: Urban Planning and the Slums- most of the slums are
neglected by the government during the development process.
• unhygienic conditions prevailing due to unavailability of water.
• Repulsive Concerns: Attitudes Towards Slum Dwellers-
• Generally the attitudes of the onlookers are that the slum dwellers are uneducated, disease
prone, badly supervised children, superstitious, deviant, alcoholics and drug-addicts.
• HUMAN TRAFFICKING
• Human trafficking is a global crime that trades in people and exploits them for profit.
• People of all genders, ages and backgrounds can become victims of this crime, which
occurs in every region of the world.
• Traffickers use violence, fraudulent employment agencies, and fake promises of
education and job opportunities to trick, coerce and deceive their victims.
• The organized networks or individuals behind this lucrative crime take advantage of
people who are vulnerable, desperate or simply seeking a better life.
• Human trafficking is defined as "the recruitment, transport, transfer, harbouring or receipt
of a person by such means as threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, abduction,
fraud or deception for the purpose of exploitation".
• Traffickers target people who are marginalized or in difficult circumstances.
Undocumented migrants and people who are in desperate need of employment are
vulnerable, particularly to trafficking for forced labour.
• Victims may be forced or tricked into an exploitative situation which constitutes
trafficking after the traffickers uses violence, deception or blackmail. Criminals
trafficking children target victims from extremely poor households, dysfunctional
families or those who are abandoned and have no parental care. (trauma theory).
• “modern-day slavery”
• Women and children more vulnerable
• According to the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013, the purpose of exploitation (a)
recruits, (b) transports, (c) harbours, (d) transfer or (e) receives, a person or persons, by
• Poverty, increasing trend of migration even within the country, lack of economic
opportunity are some of the major push factors for trafficking in women and children.
• problem of commercial sex workers, urbanisation and globalisation, demand for cheap
labour, current trend of consumerism are some of the important pull factors for trafficking
in human beings.
• Socio economic factors- poverty, gender based violation, lack of alternative ways of
survival, unemployment.
• Strict action needed to stop trafficking of slum women and girls: Increase awareness,
digital literacy amongst potential victims.
• PROSTITUTION:
• the major motivation for engaging in commercial sex work was for economic reasons.
• However, there are inherent risks involved particularly for the vulnerable young people.
• extreme deprivation and lack of education
• Generational prostitution
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• often the family’s only source of income.

• Because of violence, disease, malnutrition and lack of medical care their life expectancy
is less than 40 years.
• Strategies to improve slum conditions:
• Healthy urban governance and resource mobilization: Creating incentive regimes to
reduce economic inequalities and protecting the human rights of the people living in
difficult circumstances.
• Urban planning and housing policy recommendations : National and municipal
governments can look at the push and pull factors of urbanization and globalization trends
influencing the cities. Security of tenure for the poor remains very important.
• Urban living environment improvement: this includes the provision of basic needs as
water, sanitation, waste management, food, safe housing and work places, but also goes
into addressing issues of violence. Short, medium and long term prevention strategies are
suggested. short term prevention addresses issues like street lighting, availability of
alcohol and reducing the carrying of firearms. Medium term prevention strategies are
reducing economic inequalities and aiding especially young people with going back to
school or additional training. The long term strategies incorporate training of children,
giving them life coping skills and programs for teaching the parents, besides reduction of
economic inequalities.
• Community action: the active participation and empowerment of communities in cities
can greatly contribute to health and social cohesion.
• Urban health services: Strengthening the health sector and using the social determinants
approach in public health is recommended.
• Leadership development and capacity building: empowerment of catalysts on community
governance level; e.g. civil society, non-governmental organizations and other
independent groups should be encouraged. Knowledge transmission should be facilitated
and in general trust and respect between all the stakeholders should be created.
• Working with the media for a change in image of slum dwellers with an emphasis on the
human aspect would make it easier to design and implement pro-poor policies.
• Gof India launched ‘National Urban Health Mission‘ to improve health care facilities for
urban poor.
• India implemented ‘slum upgrading‘ in a few recognized slums.
• In 2015, the Indian Govt allocated budget to replace crowded slums with 2 crore homes.
• Smart City Mission (to create smart cities) to focus on basic amenities, education, health
services, IT accessibility, digitization, e-governance, sustainable development, safety, and
security.
• Housing for all by 2022 for constructing houses for slum dwellers under the slum-
rehabilitation scheme and providing loans at subsidized rates for the economically weaker
sections.
• AMRUT: Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation to build a gap
between infrastructural necessity and their accessibility.
• HRIDAY: National Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana to preserve and
holistically develop the heritage cities of India.
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• Swachh Bharat Mission for improving cleanliness and sanitation.

• Providing mental health services through primary health centre.
• Dealing with the psychological issues.
• Providing awareness and re-education.
• Urban Poor Living in Slums: A Case Study of Raipur City in India By Dr. Sribas
Goswami & Prof. Samita Manna.

Unit 4: Orphans and abused children

Definitions:
• An orphan is defined by UNICEF as any child under the age of 18 who has lost
one or both parents to death.
• a maternal orphan is a child whose mother has died, a paternal orphan is a child
whose father has died, and a double orphan is a child/teen/infant who has lost both
parents.
• Child abuse is not just physical violence directed at a child. It is any form of
maltreatment by an adult, which is violent or threatening for the child. This
includes neglect. When child abuse occurs in the home and the abuser is, for
example, the child's parent or care-giver, this is a form of domestic violence.
• Violence against children includes all forms of violence against people under 18
years old, whether perpetrated by parents or other caregivers, peers, romantic
partners, or strangers. Globally, it is estimated that up to 1 billion children aged 2–
17 years, have experienced physical, sexual, or emotional violence or neglect in
the past year.
• Types of child abuse
• There are five general types of child abuse:
• Physical abuse: all forms of physical violence;
• Emotional or psychological abuse: an adult regularly berates the child, acts in a
dismissive and hostile manner towards the child or intentionally scares the child.
• Physical neglect: the child does not receive the care and nurturing that it needs.
• Emotional or psychological neglect: continuous lack of positive attention for the
child. Ignoring the child’s need for love, warmth and security. This category also
covers cases in which children are witnesses to violence between their parents or
caregivers.
• Sexual abuse: sexual contact which an adult forces upon a child.
• Human right violations of orphans
• Globally, children’s human rights are violated every day. Children and young
people are especially exposed to rights violations because they are dependent on
adults, which can at times heighten risk. Children are likely to form the group at
highest risk of poverty, malnourishment and abuse, and are often
disproportionately impacted by human rights crises.
• There are more than 30 million orphaned and abandoned children in India. That is
almost 4 percent of the youth population.
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• There are several threats facing orphans in India, especially for those who live on
the street. One of the biggest risks is exploitation. It’s thought that eight million
children aged between five and 14 are forced in child labour.
• Some children are forced to work on fields or in factories, whilst others undertake
domestic work. Many are trafficked every year, and although the country has
attempted to crack down on trafficking and child labour, child exploitation is still
a very real threat to orphans who have no adult protection.
• Abuse or neglect are traumatic experiences and can have a deep effect on
children’s brain development.
• Silverman et al (1996) discussed that 80% of adolescent with abuse history met
diagnostic criteria for one psychiatric disorder at age 21. Other problems such as
suicidal attempts, depression, and anxiety were also reported.
• Various studies report high rates of abuse in foster care living, for instance nearly
half of all children in foster care reported to have chronic medical problems. 8%
of all children in foster care have serious emotional problems, 11% of children
exiting foster care aged out of the system, in 2011. (Foster Care Foacts and
Statistics”. (2013).
• A study on orphan children showed that they had low self esteem and confidence
and felt more needy and isolated as they were deprived of love, play, shelter, food
and resources to live. Additionally they were also more often forced for sex abuse.
(Musisi et al, 2007)
• Egeland and Erickson did a long-term study of children whose mothers were
unavailable or neglectful. The results of the study discussed that neglected
children were found to be socially withdrawn, inattentive and cognitively
underachieving in their elementary school years. Child abuse has long term effects
as an association has been found in childhood physical and sexual abuse and adult
psychopathology in psychiatrist patient.
• Risk factors
• Violence against children is a multifaceted problem with causes at the individual,
close relationship, community and societal levels.
• Individual level:
• biological and personal aspects such as sex and age
• lower levels of education
• low income
• having a disability or mental health problems
• identifying as or being identified as lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender
• harmful use of alcohol and drugs
• a history of exposure to violence
• Close-relationship level:
• lack of emotional bonding between children and parents or caregivers
• poor parenting practices
• family dysfunction and separation
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• being associated with delinquent peers

• witnessing violence between parents or caregivers
• early or forced marriage.
• Community level:
• poverty
• high population density
• low social cohesion and transient populations
• easy access to alcohol and firearms
• high concentrations of gangs and illicit drug dealing.
• Society level:
• social and gender norms that create a climate in which violence is normalized
• health, economic, educational and social policies that maintain economic, gender
and social inequalities
• absent or inadequate social protection
• post-conflict situations or natural disaster
• settings with weak governance and poor law enforcement.
• The harm of institutions
• Neglect and abuse : Evidence shows that the delivery of care and protection in an
orphanage is inadequate. Children require individualised care and attention –
which they cannot receive in an institutional setting. Neglect is a feature of the
system, putting children at increased risk of emotional, physical, and sexual abuse.
• Physical and psychological harm: Children who grow up in institutions
show cognitive and developmental delays, as well as decreased brain activity and
a greatly elevated incidence of psychiatric disorders. Children under the age of
three are particularly vulnerable to the effects of institutionalisation.
• Social Isolation: Institutions fail to support strong and meaningful relationships
between children, their parents and siblings, and the wider family. Groups of
siblings are often split up and assigned to separate units, or even to different
institutions far away from one another. Often, children’s entire lives are spent
within the institution. Consequently, they tend to be stigmatised and perceived as
‘different’, which in turn leads to further social isolation.
• Systemic Impact: The very existence of orphanages creates a ‘pull
effect’ offering local authorities and professionals an easy option for dealing with
children and families in crisis. In some contexts, institutionalisation is
wrongly perceived as being the safest option – for example, for children with
additional needs or children living with disability. Parents lacking information,
counselling and access to medical and support services will often turn to
institutions as their only available option.
• Prevention and response
• Implementation and enforcement of laws (for example, banning violent discipline
and restricting access to alcohol and firearms);
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• Norms and values change (for example, altering norms that condone the sexual
abuse of girls or aggressive behaviour among boys);
• Safe environments (such as identifying neighbourhood “hot spots” for violence
and then addressing the local causes through problem-oriented policing and other
interventions);
• Parental and caregiver support (for example, providing parent training to young,
first time parents);
• Income and economic strengthening (such as microfinance and gender equity
training);
• Response services provision (for example, ensuring that children who are exposed
to violence can access effective emergency care and receive appropriate
psychosocial support); and
• Education and life skills (such as ensuring that children attend school, and
providing life and social skills training).
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