CHAPTER FOUR

CHAPTER 4: INTERFERENCE

Superposition principle
Given two waves with independent displacements 1x,t and 2x,tat a
point in space, resultant displacement is the sum of the separate displacement
of the constituent waves
x, t1x,t2x,t (4.1)

Condition for interference

In order to observe interference in light waves, the following conditions must
be met:

The sources must be coherent—that is, they must maintain a constant phase
with respect to each other.
The sources should be monochromatic—that is, of a single wavelength
(Source of light must have the same frequency).

Two Beam Interference

i ( k1 r−ωt +ε1 ) i ( φ1−ωt )

⃗E1 = { ⃗E 01 ℓ = ⃗E ℓ
01
¿
(4.2a)

i ( k 2 r−ωt +ε 2 ) i ( φ2−ωt )
⃗E2 = { ⃗E 02 ℓ ⃗ ℓ
=E 02
¿
(4.2b)

Same frequency different phase

E = E1 + E2

From wave optics

 1 1 ⃗2
I ( r,t )=|⟨ ⃗
S ( r,t ) ⟩|= c 2 ε 0|⃗E x { ⃗B ¿|= cε | E|
2 2 0

The Superposition of the two waves yields

I= ( E1+ E2 ) x ( E + E ) ¿
1
¿
2 (4.3)

I =I 1 +I 2 + 2 √ I 1 I 2 cos δ (4.4)

Where  = 2 - 1

I max=I 1 +I 2+ 2 √ I 1 I 2
5

1 I min =I 1 +I 2 − 2 √ I 1 I 2

0
-16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Angles (radians)

Fringe contrast
The fringe contrast is the ratio of the peak intensity to the valley intensity.
Poor contrast means the fringes are barely visible,
while perfect contrast means they are very clear.
The contrast is usually measured by a parameter called the fringe visibility, V,
which varies between 0 and 1 (0  V 1), and is defined as follows:

Fringe Visibility, V: A measure of the fringe contrast in a spatially varying

intensity pattern
where a V = 0 implies the poorest contrast (no fringes!) and V = 1 implies
perfect contrast (peaks are infinitely larger than valleys). Mathematically,

⟨ I ⟩max - ⟨I ⟩ min
V=
⟨ I⟩ max + ⟨I ⟩ min (4.5)

From (4.4), we get

2√ I 1 I 2
V=
⟨ I 1 ⟩+ ⟨ I 2 ⟩ (4.6)

Thus it can be observed that

when
⟨I 1 ⟩ = 0 or ⟨I 2 ⟩ = 0


⟨I ⟩ max = ⟨I ⟩ min  V = 0

when
⟨I 1 ⟩ = ⟨I 2 ⟩


⟨I ⟩ min = 0,  V = 1

THE MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER

M1  A ray of light from a monochromatic source is

split into two rays by the beam splitter M 0,
L1 which is inclined at 45° to the incident light
beam.
M2  M0 transmits half the light incident on it and
We use an ideal beamsplitter and assume that 50% of the incident light will be
reflected, and the remaining 50% will be transmitted, and no phase shift will be
introduced.

The interference condition for the two rays is determined by the displacement
between the two arms.

D= L2 − L1

As M2 is moved, the fringe pattern collapses or expands, depending on the

direction in which M2 is moved.

The wavelength of light is then measured by counting the number of fringe

shifts for a given displacement of M2.

If the wavelength is accurately known, mirror displacements can be measured

to within a fraction of the wavelength.
In general the optical distance is given by

d = 2D=2(L2 − L1)
(4.7)

M1

L1

M2
M0

Light
Sourc D
L2
Telescop
e

Constructive interference is obtained for

d = mλ
(4.8)

Destructive interference is obtained for

d = (m+ ½)
(4.9)

One way to view the relative path difference is in terms of the relative time
delay

 = d/c.
(4.10)

The intensity seen at the detector as a function of path difference is computed

to be
 cε o
[ ⃗E0 ℓ ][ ]
¿
I det ( τ )= i ( kz−ωt )
E0 ℓi ( kz−ω ( t - τ ) ) . E
+⃗ 0
⃗ ℓ i (kz −ω (t - τ ))
⃗ ℓ i (kz −ωt )+ E
0
2

cε o
=
2 [ ⃗ ¿ +2 ⃗E ⃗E¿ cos ( ω τ ) ] .
2 ⃗Eo E o o o

= 2I o [ 1 +cos ( ω τ ) ]
(4.11)

Or Intensity as a function of distance d,

[
I det ( d )= 2I o 1 + cos 2π ( dλ )]
(4.12)

Application of interferometer

Sensing small refractive index change

[
I ( n )= 2I o 1 + cos 2π ( ( n-1 ) x
λ )]
M1

L1

M2
M0
n
Light L2
x
SourcBY WAVEFRONTS (LOCATING
INTERFERENCE FRINGES BY TRACKING
PHASE)-
Telescop
e
1. Young’s double slit experiment

A point source of light illuminates 2 tiny apertures in an opaque screen, and

the resulting intensity pattern is observed on a viewing screen.
The first aperture A ensures that the light waves that arrive at apertures A1 and
A2 originate from a single point source and thus have equal (or at least
correlated) phase.
The degree to which the phase at two points in a light wave is correlated is
called coherence.
The secondary apertures A1 and A2 act like point sources of 2 spherically (in 3
dimensions) or cylindrically (in 2 dimensions) expanding waves which
interfere and thus produce fringes on the viewing screen.
What is the spacing of the fringes on the screen? To find out, we can look for
constructive and destructive interference of the 2 source waves at the screen
by tracking the phase, as illustrated in the drawing below.
We pass through 1 full fringe period every time the path length difference
changes by 1 wavelength.

When 2 waves interfere, each fringe in the resulting intensity pattern corresponds
to a path length difference between the 2 waves of an integer number of
wavelengths.

r2

y
r1
S1


d
L
B
S2 
We can describe Young’s experiment quantitatively with the help of the above
diagram. The viewing screen is located a perpendicular distance L from the
barrier containing two slits, S 1 and S2. These slits are separated by a distance
s, and the source is monochromatic. To reach any arbitrary point P in the
upper half of the screen, a wave from the lower slit must travel farther than a
wave from the upper slit by a distance d sin . This distance is called the path
difference 
.
The optical path difference of distances between the waves emanating from
the point sources and reaching P is given by

S2B = S2P – S1P

 = r1 – r2 = d sin (4.13)

The value of  determines whether the two waves are in phase when they
arrive at point P. If  is either zero or some integer multiple of the wavelength,
then the two waves are in phase at point P and constructive interference
results.

Therefore, the condition for bright fringes, or constructive interference, at

point P is

 = d sinbright = m
(4.14)

When d is an odd multiple of /2, the two waves arriving at point P are 180° out
of phase and give rise to destructive interference. Therefore, the condition for
dark fringes, or destructive interference, at point P is

 = d sindark = (m+1)/2 (4.15)

We assume that L>> d,  <  and y << L

Under these conditions,  is small; thus, we can use the small angle
approximation sin = tan.
For small angles , we can make the approximation

 = d sin = d
y
tan θ≈θ=
L

dy
δ=
L
(4.16)
For bright fringes
dy
δ= =mλ
L ,

mL λ
y bright =
d ,
(4.17)
Where m = 0, 1, 2, ....

This follows also that the dark fringes

y dark =
Lλ
d (
m+
1
2 )

The spacing Δx between these fringes is given by

L L L
Δy = y m +1 - y m = (m+1) λ - m λ = λ
d d d
(4.26)

Young’s double-slit experiment provides a method for measuring the

wavelength of light.

Using (4.13), the phase difference is given as

 ( r 1 - r2 ) 2π d
φ=k ( r 1 - r 2 ) =2π = sin θ
λ λ

[ (
I = 2I o 1 + cos 2π
( r 1 - r2 )
λ )]

I = 4I o cos π
2
( (r1 - r 2)
λ ) , but
r 1 - r2 ≈
yd
L

I= 4I o cos 2 ( ) πyd
λL

Example

A viewing screen is separated from a double-slit source by 1.2 m. The distance

between the two slits is 0.030 mm. The second-order bright fringe (m = 2) is 4.5
cm from the center line.

Determine the wavelength of the light.

Calculate the distance between adjacent bright fringes.

Solution
d y bright 0. 03 x 10 -3 x 4 . 5 x 10-2
λ = = = 560 nm
(a) mL 2 x 1 .2

L 1 .2 -9
Δy = λ= x 560 x 10 = 2. 2 cm
d 0 .03 x 10
-3
Interference by division of amplitude

A wave traveling from a medium of index of refraction n1 toward a medium of

index of refraction n2 undergoes a 180° phase change upon reflection when n2
> n1 and undergoes no phase change if n2 < n1.

n1

Let us apply these rules to the film of the figure above, where n2 > n1.
Reflected ray 1, which is reflected from the upper surface at A, undergoes a
phase change of 180° with respect to the incident wave.
Reflected ray 2, which is reflected from the lower film surface at B, undergoes
no phase change because it is reflected from a medium (n1) that has a lower
index of refraction. Therefore, ray 1 is 180° out of phase with ray 2, which is
equivalent to a path difference of /2. However, we must also consider that ray
2 travels an extra distance 2d before the waves recombine in the air.
(Remember that we are considering light rays that are close to normal to the
surface. If the rays are not close to normal, the path difference is larger than
2t.) If 2d = m, then rays 1 and 2 recombine in phase, and the result is
constructive interference. In general, the condition for constructive
interference in thin films is

Optical path = (m+1/2)

The film serves as an amplitude-splitting device, so that ray1and ray2 may be

considered as arising from two coherent virtual sources lying behind the film;
that is, the two images of S formed by reflection at the first and second
interfaces.
The reflected rays are parallel on leaving the film and can be brought together
at a point P by use of a converging lens.

The optical path difference between the interfering waves is given by

Path difference = n2 ( AD +DB ) - n 1 AC

Since AD = DB = d/cos, AC = AB sin(i), AB = 2d tan and by snell’s law, AD =

AB (n2/n1) sin, then

2n 2 d
Path difference = - 2n1 d tanθ sin i
cosθ
2n 2 d
= - 2n 2 d tanθ sin θ
cosθ

= 2n 2 d cos θ (4.27)

The condition for constructive interference

 (
2n 2 d = m +
1
2)λ
(4.28)
This condition takes into account two factors:
(1) the difference in path length for the two rays (the term m)
(2) the 180° phase change upon reflection (the term /2).

The thickness of the film is given by

λ bright
d =( 2m +1 )
4n 2 (4.29)
For destructive interference the path difference is given by

2n 2 d =m λdark (4.30)

Example
Solar cells—devices that generate electricity when exposed to sunlight—are
often coated with a transparent, thin film of silicon monoxide (SiO, n =1.45) to
minimize reflective losses from the surface. Suppose that a silicon solar cell (n
= 3.5) is coated with a thin film of silicon monoxide for this purpose. Determine
the minimum film thickness that produces the least reflection at a wavelength
of 550 nm, near the center of the visible spectrum.
Solution

Minimum thickness occurs at m = 0 and for bright fringes

λ bright 550 x 10 -9
d = = = 94 . 8 nm
4n 4 x 1 . 45

Newton’s Rings

Newton’s rings provide an example of fringes of equal thickness. These are

two wave interference fringes formed when monochromatic or nearly
monochromatic light falls on an air film bounded between a plano-convex lens
and a flat surface as shown in the figure below.
  The collimated light beam after reflection from the beam splitter BS is
incident on the convex lens L.
 Fringes localized near the lower surface of the lens are formed by
interference between waves reflected from the top and bottom of the air
film.
 The thickness of the film follows the contour of the spherical surface of
the lens.
 Any irregularity over the lens surface distorts the fringes.
 In the ideal case, the interference fringes are circular because the locus
of points of equal thickness of the air film is a circle.

With R as the radius of curvature of the convex lens, the relation

between the
distance x and the film thickness d is given by

2 2 2 2
x =R − ( R −d ) =2 Rd − d ( 4.38 )

Since R >> d, this becomes

2
x =2 Rd ( 4.39 )
The mth-order interference maximum will occur in the thin film when its
thickness is in accordance with the relationship.

2 n2 d m= m+ ( 12 )( 4.40)
The radius of the mth bright ring is therefore found by combining the last two
expressions to yield

x m=
√ R
n2( )1
m+ ( 4.41 )
2

Similarly, the radius of the mth dark ring is

x m=
√ R
n2
m ( 4.42 )

The centre of the fringe pattern in reflected light is dark since the film thickness is
zero at the point of contact

CHAPTER FIVE
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
 Diffraction describes the tendency for light to
bend around corners.
 Diffraction is phenomenon that describes light of
wavelength comparable to or larger than the
width of a slit that spreads out in all forward
directions upon passing through the slit.
 This behavior indicates that light, once it
has passed through a narrow slit, spreads
beyond the narrow path defined by the slit
into regions that would be in shadow if light
traveled in straight lines.

Diffraction Patterns from Narrow Slits

There are two types of diffraction pattern

(i) Fraunhofer diffraction pattern

(a) (b)
  In (a) the observing screen is far from the slit,
so that the rays reaching the screen are
approximately parallel. No diffraction
 In (b), by using a converging lens to focus the
parallel rays on a nearby screen. In this
model, the pattern on the screen is called a
Fraunhofer diffraction pattern
 They are also called Far field

(ii) Fresnel diffraction

 Rays are not parallel
 The screen is brought close to the
slit (and no lens is used), the
pattern is a Fresnel diffraction
pattern.
 .They are also referred to as near
field

The Fresnel pattern is more difficult to analyze, so we shall restrict our discussion
to Fraunhoferdiffraction

In order to understand Fraunhofer diffraction we

have to apply Huygens’s principle, which state that
All points on a wavefront can be considered as
point sources for the production of secondary
wavelets.
Each point on a wave front may be regarded as
a new source of waves.
 Point on
Old Wave
a Wave
front
front

Wavel
New et
Wave
front

Single Slit Diffraction

 To analyze the diffraction pattern, it is
convenient to divide the slit into two
halves.
a  If this path difference is exactly half a
wavelength (corresponding to a phase

difference of 180°), then the two waves
z
cancel each other and destructive
interference results.

Assume the screen is far

r1 enough away that red rays are
parallel.

Path difference between

r2 neighbouring rays is z sinθ
z Total electric field due to r1
Path difference
 and r2 is
If there are small changes in z, then total electric
field is given by
a

E ( r 1 ,t )= Em∫ sin ( κ . r - ωt + k z sin θ ) dz

[ ]
0
1

Em
=- cos ( κ . r1 - ωt + k z sin θ )|a0
k sin θ
E
E ( r1 ,t ) = k sinmθ [ cos (κ . r1 - ωt ) - cos (κ . r
1
- ωt + k a sin θ )]

Let  = ka sin (5.1)

= {2E
m
k sin θ
sin
φ
2 ( )} sin ( κ . r1 - ωt + φ2 )
(
= A sin κ . r 1 - ωt +
φ
2 ) (5.2)

where A =
{ 2E
m sin φ
k sin θ 2 ( )}
2aE aE
A=
φ
m
sin
φ
2
= ( ) φ
m
( )
sin
φ
2
2

The intensity is given by

( ) ()
2
φ
sin
2
I=I
0 φ
2 (5.3)
 I 0=( E m a )2
where is the maximum intensity

( ( )
)
2
πasinθ
sin
λ
I=I
0 πasinθ
λ

 note:
lim ( sinx x ) ⇒ 1
x => 0
 intensity is maximum at θ= 0, (the central
maximum).
For minimum intensity

( ( )
)
2
π asin θ
sin
λ
I=I
0 π asin θ
λ
From this result, we see that minima occur when
π asin θ
m π=
λ

mλ
⇒ sin θ dark= a
, m = 1, 2, . .. .

(5.4)

This is different for interference

since asinθ = mλ is for bright
fringes
 y2 sinθ dark =
2λ
a
λ
y sinθ =
1 dark
a

y sinθ
λ=−
1 dark
a φ
2λ 2
y sinθ =-
2 dark
a φ
A plot of light intensity Iversus 2 for
The positions of two minima on thesingle-slit Fraunhofer diffraction
each side of the central pattern.
maximum are labeled.
.
y
1
θdark << 0 tan θ =
If dark
L
y1
tan θdark ≈sin θdark =
Then , L

Therefore, the positions of the first minima

measured from the central axis are given by
y
1
sin θ dark =
L (5.5)

Example
Light of wavelength 580 nm is incident on a slit
having a width of 0.300 mm. The viewing screen is
2.00 m from the slit. Find the positions of the first
dark fringes and the width of the central bright
fringe.
Solution
To analyze the problem, note that the two dark
fringes that flank the central bright fringe
correspond to m = 1

λ 5 .8 x 10−7
sin θdark =± = ± −3
=± 1 .933 x 10-3
a 0 .3 x 10

From (5.5), the position of the first minima

measured from the central axis is given by
y 1= Lsin θ dark= 2 (± 1.933 x 10 -3 )=± 3.87 x 10-3 m

The positive and negative signs correspond to the

dark fringes on either side of the central bright
fringe. Hence, the width of the central bright fringe
is equal to
= 2 |y1| = 7.74 x 10-3 m= 7.74 mm

Intensity against Frnge separation

1

0.9
0.1 mm
0.8 0.2 mm
0. 3 mm
0.7

0.6
Intensity

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
-0.02 -0.015 -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
Fringe spacing, y (m)

Double-Slit Diffraction
Total electric field is given by
a d+a

E ( r,t )= Em ∫ sin ( κ. r - ωt + k z sin θ ) dz + E m ∫ sin ( κ . r - ωt + k z sin θ ) dz

0 d

(5.
6)
Both integrals are the same except for limits

[ ]
d +a d +a
- cos ( κ . r - ωt + k z sin θ )
Em ∫ sin ( κ . r - ωt + k z sin θ ) dz =Em
d
k z sin θ d

=
2 E m sin ( κa sin θ
2 ) (
sin κ . r - ωt + k d sin θ+
κa sin θ
2 )
k a sin θ

a Em sin ( ) sin
φ
=
φ
2
( κ . r - ωt + δ+
φ
2 )
2
(5.7)
φ=κ . a sin ( θ ) (5.8a)

δ =κ . d sin ( θ ) (5.8b)
Solving first term of (5.6) and combine with (5.7) we
get

E ( r,t ) =a Em
sin ( ) [sin ( B )+ sin ( B +δ ) ]
φ
2
φ
2
(5.9)
φ
B =κ . r - ωt +
2
Where

E ( r,t ) =2 a Em
sin ( φ2 ) cos ( δ / 2) sin ( B +δ / 2 )
φ
2

Substitute for A

[
E ( r,t ) = 2 a Em
sin ( φ2 ) cos ( δ /2 )
φ
2
] (
sin κ . r - ωt +
φ
2
+δ / 2 )
(5.10)
Amplitud

Intensity

( ) ( )
2
φ
sin
2
I =I 0 ( cos ( δ /2 ) )
φ
2

 = k d sin ()
 = k a sin () Interference
Diffraction
Limit a => 0 I =I 0 ( cos ( δ /2 ) ) 2 Young’s slits

( ) ( )
2
φ
sin
2
I =I 0
φ
2
Limit d => 0 single slit

Note that
φ a
=
δ d (5.11)

Cos2(/2) term
oscillates under the
envelope

Example
Suppose λ=405 nm , the slit separation(center to
center) is d=19.44 μm and the slit width a=4.050 μm
a) How many bright fringes are within the central
peak of the diffraction envelope?

The diffraction minima are given by

a sinθ=mλ m= ± 1, ± 2, ± 3,…
 limit of central diffraction peak is the first
minima at m=±1
=> a sinθ= λ (1)
the bright fringes of the interference pattern are
given by
d sinθ =mλ m=0,1,2,3,…
substitute for sinθ from (1)
 m=d/a = 4.8
Hence first diffraction minimum occurs just before
the bright fringe with m=5
Central diffraction peak contains
m=0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4 =>nine fringes

(b)how many bright fringes are within the first side

peaks (lobes) of the diffraction envelope?

Solution
Outer limit of first side diffraction peaks are the
second diffraction minima :
a sinθ=2λ
•substitute for sinθ= 2λ/a in d sinθ=mλ
 m=2d/a = 9.6
• hence m=5,6,7,8,9 lie within the peak =>5 fringes
Diffraction Grating
A diffraction grating is a device that has a repetitive
array of diffracting elements, either apertures
(transmissive) or obstacles (Reflective), which has
the effect of producing periodic alterations in the
phase, amplitude, or both of an emergent wave.

1st
order
(m=1)th
0 orde
r
(m=0)
1st
order
(m=-1)

1st
a
order
(m=-1)

0thorde
r
1st (m=0)
order
(m=1)

Transmission Grating Reflection

Grating

A transmission grating can be made by cutting

parallel grooves on a glass plate with a precision
ruling machine. The spaces between the grooves are
transparent to the light and hence act as separate
slits.
 A reflection grating can be made by cutting parallel
grooves on the surface of a reflective material. The
reflection of light from the spaces between the
grooves is specular, and the reflection from the
grooves cut into the material is diffuse. Thus, the
spaces between the grooves act as parallel sources of
reflected light.
Current technology can produce gratings that have
very small slit spacings. For example, a typical
grating ruled with 5 000 grooves/cm has a slit
spacing, d = 1/5000 = 0.2 x 10-3 = 0.2 cm
1st order
Maximum (m= 1)

Incoming
waves
Central or
Zeroth order
Maximum (m= 0)

1st order
Maximum (m= -1)

Diffraction
Grating

d 

 = d sin
The waves from all slits are in phase as they leave
the slits. However, for some arbitrary direction 
measured from the horizontal, the waves must travel
different path lengths before reaching the screen.
From the Figure above, note that the path
difference  between rays from any two adjacent
slits is equal to d sin.

If this path difference equals one wavelength or

some integral multiple of a wavelength, then waves
from all slits are in phase at the screen and a bright
fringe is observed. Therefore, the condition for
maxima in the interference pattern at the angle bright
is

 = d sinbright = m, m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ……