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Integrating Advanced
Computer-Aided Design,
Manufacturing, and
Numerical Control:
Principles and Implementations

Xun Xu
University of Auckland, New Zealand

Information Science reference

Hershey • New York
ii

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Xu, Xun, 1959-

Integrating advanced computer-aided design, manufacturing, and numerical control : principles and implementations
/ by Xun Xu.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Summary: “This book presents basic principles of geometric modelling while featuring contemporary industrial
case studies”--Provided by publisher.

ISBN 978-1-59904-714-0 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-59904-716-4 (ebook)

1. Design, Industrial--Data processing. 2. Geometrical models--Data processing. 3. CAD/CAM systems. I.

Title.
TS171.4.X86 2009
670.285--dc22
2008033938

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

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Dedication

To my wife Wei Cui, my daughters Sylvia and Cecilia, and to our parents Zuxing Xu
and Huaizhen Zhou, for their endless love, support and inspiration
Table of Contents

Foreword............................................................................................................. xii

Preface ............................................................................................................... xiv

Acknowledgment............................................................................................. xxiii

About the Author............................................................................................ xxiv

Section I:
Principles and Backgrounds

Chapter I
Geometric Modelling and Computer-Aided Design......................................... 1
Introduction to Geometric Modelling.................................................................... 2
Geometric Modelling Approaches......................................................................... 2
Wire-Frame Modelling................................................................................. 2
Surface Modelling........................................................................................ 6
Solid Modelling...........................................................................................11
Computer-Aided Design....................................................................................... 17
CAD System Architecture........................................................................... 17
Computer Hardware for CAD.............................................................................. 27
Conclusion........................................................................................................... 29
References............................................................................................................ 30

Chapter II
CAD Data Exchange and CAD Standards...................................................... 32
Issues at Hand...................................................................................................... 33
CAD Kernels........................................................................................................ 33
Data Interoperability........................................................................................... 35
Different Types of Data Translation/Conversion....................................... 35
Dual Kernel CAD Systems......................................................................... 36
Direct Data Translators............................................................................. 36
Common/Neutral Translators.................................................................... 38
Discussions.......................................................................................................... 48
Comparing Data Exchange Methods......................................................... 49
Data Quality............................................................................................... 49
Conclusion........................................................................................................... 50
References............................................................................................................ 51

Chapter III
Computer-Aided Process Planning and Manufacturing................................ 54
Computer-Aided Process Planning...................................................................... 55
Basic Steps in Developing a Process Plan................................................. 55
Principal Process Planning Approaches.................................................... 61
Computer-Aided Manufacturing.......................................................................... 67
Computer Applications in a Manufacturing Plant..................................... 68
Key Aspects of CAM in a Manufacturing System....................................... 69
Manufacturing Control.............................................................................. 71
Conclusion........................................................................................................... 72
References............................................................................................................ 73

Chapter IV
Feature Technology............................................................................................ 75
Feature De.nition ................................................................................................ 76
Feature Taxonomy................................................................................................ 77
Feature Representation Schemes......................................................................... 83
Surface Features vs. Volumetric Features........................................................... 83
Feature-Based Methodologies............................................................................. 86
Conclusion........................................................................................................... 88
References............................................................................................................ 88

Chapter V
Feature Recognition........................................................................................... 90
Basic Concepts of Feature Recognition............................................................... 91
Classification of Feature Recognition Systems.................................................... 91
Feature Detection....................................................................................... 92
Feature Generation.................................................................................... 96
Some Issues on Feature Recognition................................................................... 99
Concavity/Convexity of a Geometric Entity............................................... 99
Optimal Interpolation of Machinable Volumes........................................ 103
Consideration of Blanks........................................................................... 105
Conclusion......................................................................................................... 106
References.......................................................................................................... 107

Chapter VI
Feature Interactions......................................................................................... 109
Surface Feature Interactions..............................................................................110
Surface Features.......................................................................................110
Classification of Surface Feature Interactions..........................................110
Overlapping Features...............................................................................111
Significance of Surface Feature Interactions............................................115
Volumetric Feature Interactions.........................................................................116
Volumetric Features..................................................................................116
Significance of Feature Interactions.........................................................119
Indirect Feature Interations............................................................................... 120
A Case Study...................................................................................................... 120
Conclusion......................................................................................................... 124
References.......................................................................................................... 124

Chapter VII
Integrated Feature Technology....................................................................... 126
Integration Versus Interfacing........................................................................... 126
Integrated Feature Recognition......................................................................... 129
Machining Volumes for Different Operations.......................................... 129
Features for Finishing Operations........................................................... 130
Intermediate Workplace........................................................................... 131
Machining Requirements.......................................................................... 131
Dealing with Fuzzy Information.............................................................. 135
Making Decisions Based on Fuzzy Data.................................................. 139
An Example.............................................................................................. 140
Machining Allowances for Different Cuts................................................ 142
A Case Study............................................................................................ 142
Determing Machining Features from a FBD Model.......................................... 146
Mapping Design Features to Machining Features.................................. 149
Feature Mapping...................................................................................... 152
Machining Features and Cutting Tools.............................................................. 154
Cutting Tool Classification....................................................................... 154
Mapping Design Features to Cutting Tools............................................. 155
Conclusion......................................................................................................... 161
References.......................................................................................................... 162

Chapter VIII
CNC Machine Tools......................................................................................... 165
A Historical Perspective.................................................................................... 166
Principles of Numerical Control........................................................................ 166
Typical CNC Machine Tools.............................................................................. 167
Machining Capabilities of a CNC Machine............................................. 168
Vertical Machining Centres...................................................................... 168
Horizontal Machining Centres................................................................. 169
Tooling for CNC Machine Tools........................................................................ 170
Material for Cutting Tools....................................................................... 170
Tooling Systems........................................................................................ 172
Automatic Tool Changer System.............................................................. 172
Principal Elements of a CNC Machine Tool...................................................... 174
Machine Base........................................................................................... 175
Machine Spindles..................................................................................... 176
Spindle Drives.......................................................................................... 176
Slide Drives.............................................................................................. 177
Direct Numerical Control........................................................................ 178
Designation of Axis and Motion of CNC Machines........................................... 179
Z Axis of Motion....................................................................................... 179
X Axis of Motion....................................................................................... 180
Y Axis of Motion....................................................................................... 180
Rotary Motions A, B, and C..................................................................... 180
Origin of the Standard Coordinate System.............................................. 180
Additional Axes........................................................................................ 181
Direction of Spindle Rotation................................................................... 183
Some Schematics of CNC Machine Tools.......................................................... 183
Parallel Machine Tools: A Little “Sidetrack”................................................... 184
Conclusion......................................................................................................... 186
References.......................................................................................................... 187
Endnote.............................................................................................................. 187

Chapter IX
Program CNCs................................................................................................. 188
Program Basics.................................................................................................. 189
Program Format...................................................................................... 189
NC Words................................................................................................. 189
Other Controllable Functions.................................................................. 192
Coordinate System and Program Zero............................................................... 192
Coordinate System.................................................................................... 192
Plus and Minus......................................................................................... 192
Program Zero........................................................................................... 193
Absolute vs. Incremental.......................................................................... 194
Compensations................................................................................................... 194
Offsets....................................................................................................... 195
 Organization of Offsets............................................................................ 196
Wear Offsets vs. Geometry Offsets........................................................... 196
Instate an Offset....................................................................................... 196
Offsets and Trial Machining.................................................................... 196
Tool Length Compensation...................................................................... 197
Cutter Radius Compensation................................................................... 198
Programming Methods for Interpolation........................................................... 201
Linear Interpolation................................................................................. 201
Circular Interpolation.............................................................................. 201
Parabolic Interpolation............................................................................ 203
Summary of Some Common NC Codes.............................................................. 204
Lists of Some Common G Codes.............................................................. 204
Reset States.............................................................................................. 204
Lists of Some Common M Codes.............................................................. 208
Examples of NC Programs................................................................................. 208
Programming Hole-Making Operations.................................................. 208
Programming Linear Profiles.................................................................. 209
Programming Circular Profiles............................................................... 209
Contemporary Approach to Part Programming................................................ 210
Automatically Programmed Tools (APT)................................................. 212
CAD/CAM Approach................................................................................ 226
Conclusion......................................................................................................... 228
References.......................................................................................................... 229

Section II:
Integration and Implementations

Chapter X
Integration of CAD/CAPP/CAM/CNC.......................................................... 231
Models of Integrating CAD/CAPP/CAM/CNC.................................................. 232
A Case Study of Integrating CAD/CAPP/CAM................................................. 232
Concurrent Product Modelling in a CAD/CAM System.......................... 232
A Bird’s-Eye View of the Case Study........................................................ 233
CAD/CAM Enabling a Concurrent Environment..................................... 236
Reflections................................................................................................ 237
Limited Efforts to Integrate CAM and CNC...................................................... 237
Post-Processor: A Source of Vexation...................................................... 238
Challenges................................................................................................ 238
The APT Effort......................................................................................... 239
The BCL Effort......................................................................................... 240
The BNCL Effort...................................................................................... 241
Intermediate Languages for CNC Programming..................................... 243
Conclusion......................................................................................................... 243
References.......................................................................................................... 244
Endnote.............................................................................................................. 245

Chapter XI
Integration Based on STEP Standards.......................................................... 246
Data Exchange Using STEP and STEP-NC...................................................... 247
Data Exchange between CAD Systems.................................................... 248
Data Flow between CAD, CAPP, CAM and CNC Systems...................... 248
Features as a Common Thread................................................................ 249
Integration through STEP AP Harmonization......................................... 251
Integrate CAD with CAPP....................................................................... 252
Integrate CAPP with CAM....................................................................... 252
Integrate CAM with CNC . ...................................................................... 254
STEP-NC Data Model.............................................................................. 255
Data Access Implementation Methods..................................................... 255
Conclusion......................................................................................................... 261
References.......................................................................................................... 262

Chapter XII
Function Block-Enabled Integration............................................................. 266
Function Block Structure................................................................................... 266
Function Block-Enabled CAD/CAPP/CAM Integration.................................... 269
Integrating CAM with CNC............................................................................... 270
Model-View-Control Design Pattern....................................................... 270
Software Implementation FBDK and FBRT............................................. 271
Layered Architecture of the CNC System................................................. 273
The Prototype CNC System...................................................................... 275
Conclusion......................................................................................................... 280
References.......................................................................................................... 281

Chapter XIII
Development of an Integrated, Adptable CNC System................................ 283
Task-Level Data vs. Method-Level Data............................................................ 283
Generate a Native STEP-NC Program.............................................................. 284
Modelling Native Machining Facilities............................................................. 285
STEP-NCMtDm........................................................................................ 287
An Adaptor......................................................................................................... 290
STEP-NC Pre-Processor.......................................................................... 290
STEP-NC Encoder................................................................................... 290
Funtion Block Mapping Unit................................................................... 292
Human-Machine Interface................................................................................. 293
Conclusion......................................................................................................... 295
References.......................................................................................................... 295
Chapter XIV
Integrating CAD/CAPP/CAM/CNC with Inspections................................. 297
Closed-Loop Machining and On-Machine Inspection....................................... 297
Past Research..................................................................................................... 298
A Data Model for OMI....................................................................................... 299
An Integrated Machining and Inspection System.............................................. 304
Implementation.................................................................................................. 306
Conclusion......................................................................................................... 309
References.......................................................................................................... 310

Chapter XV
Internet-Based Integration...............................................................................311
A Collaborative Framework.............................................................................. 312
System Model..................................................................................................... 313
Client Tier: User Interface....................................................................... 314
Business Logic Tier: CAPP Server.......................................................... 316
Data Tier: Data Model............................................................................. 318
Framework Development................................................................................... 319
Client Tier Implementation...................................................................... 319
Business Logic Tier Implementation........................................................ 320
Data Tier Implementation........................................................................ 320
Conclusion......................................................................................................... 323
References.......................................................................................................... 324

Chapter XVI
From CAD/CAPP/CAM/CNC to PDM, PLM and Beyond......................... 326
PDM’s Capabilities............................................................................................ 327
Evolution of PDM Methodology.............................................................. 328
Benefits of PDM Systems................................................................................... 329
Interdisciplinary Collaboration............................................................... 329
Reduced Product Development Cycle Time............................................. 329
Reduced Complexity of Accessing the Information of Company............. 329
Improved Product Management............................................................... 329
Improved Lifecycle Design....................................................................... 330
Supply-Chain Collaboration.................................................................... 330
Web-Based PDM................................................................................................ 330
Tiered-Architecture................................................................................... 331
Similarities between Web-Technology and PDM Methodology............... 331
Capability Improvements......................................................................... 332
Further Challenges.................................................................................. 334
PDM Standardization........................................................................................ 334
Integrated and Extended PDM.......................................................................... 337
Product Lifecycle Management......................................................................... 338
Definition of PLM..................................................................................... 338
 PLM Solution Model................................................................................ 340
Benefits of PLM........................................................................................ 341
PLM Implementation................................................................................ 341
PLM Standardization............................................................................... 343
Share-A-Space: PLM in Practice............................................................. 345
Looking Forward to “Grand” Integration........................................................ 347
People-Paper Technique.......................................................................... 348
File-Transfer Technique........................................................................... 348
API Programs........................................................................................... 348
Distributed Objects.................................................................................. 348
Conclusion......................................................................................................... 350
References.......................................................................................................... 351

Chapter XVII
Key Enabling Technologies............................................................................. 354
Knowledge-Based Systems................................................................................. 355
Expert Systems Technology...................................................................... 355
Expert Systems Development Approaches............................................... 356
Knowledge in Product Design and Manufacturing.................................. 357
Applications of Expert Systems................................................................ 359
Artificial Neural Network Methods.................................................................... 362
Introduction to Neural Nets..................................................................... 362
ANN Used in Feature Technologies......................................................... 363
ANN Used for Process Planning.............................................................. 366
Genetic Algorithm.............................................................................................. 369
Implementation Procedure of Genetic Algorithm.................................... 370
Applications of Genetic Algorithm........................................................... 372
Agent-Based Technology.................................................................................... 375
Basics of Agents....................................................................................... 376
Applications of Agent Technology............................................................ 377
Other Technologies............................................................................................ 381
Fuzzy Logic.............................................................................................. 381
Petri Nets.................................................................................................. 382
Ant Colony Optimization.......................................................................... 382
Conclusion......................................................................................................... 383
References.......................................................................................................... 383

Index.................................................................................................................. 394
xii

Foreword

The late Dr. M. Eugene Merchant, then director of research planning of Cincinnati Milacron
Inc., made an interesting Delphi-type technological forecast of the future of production
engineering at the General Assembly of CIRP in 1971. Five years later, he made another
report on the “Future Trends in Manufacturing – Towards the Year 2000” at the 1976 CIRP
GA. He reported that between now (1976) and the then (2000), the overall future trend in
manufacturing will be towards the implementation of the computer-integrated automatic
factories. More than 30 years have since whisked past, most heartedly, manufacturing tech-
nology had progressed even faster than Dr. Merchant’s prediction.
One of the forerunners of automated manufacturing is the CAD/CAM technology which
had made its debut more than 30 years ago. Numerous research papers and books have
since been written on the topic. As new technologies constantly emerge and efficient IT
tools, and faster and affordable computing facilities become more pervasive, the demand
for updating the development of this field is clear. The author of this book has put together
a comprehensive perspective of computer-aided design, manufacturing and numerical
control, addressing their retrospective developments, present state-of-the-art review and
future trends and directions.
Design, in particular, underpins all manufacturing activities at an early stage of a product
development process. The design stage is well known to have the capability of locking in
most of the subsequent costs, and any changes made will prove to be unwise and expensive.
Concurrent engineering has provided a solution to this problem to some extent, but not a
panacea. The intricacy and interactions of all the related activities, such as business needs,
time-to-market requirement, ecological aspects of manufacturing, and so forth, would need
to be thoroughly understood. This book has elucidated many connected aspects of automated
manufacturing such as CAD, CNC, CAD/CAM, CAPP, STEP, PDM, PLM, expert systems,
evolutionary computing techniques, and so forth, in a single volume. In particular, the theo-
retical and practical aspects of these technologies, which may be integrated effectively, have
been addressed. It provides an invaluable updated text and reference for senior students,
 xiii

researchers, and practitioners. I am delighted that the author has generously shared years of
his own research expertise, as well as those of the others with such a fine effort.
I congratulate the author on having produced this splendid new book.

A. Y. C. Nee, DEng, PhD

National University of Singapore
Fellow of Institution of Engineers, Singapore
Fellow of Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME), USA
Fellow of International Academy for Production Engineering Research (CIRP)
Regional Editor for International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology
Regional Editor for International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture
Associate Editor for Journal of Manufacturing Systems
Associate Editor for Journal of Manufacturing Processes

A.Y.C. Nee is a professor of manufacturing engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

National University of Singapore (NUS) since 1989. He received his PhD and DEng from Manchester
and UMIST respectively. His research interest is in computer applications to tool, die, fixture design
and planning, distributed manufacturing systems, virtual and augmented reality applications in
manufacturing. He is a Fellow of CIRP and a fellow of the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (USA),
both elected in 1990. He had held appointments as head of the Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Dean of Faculty of Engineering, co-director of Singapore-MIT Alliance (SMA), and currently, he is
the director of Research Administration of NUS. He has over 200 refereed journal publications and 8
authored and edited books. Currently, he is regional editor of the International Journal of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology and the International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture. He is
also editorial board member of some 20 refereed journals in the areas of manufacturing and precision
engineering.
xiv

Preface

Since the very first computer (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer, ENIAC for
short) was conceived, designed, and built in 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania’s Moore
School of Electrical Engineering, its impact on almost all walks of our lives has been read-
ily recognisable. Computers have certainly been responsible for the modern manufacturing
industry that exists today. Indeed, applications of computers have been found in the entire
spectrum of the product development process, ranging from conceptual design to product
realization and even recycling.
Nowadays, regardless of company size, every manufacturing organization needs a well
thought-out, long-term strategy in investing computer-related technologies, solutions, and
systems. Selecting vendors and defining the scope of each business system from a plethora of
rapidly changing options is incredibly difficult. Claims and testimonials are hard to evaluate
against your business requirements. Previous generations of computer-based systems have
had clean boundaries between system types as well as data formats, such as computer-aided
design, process planning and manufacturing (CAD/CAPP/CAM), computer numerical con-
trol (CNC), product data management (PDM), and product lifecycle management (PLM)
systems; whereas boundaries between today’s products and product development processes
are fuzzy. Some vendors offer a full suite of products covering “all” needs, nicely linked
together, while others focus on a specific business need and provide a “best-of-breed” sys-
tem, leaving it to customers to debate the benefits of each. Most users, even those choosing
a product suite, will need to interface or integrate with multiple systems. Each organization
and the systems to be interfaced and integrated have unique requirements and necessitate
comparing those needs to the organization’s long-term interconnection strategy.

COMPUTER AIDED TECHNOLOGIES

One of the areas that computers were first used to assist in engineering process is design,
hence the birth of computer-aided design technology. Three-dimensional (3-D) computer-
aided design models led to the development of new branches of technologies such as
computational graphics and geometric modelling. These technologies are needed to serve
as the underlying principles for a complete and unambiguous internal representation of any
product. The wire-frame and surface-based models were first developed. A need for solid
modelling then arose with the development of application programs such as numerical
control (NC) verification codes and automatic mesh generation for finite element analysis
(FEA). The research work on solid modelling technology commenced in the mid-1970s,
 xv

and a decade later the technology was seen to be utilized by a number of CAD systems that
are advanced enough to represent most of the common geometric entities, thanks to the
underpinning solid modelling kernels such as ACIS®, Parasolid®, and Granite®. Most of
these systems use a boundary representation (B-rep) scheme to represent 3-D information.
It is also noticeable that computer hardware advancements have been in company with the
development of geometric modelling techniques and CAD systems. The hierarchy of CAD
hardware resources has progressed from large-scale computers to workstations and PCs. This
trend was not accompanied by a reduction in functionality, owing to the rapid advancement
of computer hardware.
Two critical advancements in the domain of computer-aided design are parametric and
feature-based design (FBD) technology. Parametric design is a method of linking dimen-
sions and variables to geometry in such a way that when the values change, the part changes
as well – hence the dimension-driven capability. Designing with pre-defined features can
reduce the number of input commands substantially. The most valuable attribute however,
is the fact that the features can be used to capture the designer’s intent as well as to convey
other engineering connotations.
These days, users can easily be “spoiled” by a large number of choices of CAD systems
offering targeted competitive solutions. While this may not be a bad thing, the data compat-
ibility, or lack of it, has proven to be more than a nuisance. Companies are more and more
involved in manufacturing various parts of their end-products using different subcontractors,
many of whom are often geographically diverse as well as operationally heterogeneous. The
rise of such globalization has created an acute need for sharing and exchanging informa-
tion among vendors involved in multi-disciplinary projects. Accurate data transmission is
of paramount importance. Thus, a mechanism for good data transfer is needed. Direct data
translators provide a direct solution, which entails translating the modelling data stored in
a product database directly from one CAD system format to another, usually in one step. A
more viable option however, is the use of a common translator, which converts a proprietary
CAD data format into a neutral data format and vice versa. This neutral data format may be of
an international or industry accepted data format or a proprietary data format. Among these
standards is STEP (Standard for the Exchange of Product model data), the only international
standard that is soon becoming the norm of product data exchange.
Representation of a product’s geometry and topology is just the beginning of any prod-
uct development process. Manufacturing is often one of many subsequent activities. When
computers are used to assist process planning and manufacturing activities (i.e. CAPP and
CAM), multiple benefits can be derived. CAPP relies on the produce model data provided
by a CAD system to perform precise and consistent process planning for manufacturing.
The key research issue herein stems from the differing product descriptions used, (i.e. CAD
is usually geometry-based whereas CAPP is manufacture-oriented (Zhou, Qiu, Hua, Wang
& Ruan, 2007). It is a common practice to use design features in a CAD model and manu-
facturing features in a CAPP and/or CAM system. Design features are stereotypical shapes
related to a part’s function, its design intent, or the model construction methodology, whereas
manufacturing features are stereotypical shapes that can be made by typical manufacturing
operations (Shen & Shah, 1994). A feature, be it a design feature or a manufacturing fea-
ture, can be represented as a collection of faces or a solid. Careful examination about which
representation scheme suits the jobs of process planning and manufacturing best, suggests
that the volumetric scheme has more advantages over the surface scheme (Xu, 2001).
xvi

The differences between design features and machining features, and the need for “deriv-
ing” one from the other, have led to a new field of research: feature recognition. Specifically,
the goal is to bridge the gap between a CAD database and a CAPP system by automatically
recognizing features of a part from the data stored in the CAD system. Based on the recognized
features, then one has to drive the CAPP system which produces process plans for manufacturing
the part. It is important to acknowledge that the task of recognizing manufacturing features
still remains with the usage of a feature-based design (FBD) tool. The reason is obvious;
design features would be used in a FBD system and manufacturing features are needed for
process planning. Difficulties in developing a generic feature recognition system arise from
both presentational challenges of specifying the analysis required, and from computational
challenges (Corney, Hayes, Sundararajan & Wright, 2005). When features come to interact
with one another, recognizing and interpreting them can be even more difficult. Feature
interactions tend to violate feature validity one way or another, which in turn may affect
the semantics of a feature, ranging from slight changes in actual parameter values, to some
substantial alterations to both geometry and topology, or even complete suppression of
its contribution to the model shape. More importantly, feature interactions also impact on
process planning and manufacturing.
Let there be no doubt that features are a common thread in any CAD, CAPP, CAM, or
CNC system. They are often used to interface or integrate CAD, CAPP, CAM, and CNC.
However, confusion often exists between integrated and interfaced feature technologies.
One difference between interfacing and integration is that interfacing can be achieved at
the result level, while integration must be addressed at the task level. In order to achieve
an integrated environment and to make sure the features formed can be directly related to
machining processes, machining information needs to be considered, such as roughing and
finishing operations, as well as the cutting tools that may be used. In a feature-based design
system, feature mapping from design to manufacturing can be an option.
The process plan for a part is usually further processed in a CAM system/module to
obtain a set of machine control data (MCD), which is then used to drive a CNC machine
tool. Numerical controllers were developed in the late 1940s and early 1950s by John T.
Parsons in collaboration with the MIT Servomechanisms Laboratory. The first CNC sys-
tems still used NC-style hardware where the computer was used for the tool compensation
calculations and sometimes for editing. Today’s CNC machines have advanced to a point
of little resemblance to their predecessors. With the increased automation of manufacturing
processes using CNC machining, considerable improvements in consistency and quality
have been achieved.
The MCD codes (or G-codes) used on a CNC machine contain mostly sequential machin-
ing commands that are structured in blocks of data. An alternative to G-codes when it comes
to manually programming a CNC machine is the Automatic Programming Tool (APT). APT
can describe some simple parts without using a 3-D modelling system or a graphics user
interface. For complicated parts however, one has to use some of the contemporary tools (e.g.
CAD/CAM systems). These systems can work with a design model, which is augmented
with manufacturing information such as machining features and machining parameters, to
arrive at a process plan.
In the recent past, manufacturing companies have been facing increasingly frequent and
unpredictable market changes. As such, there is a recognised need for CNC machine tools
to be further advanced so that they become more open, adaptable, interoperable, distribut-
able, reconfigurable, and modular. Issues related to both hardware and software need more
 xvii

attention. More research seems to have been directed toward software improvement rather
than hardware improvement. A noticeable advancement has been the development, publica-
tion, and implementations of a new international standard for CNC data models, (i.e. STEP
AP238 or ISO 14649, both collectively known as STEP-NC). Unlike G-codes, STEP-NC
contains higher-level information such as machining features.

FROM “POINT SOLUTIONS” TO A “COMPLETE SOLUTION”

Technologies developed for CAD, CAPP, CAM, and CNC are by and large localized within
each of their domains, forming so-called individual “automation islands”. Though there has
been some success in bringing CAD, CAPP, and CAM under the same roof, there has been
a lack of a universal platform on which data conversion across the board can be kept to a
minimum. In fact, the gap between CAD/CAPP/CAM and CNC is even larger.
The STEP standard was initially designed to offer a neutral data exchange method in
replacement of IGES. However, the standard is much more than a neutral data format that
translates geometrical data between CAD systems. The ultimate goal of STEP is to provide
a complete computer-interpretable product data format, so that users can integrate business
and technical data to support the whole product life cycle: design, analysis, manufacturing,
sales, and customer services. Currently, most of the commercial CAD systems can output
STEP AP203 and/or STEP AP214 files via STEP translators. By implementing STEP AP203
and STEP AP214 within CAD systems, data exchange barriers are only partially upheaved
in a heterogeneous design environment. This is because both APs only document pure
geometric information, leaving high-level data such as features behind. Furthermore, data
exchange problems between CAD/CAPP/CAM and CNC systems still remain unsolved. This
is because on the output side of a CAM system, the 50-year-old international standard ISO
6983 (i.e. G-code) still dominates the control systems of most CNC machines. Outdated, yet
still widely used, ISO 6983 has become an impediment for the contemporary collaborative
manufacturing environment (Xu & He, 2004).
In order to achieve a complete integration of CAD, CAPP, CAM, and CNC, a suite of
STEP Application Protocols may be used. When STEP AP224 is used to bridge CAD with
CAPP, information more than just geometry and topology can be shared. This information
includes machining feature information; dimensional and geometric tolerances; material
properties and process properties; and even administrative information. STEP AP240 can
support macro process planning by connecting CAPP with CAM. This is because AP240
defines such a high-level process plan for a machined part, and contains data about manufac-
ture of a single piece or assembly of single piece parts. It serves as an interface for captur-
ing technical data out of the upstream application protocols, and issuing work instructions
for the tasks required to manufacture a part and the information required to support NC
programming of processes specified in the process plan.
After macro process planning comes the micro process planning, which acts as a link
between CAM and CNC. This can be done via STEP-NC. STEP-NC defines the process
information for a specific class of machine tools. It describes the task of removing volumes
defined as AP224 machining features in a sequential order, with specific tolerances, and with
tools that meet all engineering and design requirements. In essence, STEP-NC describes
“tasks”, while G-code describes “methods” for CNC machines. The task-based NC programs
can be made portable across different machine tools. Modifications at the shop-floor can
xviii

also be saved and transferred back to the planning department that enables a better exchange
and preservation of experience and knowledge.
Different STEP Data Access Interfaces (SDAI) may be used for implementing a STEP-
compliant environment. Thus integrated product data can be easily managed by making
complex engineering applications available across data implementations. Use of STEP-NC
in replacement of G-code also promises a new generation of CNCs that are open, adaptable,
and distributed. Alongside STEP-NC, the function block technology offers a complemen-
tary solution. Function blocks are based on an explicit event driven model and can provide
for data flow and finite state automata-based control. Based on previous research, function
blocks can be used as the enabler to encapsulate process plans, integrate with a third-party
dynamic scheduling system, monitor process plans during execution, and control machining
jobs under normal and abnormal conditions. They are suitable for machine-level monitoring,
shop-floor execution control and CNC control (Wang & Shen, 2003).

EXTENDING INTEGRATION IN VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL

DIMENSIONS

Integration does not stop at CAD/CAPP/CAM/CNC, since the business of product devel-
opment and manufacturing goes beyond activities such as design, process planning, and
machining. Extension of an integrated CAD/CAPP/CAM/CNC system may occur in both
vertical and horizontal dimensions.
Vertical integration may be backward or forward in the spectrum of a product develop-
ment process. An example of forward vertical integration can be inspection as it is a logic
step after CNC machining. With inspections, Closed-Loop Machining (CLM) can be real-
ized to maximize the efficiency of a machining process by exercizing a tight control in a
manufacturing system. Probing is defined in STEP-NC for inspection operations, and the
dimensional inspection data model is specified in ISO 10303 AP219. Hence, it has become
possible to consolidate machining and inspection operations in one single program.
Likewise, businesses have increasingly moved to outsourcing many functions, leading
to the need for horizontal integration. Companies that have been practicing CAD/CAPP/
CAM/CNC integration have now realized that there is a need to operate in a much broader
scope with wider boundaries. This leads to the increased implementation of PDM and PLM
systems. PDM systems integrate and manage all applications, information, and processes
that define a product, from design to manufacture, and to end-user support. PLM brings
PDM into an even broader paradigm in that all the information pertaining to the lifecycle
of a product is actively managed. Unlike PDM, PLM is much more than a technology or
software product. PLM is a strategic business approach that empowers the business.
Extensions of CAD/CAPP/CAM/CNC integration, be it vertical or horizontal, have a
common request for an environment in which manufacturing businesses should operate.
Today, companies often have operations distributed around the world, and production
facilities and designers are often in different locations. Such globalization means that
companies should be able to design anywhere, build anywhere, and maintain anywhere at
any time. Manufacturing engineers need to employ collaborative tools during planning to
help improve production processes, plant designs and tooling, and to allow earlier impact
on product designs. For all of this to happen in an orderly manner, an effective collabora-
 xix

tive environment is a must. STEP and XML combined with the latest multi-tiered network
technology can provide such a solution.

EMBRACING THE TECHNOLOGIES

While computers have proven to be instrumental in the advancement of modern product

design and manufacturing processes, the role that various technologies have played can
never be over-estimated. In the recent years, there has been a wealth of technologies being
used in CAD/CAPP/CAM/CNC. Among them are the knowledge-based (expert) system,
artificial neural network, genetic algorithm, agent-based technology, fuzzy logic, Petri Nets,
and ant colony optimisation.
An expert system is a computer system that has a well-organized body of knowledge in
a bounded domain, and is able to simulate the problem solving skill of a human expert in
a particular field. Artificial neural networks, or simply neural networks, are techniques that
simulate the human neuron function, using the weights distributed among their neurons to
perform implicit inference. Neural networks have been used to assist both automatic feature
recognition and process planning. Genetic algorithms mimic the process of natural evolu-
tion by combining the survival of the fittest among solution structures with a structured,
yet randomized, information exchange. The agent-based technology utilizes agents as intel-
ligent entities capable of independently regulating, reasoning and decision-making to carry
out actions and to achieve a specific goal or a set of goals. Agent-based approaches enable
functionality for distributed product design and manufacturing (i.e. modularity, reconfigu-
rability, scalability, upgradeability and robustness). Other technologies such as fuzzy logic,
Petri Nets, and ant colony optimisation methods have also been used. There is, however, a
consensus that systems developed using a combination of two or more such technologies
fare better than otherwise.

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

The book is organized into two sections and altogether 17 chapters. Section I, titled “Prin-
ciples and Backgrounds”, contains Chapters I-IX; and Section 2, named “Integration and
Implementations”, contains Chapters X-XVII. A brief description of each of the chapters
follows:
Chapter I, “Geometric Modelling and Computer-Aided Design” reviews various geo-
metric modelling approaches, such as wire-frame, surface, and solid modelling techniques.
Basic computational geometric methods for defining simple entities such as curves, surfaces,
and solids are given. Concepts of parametric, variational and feature-based design in a CAD
system are explained.
Chapter II “CAD Data Exchange and CAD Standards” discusses the data interoper-
ability issues, such as the different types of data translation and conversion methods. The
common data exchange protocols are explained together with some examples. These data
exchange protocols include DXF, IGES, PDES, and STEP standards.
Chapter III, “Computer-Aided Process PLannning and Manufacturing” presents the
basic concepts of, and steps taken by, a computer-aided process planning and manufacturing
xx

system. Two principal approaches of CAPP are discussed. They are manual experience-based
planning method and computer-aided process method.
Chapter IV, “Feature Technology” gives an overall view of feature technology. Features
are defined and classified according to design and manufacturing applications. Issues about
surface and volume features are discussed and different feature-based methodologies are
presented.
Chapter V, “Feature Recognition” discusses some of the basic issues and methodologies
concerning feature recognition. Feature recognition systems are divided into two different
types: feature detection and feature generation. Issues regarding concavity and convexity
of a geometric entity, optimal interpretation of machineable volumes and the necessity of
considering raw workpieces are all discussed at a length.
Chapter VI, “Feature Interactions” analyses the feature-feature interaction problems,
which have a strong bearing on process planning. Feature interactions may be studied on the
basis of surface information and volumetric information of a part. Either way, identification
of interacting entities is the key to an effective way of dealing with feature interactions.
Chapter VII, “Integrated Feature Technology” addresses feature technologies from the
integration point of view. When features are recognized, the related machining operations
and cutting tools are considered. For a feature-based system, mapping design features to
machining features can be an effective method.
Chapter VIII, “CNC Machine Tools” presents an overview of CNC machine tools
and their designations of axis and motion. The tooling for CNC machine tools is also dis-
cussed.
Chapter IX, “Program CNCs” provides a detailed account of the basics of CNC pro-
gramming. The emphasis is on the G-codes and APT. To programme using G-codes, both
compensation and interpolation are the key issues.
Chapter X, “Integration of CAD/CAPP/CAM/CNC” begins with a general description
of traditional CAD/CAPP/CAM/CNC integration models. This is followed by an industry
case study showcasing how a proprietary CAD/CAM system can be used to achieve cen-
tralized integration.
Chapter XI, “Integration Based on STEP Standards” presents a scenario whereby CAD,
CAPP, CAM, and CNC are fully integrated. The underlying mechanisms are those enabled
by the STEP standard, or rather its suite of Application Protocols. Function blocks also
contribute to building such an integrated environment.
Chapter XII, “Function Block-Enabled Integration” introduces the function block ar-
chitecture that has been implemented in two types of integration. The first brings together
CAD, CAPP, and CAM and the second connects CAM with CNC.
Chapter XIII, “Development of An Integrated, Adaptable CNC System” discusses top-
ics related to the task-level and method-level information in machine control data, and the
methodology of converting the task-level data to the method-level data.
Chapter XIV, “Integrating CAD/CAPP/CAM/CNC with Inspections” discusses the
extension of CAD, CAPP, CAM, and CNC to include inspections. The objective is to
maximize the efficiency of a machining process by maintaining a tight control in a manu-
facturing system.
Chapter XV, “Internet-Based Integration” describes the methods of developing an
Internet-enabled, integrated CAD, CAPP, CAM, and CNC system to support collaborative
product development. The main goal is to provide a team environment enabling a group of
designers and engineers to collaboratively develop a product in real time.
 xxi

Chapter XVI, “From CAD/CAPP/CAM/CNC To PDM, PLM, and Beyond” presents

an even broader scope and wider boundary in which CAD, CAPP, CAM, and CNC systems
need to operate, (i.e. PDM and PLM). PDM systems integrate and manage all applications,
information, and processes about a product. PLM brings PDM into an even broader scope
in that all the information pertaining to the lifecycle of a product is actively managed.
Chapter XVII, “Key Enabling Technologies” discusses some key enabling technolo-
gies in the field of design and manufacturing. These are knowledge-based systems, artificial
neural network, genetic algorithm, and agent-based technology. Also briefly mentioned are
the fuzzy logic, Petri Nets, and ant colony optimisation methods.

WHO AND HOW TO READ THIS BOOK

This book has three groups of people as its potential audience, (i) senior undergraduate
students and postgraduate students conducting research in the areas of CAD, CAPP, CAM,
CNC, and their integration; (ii) researchers at universities and other institutions working
in these fields; and (iii) practitioners in the R&D departments of an organization working
in these fields. This book differs from other books that also have CAD, CAPP, CAM, and
CNC as the focus in two aspects. First of all, integration is an essential theme of the book.
Secondly, STEP is used as a common data model for many integration implementations.
The book can be used as an advanced reference for a course taught at the postgraduate
level. It can also be used as a source of modern computer-aided technologies and contem-
porary applications in the areas of CAD, CAPP, CAM, CNC, and beyond, since some 300
hundreds publications have been cited and listed in the reference lists of all chapters, in
particular Chapter XVII.
As the book title suggests, the book commences with presentations of some of the basic
principles (in Section I) and ends with integration implementations as well as implementation
approaches (in Section II). For readers who need a “crash course” or revision on topics of
CAD, CAPP, CAM, and CNC, in addition to integration issues, both sections of the book can
be found useful. Those who are well informed about these topics and only have an interest
in integration issues can start with Section II, for instance Chapter X, or even better start
with Chapter VII which discusses the integration issues based on feature concepts. Those
who are conversant with CAD and CAM technologies but less acquainted with topics in
CNC may skip the first 7 chapters.
As mentioned above, this book can also be used as an introduction to STEP data models,
their principles, and implementations. Should this be of a reader’s interest, the following
chapters may be considered for study, (a) Chapter II to read for some introduction to STEP
and its use in exchanging CAD data; (b) Chapter XI to read for a grand idea of STEP-in,
STEP-out and STEP-throughout as in an integration implementation; (c) Chapter XIV to see
how a STEP-based integration between machining and inspection may be achieved; and (d)
Chapter XV to see how an Internet-based integration may be realized using STEP.
xxii

REFeRENCES

Corney, J., Hayes, C., Sundararajan, V., & Wright, P. (2005) The CAD/CAM Interface:
A 25-year retrospective, Transactions of ASME, Journal of Computing and Information
Science in Engineering, 5, 188-196.
Shen, Y., & Shah, J. J. (1994). Feature recognition by volume decomposition using half-
space partitioning. Advances in Design Automation, ASME, 1, 575-583.
Wang, L., & Shen, W. (2003). DPP: An agent-based approach for distributed process
planning. Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing, 14(5), 429-439.
Xu, X. (2001). Feature Recognition Methodologies and Beyond. Australian Journal of
Mechanical Engineering, ME25(1), 1-20.
Xu, X., & He, Q. (2004). Striving for a total integration of CAD, CAPP, CAM and CNC.
Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing, 20, 101-109.
Zhou, X., Qiu, Y., Hua, G., Wang, H., & Ruan, X. (2007) A feasible approach to the
integration of CAD and CAPP. Computer-adied Design, 39, 324-338.
 xxiii

Acknowledgment

This book bears years of my teaching and research at the University of Auckland, New
Zealand. In particular, I am indebted to two groups of people whose research vigour and
output constitute the bulk of the chapters. First of all, I feel fortunate to be able to draw
upon a wealth of knowledge and expertise from a number of international collaborators.
Although it is impossible to mention all of them, I would like to thank Professor Sri Hinduja
at the University of Manchester (then UMIST) for leading me into the intriguing world of
CAD/CAPP/CAM through my PhD program, Professor Stephen Newman at the Univer-
sity of Bath for introducing me into the new era of CAD/CAPP/CAM, i.e. STEP-NC, Mr.
Fredrick Proctor, Dr. Thomas Kramer and Mr. John Michaloski at the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) for hosting my research leave at NIST and giving me a
much needed early education of STEP, Dr. Lihiu Wang at the National Research Council
of Canada for his induction of Function Block technology, Professor Kevin Rong at the
Worchester Polytechnic University for sharing his knowledge in the area of process plan-
ning and fixture design, and Professor Andrew Nee at the National University of Singapore
for kindly supplying the Forward of this book. Another group of people are my research
students; without their dedicated work in my research group, this book would not be a real-
ity. To only name a few, these students are Tony Liu, Jin Mao, Hongqiang Wang, Mohamad
Bin Minhat, Fiona Zhao, Albert Yang, Yanyan Wang, Lankesh Madduma, Salah Habeeb,
Renaud Gardes, Michel Wagner, Hugo Bouyer, Sébastien Armando, Mathieu Bravo, Adrien
Moller, Christian Mose, Iñigo Lazcanotegoi Larrarte, Tobias Dipper, Alireza Mokhtar and
of course many more.
Directly and indirectly, I benefited immensely from my interactions with a large number
of industries, research institutions and universities around the world, such as Boeing, Airbus,
Sandvik, STEP Tools Inc., Fisher&Paykel, International Organisation of Standards (ISO),
Standards Australia, China National Engineering Research Centre for High-end CNC, Japan
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, ISW University of Stutt-
gart, RWTH Aachen University, Loughborough University, University of Vigo, Shandong
University, Shenyang Ligong University, Shenyang Jianzhu University, Southeast University,
Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Xi’an Jiaotong University and Pohang
University of Science and Technology.
Special gratitude goes towards the reviewers of this book whose comments and sugges-
tions at various stages of this book project were very helpful in reshaping the final version
of the text. I am also indebted to Rebecca Beistline as well as the others at IGI Global. I
appreciate their patience and understanding during the preparation of the manuscript.

Xun Xu
Unviversity of Auckland, New Zealand
xxiv

About the Author

Xun Xu has been working in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University
of Auckland since 1996 after obtaining a PhD from the University of Manchester, then
UMIST. Dr. Xu is currently an associate professor of manufacturing systems and leads the
“Intelligent and Interoperable Manufacturing Systems” research group. Dr. Xu was a guest
researcher at the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), and a senior
research fellow at the Japan National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Tech-
nology (AIST). He has broad research interests – from CAD/CAPP/CAM/CNC to product
lifecycle assessment and management, and from 3D digitisation of artefacts to re-modelling
and visualisation, although his recent research work has been around STEP-compliant design
and manufacturing, in particular STEP-NC. Dr. Xu has over 100 research publications, and
is now serving in a number of editorial boards for international journals and has guest-edited
three special journal issues. Dr. Xu also consults extensively in industry and has very close
ties with industries both in New Zealand and overseas.
 Section I
Principles and Backgrounds
 Geometric Modelling and Computer-Aided Design 

Chapter I
Geometric Modelling and
Computer-Aided Design

Abstract

One of the key activities in any product design process is to develop a geometric model of
the product from the conceptual ideas, which can then be augmented with further engineer-
ing information pertaining to the application area. For example, the geometric model of a
design may be developed to include material and manufacturing information that can later
be used in computer-aided process planning and manufacturing (CAPP/CAM) activities.
A geometric model is also a must for any engineering analysis, such as . nite elopement
analysis (FEA). In mathematic terms, geometric modelling is concerned with defining
geometric objects using computational geometry, which is often, represented through
computer software or rather a geometric modelling kernel. Geometry may be defined with
the help of a wire-frame model, surface model, or solid model. Geometric modelling has
now become an integral part of any computer-aided design (CAD) system. In this chapter,
various geometric modelling approaches, such as wire-frame, surface, and solid modelling
will be discussed. Basic computational geometric methods for defining simple entities such
as curves, surfaces, and solids are given. Concepts of parametric, variational, history-based,
and history-free CAD systems are explained. These topics are discussed in this opening
chapter because (a) CAD was the very first computer-aided technologies developed and
(b) its related techniques and methods have been pervasive in the other related subjects
like computer-aided manufacturing. This chapter only discusses CAD systems from the
application point of view; CAD data formats and data exchange issues are covered in the
second chapter.

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is prohibited.
 Xu

INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRIC MODELLING

The geometric information about an object essentially includes types of surfaces, edges and
their dimensions and tolerances. Prior to the availability of commercial CAD systems, this
information was represented on blueprints by a draftsperson, hence in a two-dimensional
(2D) form. This form of representation has three acute problems. First of all, it is hard to
comprehend complex geometry through a 2D form of description. This is particularly
true with assemblies that have many components, e.g. an engine assembly. Secondly, the
design information in this form is difficult to be archived for a longer period of time and it
is cumbersome to search for. Thirdly, it is considered unfit for the modern manufacturing
industry in which data management is mostly in the electronic format. As manufacturing
rapidly enters into the digital era, the emphasis is on paperless and total integration. That
is, the means is being sought for the geometric information to be directly transferred from
a CAD database to a CAPP/CAM database (sometimes bi-directional data flow is also re-
quired) to enable subsequent manufac­ture of the part. This way, product development and
manufac­turing lead time can be significantly shortened. In order to meet the above discussed
needs, an accurate, efficient and effective representation of the com­plete information about
a design becomes a prerequisite for many subsequent applications. The remaining of the
chapter provides a detailed account of various geometric modelling approaches and the
ways today’s CAD systems use these modelling approaches.

GEOMETRIC MODELLING APPROACHES

The development of geometric modelling is coupled with three departments of sciences and
technologies. They are computer graphics techniques, three-dimensional (3D) geometric
representation schemes and computer hardware advances. The research started in the
1960’s. The basic geometric modelling approaches used in today’s CAD/CAM systems
are wire-frame, surface and solid modelling. In the following sections, a basic account of
these approaches to geometric modelling is presented.

Wire-Frame Modelling
In the historical roadmap of geometric modelling, wire-frame is the first developed and
is also the most basic method of geometric modelling techniques. The techniques were
initially developed particularly for computer version of a 3D object. The basic entities in
a wire-frame model may include points, lines, arcs and circles, conics, and other type of
curves. Figure 1.1 shows the wire-frame representation of a part.
Wire-frame representation may be regarded as an extension into a third dimension of
the techniques used for 2D drafting. The construction techniques used for the definition
of wire-frame geometry are again broadly similar to those for 2D drafting. Therefore, the
wire-frame scheme is relatively straightforward to use, and is the most economical of the
3D schemes in terms of computing time and memory requirements. This is why wire-frame
was also well matched for the early models of computer hardware that was probably just
capable enough to handle wire-frame representations. The scheme was found, and is till,
particularly useful in certain applications involving visualisation of the motion of simple

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is prohibited.
 Geometric Modelling and Computer-Aided Design 

Figure 1.1. Wire-frame representation

shapes (for example in animating the movement of a mechanism). It however, exhibits a

number of serious deficiencies when used to model more complex engineering artefacts
(Singh, 1996). These include:

• Ambiguity in representation and possible nonsense objects (Figure 1.2);

• Deficiencies in pictorial representation;
• Limited ability to calculate mechanical properties and geometric intersections;
• Limited value as a basis for manufacture or analysis.

Wire-Frame Entities

Vertices (points) and edges (lines) are the main entities in a wire-frame model. When
these entities are represented in a computer, a data structure is used so that management
of these entities (e.g. modify, save and load) is made easier. Normally, wire-frame entities
are divided into two categorise: analytic and synthetic entities. The choice of a curve in
a CAD system depends on the effectiveness of a curve in terms of manipulating complex
geometries such as blends, trims and intersections.

Analytic Entities

Analytic entities include points, straight lines, arcs, circles, ellipses, parabolas, and hy-
perbolas. The properties of these entities and the techniques for manipulating them have
been well studied and the math behind them is generally easy to understand. Likewise, the
methods for representing these entities in a computer are also relatively straight-forward.
Differ­ent CAD systems may provide a different set of methods. For example, a straight line
may be defined by two 3D vertices, or by an existing line that may be parallel or perpen-
dicular to the line being defined. The latter method suits the modelling option of defining
a line with an imbedded reference to an existing one, or simply to support a “copy&paste”
option for line creation.

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 Xu

Figure 1.2. Ambiguous wire-frame models

The representation schemes of curves in a CAD system dictate the ways that thousands
of curves or lines (including straight lines, a special case of curves) are stored and manipu-
lated. It is important to represent them effectively and efficiently so that the computation
effort and storage requirement are minimized. Mathematically, there are two ways of
describing a curve, using nonparametric and parametric equations. Both methods may be
equally valid to represent a curve. The difficulty of solving a particular problem may be
much greater with one method than the other.

Nonparametric Representation of a Curve

In the case of a 2D straight line for example, its nonparametric representation can be defined
as y = x + 1. This equation defines the x and y coordinates of each point without the assistance
of extra parameters. Thus, it is called the nonparametric equation of a line. The same line
however may be described by defining the coordinates of each point using equation,

L = [x, y]T = [x = t, y = t + 1]T (1.1)

where T represents transpose.

In this equation, the coordinates of each point are defined with the help of an “extra”
parameter t, hence the name parametric equation. This form of representation is further
discussed in the next section.
Nonparametric equations of curves can be further divided into explicit and implicit
nonparametric equations. The explicit nonparametric representation of a general 3D curve
takes the form of,

L = [x, y, z]T = [x, f(x), g(x)]T (1.2)

where L is the position vector of the point L in the 3D space.

This equation enables us to obtain the y ­and z-coordinates of the points on a curve by
direct substitution of values of x. This suits well for displaying purposes on a computer as
a series of points or straight-line segments are normally used.

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 Geometric Modelling and Computer-Aided Design 

The implicit nonparametric representation of a general 3D curve takes the form of,

 F ( x, y , z ) = 0
 (1.3)
G ( x, y, z ) = 0
Equation (1.3) expresses the relationship between the coordinates x and y, x and z of each
point in the 3D space. Therefore, the relationship between y and z is implicit. This equation,
however, must be solved analytically to obtain the explicit form. Whereas it is possible to
solve it, accurate data cannot always be guaranteed. This limits its use in CAD systems.

Parametric Representation of a Curve

Parametric representation of a curve, on the other hand, has properties well suited for its
use in CAD systems. In the parametric form, each point on a curve is expressed as a func-
tion of a parameter t by equations, x = X(t), y = Y(t), and z = Z(t). Equations in this form are
also known as parametric or freedom equations for x, y, and z. The value of the parameter
t can be either bounded by the minimum (tmin) and maximum (tmax) range or the normalized
range between 0 and 1. The parametric equation for a 3D curve takes the form of,

L(t) = [x, y, z]T = [X(t), Y(t), Z(t)]T, tmin < t < tmax (1.4)

where L(t) is the point vector and t is the parameter of the equation.

Synthetic Entities

A major part of synthetic entities are synthetic curves. These are more genetic curves that
can take virtually any shape in order to meet geometric design requirements of a mechanical
part and/or various engineering applications. Take car body as an example. The curves of
a car body are usually designed to increase aerodynamic performances as well as to meet
the aesthetic requirements. They could take any shape that is required. Other examples
include the fuselage, wings, and propeller blades of an aircraft, whose shapes may be purely
based on aerodynamic and fluid flow simulations. A third category of products such as the
casing for a computer mouse and electrical shaver would be defined mainly on the basis of
ergonomics and aesthetic appearance. Some of the common synthetic curves used in the
major CAD systems are, Hermite cubic spline, Bézier curves, B-spline curves, Rational
B-splines, and Nonuniform rational B-splines.
The main idea of the Hermite cubic spline is that a curve is divided into segments.
Each segment is approximated by an expression, namely a parametric cubic function. The
general form of a cubic function can be written as,

r = V(t) = a0 + a1t + a2 t2 + a3t3 (1.5)

where the point vector r of the cubic curve is defined by the parametric equation V(t).
The segment defined by the equation has highest-degree polynomial t3. The parameter t
is traditionally bounded by the parameter interval (0 < t < 1). The Hermite form of a cubic

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 Xu

spline is determined by defining positions and tangent vectors at the actual data points.
Therefore, the Hermite curve is based on the interpolation tech­niques.
Bézier curves on the contrary, are based on approximation techniques that produce
curves that do not necessarily pass through all the given data points except the first and
the last control points. A Bézier curve does not require first-order derivative; the shape of
the curve is controlled by the control points. For n + 1 control points, the Bézier curve is
defined by a polynomial of degree n as follows,

n
V (t ) = ∑Vi Bi ,n (t ) (1.6)
i =0

where V(t) is the position vector of a point on the curve segment and Bi,n are the Bernstein
polynomials, which serve as the blending or basis function for the Bézier curve.
B-spline is considered a generalization of the Bézier curve. Local control is a specific
feature of B-spline curves, which allows changing of a local control point to only affect
part of the curve. With Hermite and Bézier curves however, changing one control point
(or slope) affects the whole curve. This may cause some inconvenience for designers when
they only wish to modify a curve locally.
Rational B-splines (RBSs) are generalizations of B-splines. More specifically, an RBS
has an added parameter (also called weight) associated with each control point to control
the behaviour of the curve. An RBS can be used to define a variety of curves and surfaces.
The most widely used class of RBS is the nonuniform rational B-spline (NURBS). The
NURBS is used on a scale that it has almost become a de facto industrial standard. Using
a NURBS, a designer can model free-form surfaces by defining a mesh of control points.

Surface Modelling

As the name implies, a surface design model mainly consists of a set of faces. When wire-
frame is used to represent a face, only the boundary of a face can be precisely represented,
not the actual geometric property of the face itself. For faces such as a plane and cylindrical
surface, this may not present a problem. For other more general type of surfaces however,
this does create problems. An obvious question one would ask is, “what are the geometric
properties of a certain area on the surface represented?”
A surface model scheme may involve representing the model by mathematically speci-
fying all of the surfaces of a component. The representation generally involves a series of
geometric entities, each surface forming a single entity. These are often constructed from
surface edges and curves on the surface, alongside the geometric properties of the surface.
Therefore, surface representations are often mixed with, or developed from, wire-frame
representations. Many of the ambiguities of wire-frame models can be overcome by using
the surface representation scheme.
In general, real parts are represented using surface geometry by an assembly of surface
‘patches (or quilts)’ (Figure 1.3). A complete car body, for example, may require several
hundred patches. Surface modelling has made great inroads in the branches of engineering
such as automobile or mould and die manufacture, where extensive use has traditionally
been made of physical models of complex forms. In the automotive industry for example,
full-size clay models of body shapes are used for styling purposes, and subsequently to

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 Geometric Modelling and Computer-Aided Design 

Figure 1.3. Surface models of a spray gun with (left) and without (right) surface boundar-
ies shown

provide master models to define the vehicle form. Surface modelling has allowed the shape
of these models to be captured and used for engineering models and for the preparation of
instructions to manufacture, for example the dies for sheet metal work. A surface model
of an object can be used to determine the cutter path of a machining operation, whereas
a wire-frame usually cannot. In such surface modelling systems, a user may input the
vertices and edges of a workpiece in a manner that outlines or bounds one face at a time.
Surface modelling systems also offer better graphic interaction, although the models are
more difficult to create than wire-frame models.
Surface representations are not, however, without their drawbacks. In general they re-
quire more skill in construction and use. Models of any complexity are difficult to interpret
unless viewed with hidden surfaces removed. As in the case of wire-frame representations,
there is also nothing inherent in the surface-modelling scheme to prevent nonsense or er-
roneous models. There is no indication of which side of a surface is the “solid” side. In
other words, the representation of an object is simply in terms of a collection of surfaces
with no higher-level information about the solid object. A perfectly constructed surface
modelling system may not guaran­tee that the user has designed a realizable object; that is,
the collection of surfaces may not define a valid physical part.

Surfaces Used in a Geometric Model

For argument sake, we define a surface as an unbounded, geometric description of a face.

In other words, surface is a pure geometric entity and face carries both geometric and to-
pologic information (e.g. boundaries are connectivity). This point will be better illustrated
when solid modelling techniques are discussed latter in this chapter.

Plane Surface

A plane surface is a surface that can be defined by three non-coincident points or its varia-
tion. It is the most basic surface in the engineering design. There are of course other ways
of defining a plane, e.g. a point and a vector that represents the surface normal.

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 Xu

Ruled Surface

In geometry, a surface is ruled if through every point of it there can be found a straight line
that lies on the surface. Apparently, planes, cylinders and cones are all specialised ruled
surfaces. In terms of construction, a ruled (lofted) surface can be defined as an interpolation
between two straight lines through a determined trajectory be it linear or non linear. The
faces of a thread for example are of this type of surface. It is worth noting that this type of
surface is favoured by machine tool operators when it comes to manufacturing it. This is
to do with the ability with which a machining operation is capable of generating a surface
using simple form of cutters often containing straight-line cutting edges.

Bézier Surface and B-Spline Surface

Bézier and B-spline surfaces are both synthetic surfaces. Like synthetic curves, a synthetic
surface approximates the given input data, often in form of an array of given points in 3D
space. Bézier and B-spline surfaces are general surfaces that permit twists and kinks. The
difference between them, also similar to the case of curves, is that local control is possible
for a B-spline surface but not for a Bézier surface. These surfaces can be of any degree, but
bicubic Bézier and B-spline generally provide enough degrees of freedom and accuracy of
representation for most applications, such as automobile body design.

Analytic Surface Representations

Like a general analytic curve, general analytic surface can also be defined by either an
implicit or an explicit equation.

Implicit Equation

F(x, y, z) = 0 (1.7)

Its geometric meaning is that the locus of the points that satisfy the above constraint equa-
tion defines the surface.

Explicit Equation

V = [x, y, z] T = [x, y, f(x, y)] T (1.8)

where V is the position vector of a variable point on the surface. In this equation, the vari-
able point coordinates x, y, z are directly defined. The z coordinates of the position vector of
the variable points are defined by x and y through function f(x, y), as shown in Figure 1.4.

Parametric Equation

The above equations illustrate that the points on a surface have two degrees of freedom
that are directly controlled by the x and y coordinates. There are no extra parameters in
these equations. Therefore, this type of surface repre­sentation is called nonparametric repre­
sentation. The fact that the surface can be controlled by x and y coordinates, also means

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 Geometric Modelling and Computer-Aided Design 

Figure 1.4. Explicit equation in surface representation

V(x,y,z) = V[x,y,f(x,y)]

Y
O
X

that two parameters (e.g. s and t) can always be found as the controlling parameters as the
x and y coordinates do. Understandably, the equations that utilize this type of parameter
are called parametric equations and can be expressed as follows,

V(s, t) = [x, y, z]T = [X(s, t), Y(s, t), Z(s, t)]T, smin < s < smax, tmin < t < tmax (1.9)

where X, Y, and Z are the functions of the two parameters, s and t.

Synthetic Surface Representations

Hermite Bicubic Surface

As discussed before, synthetic curves are dealt with as curve segments in a single parameter
(e.g. s) domain. Likewise, synthetic surfaces are defined in patches, each corre­sponding
to a rectangular domain in the s - t space. Hermite Bicubic Surface is one of the common
types of synthetic surfaces used in CAD systems.
In mathematic terms, a Hermite Bicubic surface can be described using the following
cubic parametric equation,

r = V ( s, t )
3 3
= ∑∑ aij si t j , 0 ≤ s ≤ 1, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 (1.10)
i =0 j =0
Note that this is a 16-term, third-power series. Like Hermite bicubic curves, a Hermite
surface also requires the values of the tangent vectors at the corners of the surface.

Bézier Surface Patches

Mathematically, the only difference between a Hermite sur­face patch and a Bézier surface
patch is that different basis functions1 are used. As with the Bézier curve, the Bernstein
basis function is used for the Bézier surface patch. Generally, the most common use of

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10 Xu

Bézier surfaces is as nets of bi-cubic patches. The geometry of a single bi-cubic patch is
thus completely defined by a set of 16 control points. These are typically linked up to form
a B-spline surface in the similar way that Bézier curves are linked up to form a B-spline
curve. The cubic Bézier surface can then be expressed as,

r = V ( s, t )
3 3
= ∑∑ aij bi3 (s)b3j (t ), 0 ≤ s ≤ 1, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 (1.11)
i =0 j =0

 3  3
where, bi3 ( s ) =   s i (1 − s )3 − i , b3j (t ) =  t j (1 − t )3− j are Bernstein polynomials.
i i
Bézier patch meshes are superior to meshes of triangles as a representation of smooth
surfaces, since they are much more compact, easier to manipulate, and have much better
continuity properties. In addition, other common parametric surfaces such as spheres and
cylinders can be well approximated by relatively small numbers of cubic Bézier patches.
However, Bézier patch meshes are difficult to render directly. Another problem with Bézier
patches is that calculating their intersections with lines is difficult, making them awkward
for pure ray tracing or other direct geometric techniques which do not use subdivision or
successive approximation techniques. They are also difficult to combine directly with
perspective projection algorithms.

Uniform Cubic B-Spline Surfaces

Using a corresponding basis function, uniform cubic B-Spline surface can be formed and
has a net of control points that define the surface, none of which interpolate the patch, as
in the case of the B-spline curve. Likewise, an advantage of B-spline surface is that it sup-
ports local control of the surface.

Surface Manipulation

Various surface manipulation techniques are employed in CAD systems. The simplest
and most widely used method is to display a surface by a mesh of curves. This is usually
called a mesh in the CAD software. By holding one parameter constant at a time, a mesh
of curves can be generated to represent the surface. Shading of a surface is an effective
way of rendering a design model and is available in many CAD systems.
Segmentation and trimming is a way of representing part of a surface with localised
interests. Some surfaces can present computational difficulties when split and partitioned.
Similar to segmentation and trimming, intersection is another useful function where curves
can be defined as a result of intersection.
Sometimes, projection is required by projecting an entity onto a plane or surface. When
a curve or surface is projected, the point projections are performed repeatedly. This func-
tion is often used in determining shadows of entities. As with the curve transformation,
one can translate, rotate, mirror and scale a surface in most CAD systems. To transform
a surface, the control points of the surface are evaluated and then transformed to new
positions and/or orientations. The new surface is then created according to the newly
transformed con­trol points.
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 Geometric Modelling and Computer-Aided Design 11

Solid Modelling

The geometric representations discussed thus far are essentially partial models, i.e. the
three-dimensional representation of edges and/or surfaces. The solid form of an object
needs to be inferred from these models and it is not possible the complete solid form of an
object can always be obtained from a wire-frame or surface model. Although for many
engineering purposes wire-frame and surface models are satisfactory, the increasing
application of computers in engineering analysis, or generation of various engineering
information, means that representation of an object should be as complete as possible. For
this reason, solid model representations have been developed and become a predominate
form of design representation. Figure 1.5 shows the two renderings of a solid model initially
described as in Figure 1.1.
A solid model is an “informationally complete” representation and in the words of Requi-
cha (1980, 1982), “permits (at least in principle) any well-defined geometric property of any
represented solid to be calculated automatically”. The more complete the representation,
the smaller the requirement for human transcription between models, and thus the smaller
the risk of errors in transcription. In a simpler term, “solid form” of information about
a 3D object is the type of information that can uniquely define two spaces, one denoting
the interior of the object and the other denoting the outside of the object. Because of the
“completeness” of the information contained in a solid model, it is relatively straightforward
for a computer to render a line image with hidden lines removed as seen in Figure 1.5 (a)
as well as a real-life, shaded view as seen in Figure 1.5 (b).
The wire-frame and surface modelling approaches, as mentioned earlier, have limited
engineering applications. Solid modelling has now found wide applications that cut across
func­tional boundaries, such as the use of solid models with finite-element analysis and fluid
flow analysis in the conceptual design of products, numerical control (NC) part program-
ming for computer-aided manufacturing, and generation of computer-aided process plans.
Furthermore, solid models can be easily used to evaluate the size, shape, and weight of
products early during the conceptual design phase. In a solid modelling system, objects are
often defined directly by primitive shapes called building blocks or solid primitives, instead
of the surfaces, edges and vertices used in wire-frame and surface modelling.
There are a number of representation schemes for solid modelling, such as boundary
representation (B-rep), constructive solid geometry (CSG), destructive solid geometry

Figure 1.5. Rendering the solid model of a part

(a) Hidden-line removed view (b) Shaded view

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12 Xu

(DSG), sweep representation, parameterized primitive instancing, cell decomposition,

spatial occupancy (voxel), and analytical solid modelling.
B-rep and CSG are the most widely used representation schemes. For different ap-
plications, one may be more suitable than the other. For example, B-rep is more suitable
for representing complex designs, whereas with CSG, models are easy to create and are
usually used in representing relatively simple objects. In some modellers, a hybrid scheme
employing both B-rep and CSG is used. These representation schemes are discussed in
more details in the following sections.

Boundary Representation
Boundary representation is a method for representing shapes using the limits, or rather
boundaries as the name suggests. A solid is represented as a collection of connected sur-
face elements and the boundary between solid (inside the object) and non-solid (outside
the object). The method was initially developed in the early 1970s.
In order to represent a solid object by its surfaces, the orientation of each surface needs
to be defined to show the inside or outside of the object. By convention, the inside is the
material and the outside is the void space. The direction of the face normal is usually used
as the orientation of the face, and the face that carries the orientation information is called
orientable surface. This surface normal is usually defined to be always pointing away
from the solid. Since a solid is bounded by orientable surfaces, one can define a solid by
a set of faces. A face is generally bounded by edges which are bounded by vertices (with
the exception of spheres and circles). Although any complex solid can be represented by
faces, the system of equations known as Euler’s equations (to be further discussed later in
this section) is used to ensure the validity of a B-rep model, which is to ensure that a real
object is formed, bounded or closed. For example, three planes will not form a solid object.
Similarly, a face will not be bounded by two straight lines.
However, boundary representation has now been extended to allow special, non-solid
model types called non-manifold models (Lee, 1999). An important sub-class of non-mani-
fold models are sheet objects which are used to represent thin-plate objects and to integrate
surface modelling into a solid modelling environment.

Basic Entities and the Connectivity of B-rep

Boundary representation models contain two pieces of critical information, geometry and
topology. The main geometric items are: faces, edges and vertices. A face is a bounded
portion of a surface; an edge is a bounded piece of a curve (or line) and a vertex lies at a
point. Other elements are the shell (a set of connected faces), the loop (a circuit of edges
bounding a face) and loop-edge links (also known as winged-edge links or half-edges) which
are used to create the edge circuits to bound a face. Equally important in a B-rep model
is the connectivity present amongst the topological items (e.g. faces, edges and vertices).
The most popular type of the data structure for defining such connectivity is Baumgart’s
winged-edge data structure (Figure 1.6). Note that the structure is drastically different from
that of a wire-frame model, because the winged-edge data structure uses edges to keep
track of almost everything and to traverse various entities in the model.
This type of topological data structure is also useful (or “computer-friendly”) when
it comes to representing data in a computer program. Take a simple cube as an example

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 Geometric Modelling and Computer-Aided Design 13

Figure 1.6. Winged-edge data structure

Left edge Next vertex Right edge
E E
(anti-clockwise) (clockwise)
Vertex V
Edge Edge
Current.edge

Left face Right face Left face F E F Right face

Edge Edge V
Vertex Left edge Right edge
E E
(clockwise) (anti-clockwise)
Previous vertex

as shown in Figure 1.7. There are 6 faces, each containing a loop of 4 edges. Each edge is
bounded by 2 vertices. Every edge is shared by two faces and every vertex is shared by
three edges. The edges in a loop are stored in a particular sequence, one after the other, in
the database so that the normal of the face (pointing away from the object) is defined using
the right-hand rule (e.g. n1, n2 , n3 …) as shown in Figure 1.7 (a). Figure 1.7 (b) illustrates
the connections between the faces, edges and vertices. This structure will also be mirrored
in a CAD system by a computer program.

Validation of a B-rep Model

Euler’s law states that a polyhedron is topologically valid (or a sane solid) if the following
equation is satisfied,

F-E+V=2 (1.12)

Figure 1.7. The winged-edge data structure for a cube

E1

E2
n2
E3 V1
V6 E10 V5 F1
E4 V2
F2
E6 E5 F5 E5 V3
F6
F2 E1 F3
V2 V1 O bjec t E6 V4
E11 F1 E9 F4
F3 n5 E7 V5
n3 F5
E4 E8 V6
E2 E12 F6
V7 V8 E9 V7
E7
E8 E10 V8
n1
V3
E3 E11
V4

F4 E12

(a) (b)

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14 Xu

which means that for a polyhedron to be valid, the number of faces (F), edges (E), and
vertices (V) must satisfy this equation. For example, a simple cube consists of 6 faces, 12
edges, and 8 vertices, making the object a valid one. In order to cope with solids that have
passageways or holes, the generalized version of Euler’s law can be used,

F-E+V-L = 2(B-G) (1.13)

where F, E, V, L, B, and G are the numbers of faces, edges, vertices, inner loops, bodies,
and genera (such as torus, through-hole), respectively. These laws are critical in a CAD
system as they govern the construction syntax of a solid modelling kernel.
While B-rep provides a complete set of information and it is explicit, using operators
such as “make vertex, make face, kill vertex, and kill face” can be a tedious job to con-
struct a reasonably complex solid. A useful advancement in this regard is the formation and
definition of geometric (or form) features. Features in this respect can be defined as logical
units that relate to a group of sub-elements (e.g. faces and edged) of the shape. Features are
the basis of many other developments, allowing high-level “geometric reasoning” about
the shape for comparison, process-planning, manufacturing, etc. Modern CAD systems all
have features as the “interface” between the designer and the complicated B-rep modelling
kernel. Chapters IV, V and VI discuss the different aspects of a feature.

Constructive Solid Geometry

Constructive solid geometry allows a modeller to create a complex surface or object by

using Boolean operators to combine objects. The common Boolean operators include set-
theoretic intersection (∩), set-theoretic union (∪), and difference (-). The simplest solid
objects used for representation are called primitives. An object is constructed from primi-
tives by means of allowable Boolean operations. Typically they are the objects of simple
shape: cuboids, cylinders, spheres, cones, tedious (Figure 1.8).
The allowable primitives vary with different software packages. A primitive can typi-
cally be described by a procedure which accepts some number of parameters. For example,
a sphere may be described by the coordinates of its centre point, along with a radius value.
These primitives can be combined into compound objects using Boolean operations. When
these elementary operations are combined, it is possible to build up objects with high com-
plexity starting from the simple ones. Therefore, CSG objects can be represented by binary
trees, where leaves represent primitives, and nodes represent operations.
Constructive solid geometry has a number of practical uses. It is popular because a
modeller can use a set of relatively simple objects to create very complicated geometry.

Figure 1.8. Common solid primitives used in CSG

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 Geometric Modelling and Computer-Aided Design 15

Figure 1.9. Different ways of constructing the same part using CSG

= - U

(a)

= - U U

(b)

= - U U

(c)

When CSG is procedural or parametric, the user can revise his complex geometry by chang-
ing the position of the objects or by changing the Boolean operation(s) used to combine
those objects. However, there are some disadvantages, too. For example, CSG is slow in
displaying objects. It is usually converted internally into a B-rep model for displaying. This
is why many systems are built using both B-rep and CSG. Another problem with CSG is
its non-uniqueness in representing an object. Figure 1.9 shows a simple component which
can be constructed in three different ways.

Other Types of Representations

Sweep representation defines a solid in terms of volumes swept out by two- or three-dimen-
sional laminae as they move along a curve, which is usually called a path or trajectory. The
path types can take virtually any shape, but usually non-self-intersecting. Figure 1.10 shows
an inverted “T” cross section sweeping along a closed path to give solid geometry.
The primitive instancing technique is based on a concept that considers an object that
has the same topology as a potential primitive (also called generic primitive) but different
geometry. Through a set of parameters that govern the topology of the object, different

Figure 1.10. A swept solid

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16 Xu

Figure 1.11. Simple regular grid decomposition

objects can be generated by setting the parameters to different values. For exam­ple, a gear
can be defined by a set of parameters such as, its pitch-circle diameter, thickness, number
of teeth and etc. Different gears can be easily generated by specifying a specific set of
parameters. Many CAD systems utilise this type of construction method to provide tables
of family parts, e.g. standardised nuts and bolts.
A solid can also be represented by a collection of smaller, often regular volumes or
cells that are mutually contiguous and do not inter­penetrate. This method is called cell
decomposition. The cells may be any shape and do not have to be identical. Use of identical,
cuboid cells can simplify the representation and in many cases it is sufficient. Figure 1.11
shows how an array of simple Regular Grids is used to represent a 2D geometry. Each cell
is either “empty (white)” if the shape covers less than 50% of the cell, or “full (black)” if
the shape covers more than 50% of the cell.

Analytical Solid Modelling

Similar to representing a curve by one-dimensional parametric space with one parameter

(e.g. t) and a surface by two-dimensional parametric space with two parameters (e.g. s and
t), a solid object can also be represented by three-dimensional parametric space with three
parameters (e.g. s, t and u). This method is called analytical solid modelling. The solid thus
created is called a parametric solid or a hyperpatch because it is similar to a surface patch
in surface representation. The variable point of the solid is given by,

V(s, t, u) = [x, y, z] = [x(s, t, u), y(s, t, u), z(s, t, u)],

smin ≤ s≤ smax, tmin ≤ t≤ tmax, umin ≤ u ≤ umax (1.14)

A general solid can be represented by the following polynomial,

r = V ( s, t , u )
3 3 3
= ∑∑∑ cijk s it j u k , 0 ≤ s ≤ 1, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1 (1.15)
i =0 j =0 k =0

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 Geometric Modelling and Computer-Aided Design 17

COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN

Although development of computer-aided design systems started as early as the 1960’s, its
progress was severely hampered by the capability of the computers at that time. A decade
later, CAD development and implementations began to enter the commercial market.
Initially, with 2D in the 1970s, it was typically limited to producing drawings similar to
hand-drafted drawings. Advances in programming and computer hardware, notably solid
modelling in the 1980s, allowed more versatile applications of computers in design activities.
Key products were the solid modelling packages. Among them are Romulus™ (ShapeData)
and Uni-Solid (Unigraphics®) based on PADL-2 and the release of the surface modeller
Catia® (Dassault Systems); all were released in 1981. Autodesk® was founded 1982 and its
product, AutoCAD® soon became one of the most successful 2D CAD systems. The next
milestone was the release of Pro/Engineer® (Pro/E® for short) in 1988, which heralded
greater usage of feature-based modelling methods and parametric linking of the parameters
of features. Also of importance to the development of CAD was the development of B-rep
solid modelling kernels (engines for manipulating geometrically and topologically consistent
3D objects) such as Parasolid® (ShapeData) and ACIS® (Spatial Technology Inc.) at the
end of the 1980s and beginning of the 1990s. This led to the release of many affordable,
mid-range packages such as SolidWorks® in 1995, SolidEdge® (Intergraph™ ) in 1996,
and IronCAD® in 1998. Today, CAD has become one of the main tools for product design
and development.
The bulk of the development in commercial CAD systems has been in modelling the
form of products (i.e. in providing techniques to assist in the representation of form using
conventional drawings or new modelling techniques). The driving force behind CAD has
been the desire to improve the productivity of the designer by automating the more repeti-
tive and tedious aspects of design, and also to improve the precision of the design models.
New techniques have been developed in an attempt to overcome perceived limitations in
conventional practice - particularly in dealing with complexity - for example designs as
complex as automobile bodies, or as intricate as integrated circuits. Computer-aided design
therefore enables the designer to tackle a task more quickly and accurately, or in a way that
could not be achieved by other means.
In principle, CAD could be applied throughout the design process, but in practice its
impact on the early stages, where very imprecise representations such as sketches are
used extensively, has been limited. It must also be stressed that at present CAD does little
in helping a designer in a more creative and intuitive way such as generation of possible
design solutions, or in those aspects that involve complex reasoning about the design - for
example in assessing, by visual examination of drawings, whether a component may be
(easily) made, or whether it matches the specifications. These aspects are, however, the
subjects of considerable current research. In practising concurrent engineering, there is a
pressing need for CAD systems to interface or integrate design with all the down-stream
activities, e.g. manufacturing and marketing.

CAD System Architecture

So far, CAD systems have been described in very general terms. More specifically, they
can be thought of as comprising (Figure 1.12),

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is prohibited.
18 Xu

Figure 1.12. The architecture of a computer-aided design system

• hardware: the computer and associated peripheral equipment;

• software: the computer program(s) running on the hardware;
• data: the data structure created and manipulated by the software; and
• human knowledge and activities.

Today most CAD workstations are Windows®-based PCs; some run on hardware running
with one of the UNIX operating systems and a few with Linux. Some others such as NX™
provide multiplatform support including Windows®, LINUX, UNIX and Mac OSX.
Generally no special hardware is required with the exception of perhaps a high-end
OpenGL®-based graphics card. However, for complex product design, machines with high
speed CPUs and large amount of RAM are recommended. The human-machine interface is
generally via a computer mouse but can also be via a pen and a digitizing graphics tablet.
Manipulation of the view of a model on the screen is also sometimes done with the use
of a SpaceMouse/SpaceBall. Some systems also support stereoscopic glasses for viewing
3D models.

CAD in its Infancy

The original version of CAD is believed to be Computer-aided Drafting tools because in the
early days CAD was really a replacement for a traditional drafting board. Computer-aided
drafting is mainly concerned with representing the geometry, displaying and manipulating
the model, and annotating it to show dimensions, material and other data. The representa-
tion itself is, in general, identical to that found on a drafting board. Perhaps the milestone of
such a system is the Sketchpad (aka Robot Draftsman), a revolutionary computer program
written by Ivan Sutherland in 1963 in the course of his PhD thesis (Sutherland, 1963).

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is prohibited.
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