Topic 3:

Breakdown Theory in Gases

ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar

 Introduction
▪ Where a voltage difference exists between two conductors, it is necessary to keep them
apart to prevent the undesirable flow of electrical current from the one conductor to the
other.
▪ The conductors are separated by a insulating materials which can be gaseous, liquid or
solid.
▪ Liquid and solid insulating materials are generally not self-restoring, while gases are self-
restoring.
▪ Solid insulating materials are potentially better insulating materials than liquids and
gases.
▪ The dielectric strength of insulating material depends on the dielectric stress (E = -∇V)
developed subjected to high voltages.
▪ Dielectric strength is defined as the maximum stress which dielectric material can
withstand
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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Gaseous Dielectrics

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Gaseous Dielectrics

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Breakdown in Gases

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Breakdown in Gases
▪ The ionization processes primarily responsible for breakdown in gases include:

✓Ionization by collision
✓Photo-ionization
✓Secondary Ionization
✓Electron attachment process

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Ionization by collision
▪ Free electrons collide with neural gas molecules to give rise to a new electron and a
positive ion.
▪ Consider the experimental set up in Figure 3.1; two parallel electrodes separated by
distance d in a column filled with a low pressure gas.

Figure 3.1
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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Ionization by collision

if   Vi then
e − + A → e − + A+ + e −

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Ionization by collision

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Photo-ionization
▪ This occurs when the amount of radiation absorbed by an atom or molecule exceeds its
ionization potential.

▪ Atoms or molecules absorb radiation through their excitation to a higher energy state,
direct excitation of the atom, direct ionization or dissociation of a diatomic molecule

▪ Photo-ionization is represented by the expression:

+ −
A + hv → A + e

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Secondary Ionization Processes
▪ These are ionization processes that happen as a result of secondary electrons produced
during the primary ionization processes (ionization by collision and photo-ionization
processes).

▪ These ionization processes sustain a discharge after it is established due to ionization by

collision and photo-ionization processes.

▪ The secondary ionization processes include:

1. Electron emission due to Positive ion impact
2. Electron emission due to Photons
3. Electron emission due to Metastable and neutral atoms

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Secondary Ionization Processes
1. Electron emission due to Positive ion impact
This ionization process occurs as a result of the positive ions produced during ionization by
collision or photo-ionization travel to the cathode. With sufficient energy during their impact on
the metallic cathode electrode, these ions can cause emission of electrons at the electrode.

2. Electron emission due to Photons

This occurs when a electron escapes from a metal surface due to energy supplied to it in the
form of a photon of UV light. Emission occurs when the electron acquires enough energy to
overcome the surface potential barrier.

3. Electron emission due to Metastable and neutral atoms

Electron emission occurs when an excited atom impacts a metal surface with sufficient energy.

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Electron Attachment Process

Atom + e− + k → negative atomic ion + ( Ea + K )

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Gas Breakdown Theories
▪ Electric discharge in gas consists of

➢ Non-sustaining discharge
➢ Self-sustaining discharge

▪ Breakdown in air is the change from non-sustaining discharge to self-sustaining

discharge

▪ There are two (2) theories of gas breakdown

➢ Townsend Theory
➢ Streamer Theory

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Townsend’s Breakdown Theory
▪ Also known as Electron Avalanche Mechanism
▪ Based on the generation of successive secondary avalanches to produce breakdown.

Figure 3.2: Electron Avalanche

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Townsend’s Breakdown Theory
Cell with low gas pressure

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Townsend’s Theory - Primary
Ionization Stage
- +

dx
V volts

d
dn  n
dn  dx
Therefore,
dn =  .n.dx (1)
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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Townsend’s Theory - Primary
Ionization Stage
- +
Solving equation (1), gives
d
n = no e
dx
(2) V volts
Since number of electrons n reflect the current I, then
d
I = Io e (3) x

I is current in discharge tube due to primary ionization process d

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Townsend’s Theory – Secondary
Ionization Stage
▪ Townsend in his earlier investigations had observed that the current in parallel plate gap
increased more rapidly with increase in voltage as compared to the one given by equation (3).

▪ To explain this departure from linearity, Townsend suggested that a second mechanism must be
affecting the current.

▪ He postulated that the additional current must be due to the presence of positive ions and the
photons. The positive ions will liberate electrons by collision with gas molecules and by
bombardment against the cathode.

▪ Similarly, the photons will also release electrons after collision with gas molecules and from the
cathode after photon impact

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Townsend’s Theory – Secondary
Ionization Stage
Let n+ be the number of electrons released from cathode (per second) due to positive ion
bombardment.

Then from equation (2) the number of electrons reaching anode (per second), n is

n = (no + n+ )e d (4)

After a while, number of electrons released by the positive ion is given by

n+ = {n − (no − n+ )} (5)

Where γ is the Townsend’s secondary coefficient

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Townsend’s Theory – Secondary
Ionization Stage
Substituting (5) into (4)

d
no e
n= (6)
1 −  (e d − 1)
And therefore the current I due to secondary ionization process is

Io e d
I= d
(7)
1 −  (e − 1)

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Townsend’s Theory – Secondary
Ionization Stage

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Townsend’s Theory – Breakdown
criteria

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Townsend’s Theory – Breakdown
criteria
▪ Electrical breakdown in small gaps happens when the current I → , i.e when

1 −  (e d − 1) = 0 (8)

▪ Equation (8), is known as the Townsend’s breakdown criterion

▪ Normally,  d is very large, hence the breakdown criterion can be reduced to

e
d
 (e ) = 1

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Townsend’s Theory – Breakdown
criteria
▪ For breakdown in electronegative gases due to electron attachment, the Townsend’s expression
for the current reaching the anode is modified taking into account the attachment coefficient, η

    ( − )d    
 e − 
  −      −  
I = Io 
( )
   ( − )d  
1 −  
e − 1
 ( −   

▪ And the breakdown criterion for attaching gases can be given by:

  ( − )d

( −  
e  − 1 =1


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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Determination of Townsend’s
Coefficients
▪ Townsend’s coefficients are determined in an ionisation chamber

▪ The chamber is evacuated to a very high vacuum of the order of 10−4 to 10−6 torr then
filled with gas at a few torr

▪ HVDC voltage (2 to 10 kV) is applied to an electrode system consisting of a plane HV

electrode and an LV electrode surrounded by a guard electrode to maintain a uniform
field.

▪ The LV electrode is earthed through an electrometer amplifier capable of measuring

currents in the range of 0.01 pA to 10 nA.

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Determination of Townsend’s
Coefficients
d
I = Io e

ln I =  d + ln Io

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Determination of Townsend’s
Coefficients

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Townsend’s Theory – Time Lag of
Sparks Breakdown
▪ In practical engineering applications, breakdown due to rapid changing voltages or
impulses is of paramount importance.

▪ A time difference between the application of sufficient voltage to cause a breakdown and
the occurrence of the breakdown exists

▪ This time difference is called time lags of breakdown

▪ Time lag, 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑠 + 𝑡𝑡

𝑡𝑠 is called the Statistical time lag

𝑡𝑡 is called the Formative time lag

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Townsend’s Theory – Time Lag of
Sparks Breakdown

Figure 3.3: Time lag of impulse breakdown

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Townsend’s Theory – Time Lag of
Sparks Breakdown
Statistical time lag, ts
▪ The average time required for an electron to appear in the gap in order that breakdown
may be initiated. It depends upon:
✓ The amount of pre-ionization present in between the gap
✓ Size of the gap
✓ The amount of over voltage applied to the gap

Formative time lag, tt

▪ The additional time lag required for the breakdown process to form.
▪ It increases with increase in gap length and field non-uniformity,
▪ It decreases with increase in over voltage applied.

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Streamer Theory

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Streamer Theory
▪ Arises due to the added effect of the space-charge field
of an avalanche and photo-electric ionization in the gas
volume

▪ If the length of the avalanche becomes large, the

negative and positive charges in the avalanche distort
the field to such an extent that new avalanches form
ahead of the original avalanche, eventually bridging the
gap.

▪ The combined space charge field and externally applied

field lead to intense ionization and excitation of the gas
particles in front of the avalanche head

▪ The fields, caused by the space charge, strengthen the

applied field in the regions ahead and towards the tail of
the original streamer.

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Streamer Theory
▪ The ionization coefficient α is a function of the field
strength (E) and it is therefore increased in these
regions - to such an extent that new avalanches are
triggered by photons that emerge from the original
avalanche

▪ These photons in turn generate secondary electrons by

the photoionization process. These electrons under the
influence of the electric field develop into secondary
avalanches

▪ Since photons travel with velocity of light, the process

leads to a rapid development of conduction channel
across the gap.

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Streamer Theory
A – Photon triggers avalanche

B – Positive ions strikes cathode

and starts avalanche

C – Electron avalanche

D – Avalanche tip reaches anode

E – Photon from avalanche produce

free electrons

F – Positive charges close to anode

increase the electric field

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Streamer Theory
G – Plasma of positive ions and
electrons forms the streamer
channel

H – Streamer tip

I – Production of free electrons by

photon

J – Streamer propagating close

to cathode

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Streamer Theory

Depends on
Formative time primary avalanche
lags of <= 50 ns reaching a critical
size

Local electric field high

enough to generate
‘streamers’ which
propagate towards
electrode

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Paschen’s Law
▪ Recall the expression of the Townsend’s breakdown criterion, equation (8)
 (e d − 1) = 1
▪ The ionization coefficient α is an indication of the ionization probability of a gas and depends on
the applied field strength E and the gas pressure p and can be expressed as
 E 
=f  (9)
p p
E  1 
Putting (9) into (8) and re-arranging, f   pd = ln  + 1
p  
But E=V/d, thus

V  1 
f  pd = ln  + 1
 pd   
1 
Let ln  + 1 = K
 
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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Paschen’s Law
▪ Thus,
V  K
f  pd =
 pd  pd

▪ Therefore

V = F ( p.d )

Breakdown voltage is an implicit function of gas

pressure ‘p’ and gap distance ‘d’

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Paschen’s Law
▪ Under constant atmospheric condition, breakdown voltage for uniform field is given as:

V = A.d + B√d

where A= 24.4 kV/cm and B = 6.29 kV/cm, V in kV, d in cm

▪ Since breakdown voltage can vary depending on the gap distance, temperature and pressure, a
correction factor has to be considered.

V= A(ρd) + B√(ρd)

where ρ = gas density correction factor, and given as:

293 p
=
760T
where p is pressure in torr
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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Paschen’s Law

Figure 3.4: Pachen’s Law Curve

when 𝒑𝒅 < (𝒑𝒅)𝒎𝒊𝒏 when 𝒑𝒅 > (𝒑𝒅)𝒎𝒊𝒏
▪ Pressure decreasing (density also decreasing) ▪ Pressure increasing (density also increasing)
▪ Less number of collisions made by electrons as they move ▪ More (frequent) collisions by electrons as they move
towards the anode towards the anode
▪ Hence less ionization by collision takes place ▪ However, lower energy gained between collisions.
▪ Therefore more voltage needs to be applied for breakdown to ▪ Hence, more voltage needs to be applied to maintain desired
occur ionization
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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Paschen’s Law

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Paschen’s Law
Table: Minimum sparking potential of some gases

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar
 Paschen’s Law

Valid for
temperatures below At very low
about 11000C – above pressures, and at
that thermal very high pressures
ionization takes (compared with
place. atmospheric),
Paschen's Law fails

Typically the minimum

voltage is 300 V and
occurs at a product or
p.d of 5 torr mm, or at a
gap of about 0.06 mm

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ELE5211 (High Voltage Engineering) Prof. N.B. Umar