Chapter III........................................................................................................................

44
Transients in DC Circuits...............................................................................................44
3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................44
3.2 The inductor......................................................................................................44
Inductors in series: ....................................................................................................46
Inductor in parallel....................................................................................................46
Mutual coupling:.......................................................................................................47
3-3 The capacitor.....................................................................................................48
Capacitor in series.....................................................................................................50
Capacitors in parallel ................................................................................................50
3.4. Transients in DC circuits ...................................................................................52
Series R-L circuit ......................................................................................................52
Series R-C circuit......................................................................................................53
Series R-L-C circuit ..................................................................................................54
3.5 Source-Free circuits: .........................................................................................61
Chapter III

Transients in DC Circuits

3.1 Introduction
The electric circuits consisting only voltage/current sources and resistors are
very limited. Other elements that are responsible for producing magnetic and
electric fields are involved in almost every application in our daily life as well
as in industry. The voltage-current relations of this type of elements will be
developed in terms of their physical characteristics. This type of elements is
divided into two elements; the first is called inductor and relates the electric
quantities to its magnetic field. The second element is called capacitor and
relates its electric quantities to its electric field. This type of elements does not
dissipate power like resistors but store energy over a time to be restored
sometimes later.
3.2 The inductor
As reported earlier, a current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field.
Furthermore, winding such a conductor may strengthen the magnetic field.
The resulting element is called INDUCTOR. The magnetic field is developed
by means a quantity called magneto motive force (MMF) which is the current
times the number of turns of that coil. According to the voltage definition as
the time-rate of the flux linkage (the magnetic flux times the number of turns).
The amount of magnetic flux in terms of the inductor current is expressed as:
  N  LI (3-1)
where λ is the flux-linkage (weber) (the flux times the turns number), I is the
inductor current (Amp) and L is the inductor Henry (Ω. sec, abbreviated H) in
honor of Joseph HENRY. The voltage across the inductor is defined as the

44
flux-linkage rate and hence the voltage-current relation of the inductor is
expressed as follows:
v  L di dt (3-2)
Fig. (3-1) gives a clear interpretation of the ideal inductor (a coil with no self
resistance).. The symbolic representation of the inductor is shown as well the
polarity of the inductor voltage in accordance to the inductor current.

Fig. (3-1): Ideal Inductor.

From equation (3-2), it is clear that the voltage across the inductor is a
function of the current rate. In case of constant current flowing in the coil, the
voltage across the inductor is zero. On the other side, if an ideal voltage source
is applied to an ideal inductor the current will increase continuously which is
an impractical situation. Fortunately, any practical coil involves a non zero
resistance because of its wire material and dimension.
Example (3-1):
For the circuit shown in figure (3-1), if the current through the inductor (2H) is
expressed as:
 0 for    t  0
 t for 0  t 1
i (t )  
 (t  2) for 1  t  2
 0 for 2  t  
a. Obtain an expression for the inductor voltage.
b. Draw sketch for both inductor voltage and current.
Solution:
Using equation (3-1), the inductor voltage is expressed as follows:
 0 for    t  0
d d  2 for 0  t 1
v(t )  L i (t )  2 i (t )  
dt dt  2) for 1  t  2
 0 for 2  t  

45
Figure (3-2) shows a sketch for both inductor current and voltage as a function
of time.

Fig. (3-2): Inductor voltage and current of example (3-1).

Inductors in series:
Figure (3-3) shows two inductors connected in series. Applying KVL to this
series connection, we have
di di di di
v  v1  v 2  L1 L2  L1  L2   Leq (3-3)
dt dt dt dt
The result obtain in equation (3-3) shows that the equivalent inductor of two
series-connected inductors equals the algebraic sum of them.

Fig. (3-3): Series connection of Inductors.

In fact, the resultant inductor has nothing to do with the resultant magnetic
flux developed due the passing current. That is, while the resultant inductor is
the sum, the net magnetic flux may be either the sum of the difference of the
fluxes based on the direction current in each inductor. For example, if the
current are in the same direction within the inductors the resultant flux is the
same and if they are opposing each other, the resultant flux is the difference.
Inductor in parallel
Figure (3-4) shows two inductors connected in parallel. Applying KCL to this
series connection, we have

46
 i  i1  i 2
di d di di v v 1 1 
 (i1  i2 )  1  2    v   (3-4)
dt dt dt dt L1 L2  L1 L2 
The result obtain in equation (3-4) shows that the reciprocal of equivalent
inductor of two parallel-connected inductors equals the algebraic sum of their
reciprocals.

Fig. (3-4): Parallel connection of Inductors.

Mutual coupling:
In most circuits, there is more than one inductor in one circuit and they may
share the fluxes together. If a part of the flux produced in inductor L1 crosses
the non-energized inductor L2, then a voltage, v21, is induced across L2 and
appears as follows:
v21  L2 di1 dt (3-5)
Figure (3-5) illustrates the concept of mutual coupling between inductors. The
effect of the mutual inductance is much influenced by the current’s directions
at the dot-ends. If the currents have different directions at the dot-ends, the
mutual effect is considered to be negative and vice versa.

M12 M34

L1 L2 L3 L4
Leq = L1 + L2 - 2M12 Leq = L3 + L4+ 2M34

Fig. (3-5): Inductors with mutual coupling.

In case of inductors are energized, their voltages are expressed as follows:
v1  v11  v21  L1 di1 dt  M di2 dt
(3-6)
v2  v12  v22  M di1 dt  L2 di2 dt

47
where M is the mutual inductance due the shared flux. In fact, further studies
leads to the fact that the mutual inductance is a function of both inductors
(self-inductances) and the shared flux ratio, thus M is usually expressed as
following:
M  k L1 L2 (3-7)
where k is defined as the mutual coupling coefficient and expresses the
amount of shared fluxes between the two inductors.
Drill (3-1)
Find the equivalent inductance of the inductor’s combinations shown in figure
(3-6)

Fig. (3-6): Circuits for drill (3-1).

3-3 The capacitor
Another extremely important circuit element is obtained when two conducting
surfaces are separated by a non-conducting materials (called dielectric). This
element is called capacitor (formerly condenser). Upon applying voltage
difference to this element, a charge separation takes place causing an electric
field to be developed between plates. The amount of the separated charge is
expressed by Charles de Coulomb (French scientist) to be in proportional to
the voltage as in equation (3-8).
Q  CV (3-8)
where Q is the electric charge (Coulomb, abbreviated Coul), V the potential
difference across the capacitor (volts) and C is the capacitance of the capacitor
in farads (Ω-1.sec, abbreviated F) in honor of Michael Faraday. In fact, the

48
capacitance depends on the type of the dielectric material and its physical
dimensions. The voltage-current relation of the capacitor is expressed as
follows:
dv
I C (3-9)
dt
Equation (3-9) shows that capacitor behaves, initially, like a short circuit
(uncharged capacitor) and therefore a large current flows causing charge
separation to start. As time passes a voltage appears across the capacitor
causing current to diminish gradually. Finally the capacitor reaches open
circuit conditions and the charge-separation is stopped. Figure (3-7) shows the
symbol of the capacitor.

Fig. (3-7): The capacitor.

Example (3-2):
For the circuit shown in figure (3-8), find the steady-state current i.
2F

1Ω 4H
6A 2Ω ix 4Ω
1F 3F

Fig. (3-8): Circuit for example (3-2).

Solution:
First, in steady-state conditions, all capacitors are open-circuited and all
inductors are short-circuited as in figure (3-9). The circuit acts as a current
divider and the current ix is expressed as follows:
4
ix  6  4A
42

49
 Fig. (3-9): Steady-state Circuit for example (3-2).
Capacitor in series
Figure (3-10) shows the series connection of two capacitors. In this case, both
capacitors have the same current; thus the total voltage (KVL) is given as
follows:
v  v1  v 2 (3-10)
The capacitor voltage is obtained from equation as follows:
1
v idt (3-11)
C

Fig. (3-10): Capacitors in series connection

Now, the voltage across the two series capacitors is
1 1 1
v  v1  v2   idt   idt  idt (3-12)
C eq C1 C2 
which leads to:
1 1 1
  (3-13)
C eq C1 C 2
Now, it is clear that the series-connected capacitors are considered as parallel
resistance. In case of N series capacitors, we have:
1 1 1 1 N
1
    (3-14)
C eq C1 C 2 C N i 1 C N
Capacitors in parallel
Figure (3-11) shows the parallel connection of two capacitors. In this case
both capacitors have the same voltage and the input current is the sum of
individual current.

50
 Fig. (3-11): Capacitors in parallel connection
Therefore the input current is obtained (applying KCL) as follows:
i  i1  i 2 (3-15)
The capacitor-currents are expressed as follows:
dv dv
i1  C1 and i2  C 2 (3-16)
dt dt
Further analysis will lead to the equivalent capacitor
Ceq  C1  C 2  (3-17)

Equation (3-17) shows that series-connected capacitors looks like resistances

connected in series. This is true and acceptable as it agrees with the KCL. The
general form of equation (3-17) is expressed as follows:
N
Ceq  C1  C 2    C n   Ci (3-18)
i 1

Drill (3-2):
For the circuit shown in figure (3-12), find the equivalent capacitance of each
circuit.

Fig. (3-12): Circuits for Drill (3-2).

51
3.4. Transients in DC circuits
In circuits involving inductors and capacitors, the voltage equations involves
either one differential or integral terms only. As a first course, the minimum
no. of elements is adopted to simplify this process.
Series R-L circuit
The series R-L circuit is shown in figure(3-13).

Fig. (3-13): Series R-L circuit.

When switch S is closed, a current starts to flow. Applying KVL for this
circuit is expressed as follows:
v S  v R  v L  iR  L di dt (3-19)
The solution of equation (3-19) has two main parts representing steady state
solution as well as transient solution. For steady-state condition, we have
v L  L di dt  0 and the steady-state current is given as I SS  v S R . The
transient performance is depicted by the unforced operation as follows:
R  LD  0 → DR L (3-20)
and the transient current is expressed as follows:
 R L t
it  Ke  Dt  K  e  (3-21)
Finally the final solution is as follows:
i  it  I SS  K  e   R L t  v S R (3-22)
From the initial and final values, at t  0 the initial current is zero. Then we
have:
K   vS R (3-23)
Substituting in equation (3-22), we have:

52
 vS
i 1  e  R L t   I SS 1  e  R L t  (3-24a)
R
Equation (3-24) shows that the current changes exponentially as the inductor
changes slowly from open circuit condition (initially zero current) to short
circuit conditions (steady state current, ISS). The inductor vL is given as
follows:
di
vL  v S e   R L t (3-24b)
dt
Series R-C circuit
The series R-L circuit is shown in figure(3-14). Applying KVL for this circuit
is expressed as follows:

Fig. (3-14): Series R-L circuit.

dvC
v S  v R  vC  iR  vC  RC  vC (3-25)
dt
In steady state conditions, equation (3-25) is reduced to vS  vC ( SS ) . In case of

transient conditions, the unforced form of equation (3-25) is written as :

1  RCD  0  D   1 RC (3-26)
and the transient current is expressed as follows:
t RC
vt  Ke  Dt  K  e  (3-27)
Finally the final solution is as follows:
vC  vt  vC SS  K  e   R L t  v S (3-28)
From the initial and final values, at t  0 the initial voltage is zero. Then we
have:
K  v S (3-29)

53
Substituting in equation (3-28), we have:
vC  v S 1  e t RC  (3-30)
Equation (3-30) shows that the voltage changes exponentially as the capacitor
changes slowly from short circuit condition (initially zero voltage) to open
circuit conditions (steady state voltage, vCSS). The capacitor current is given as:
dvC v S t RC
iC  C  e (3-31)
dt R
The quantity RC is characterizing the circuit response and is called the circuit
time constant. It has time units (seconds).
Series R-L-C circuit
Figure (3-15) shows a series R-L-C circuit connected to a voltage source.

Fig. (3-15): Series R-L-C circuit.

When switch S is closed, the voltage equation of this circuit is as follows:
di 1
vS  R  i  L  i  dt (3-32)
dt C 
Initially, the inductor prevent sudden current change, and hence the initial
current is zero. As time goes on, capacitor start charging and voltage appears
across its terminals causing current limiting. Finally, The capacitor is charged
to full voltage causing the current to diminish. Differentiating equation (3-32)
yields that:
di d 2i
0  RC   LC 2  i (3-33)
dt dt
which may be written as:
LC D 2
 RC D  1  0

54
and the roots are as follows:

 RC  RC  2
 4  LC
D1, 2  (3-34)
2 LC
The value beneath the square root sign is a very important factor in
determining the natural response. This value may be positive, zero or negative.
If it was positive then equation (3-33) has distinct real roots. If it was zero
then the roots are equal real roots. it was negative the roots are complex
conjugate. In general, the solution is expressed as follows:
i (t )  k1e   D1t  k 2 e   D 2 t (3-35)
where k1 and k2 are constants. Such constants are determined using initial
value and final values. The initial current is zero because of the inductor while
the inductor voltage is the supply voltage, i.e.
v L0  v S   LD1k1  D2 k 2  (3-36)
The final value of the current is zero where the capacitor is charged to the
supply voltage. Based on the above synthesis, we have:
0  k1  k 2 (3-37)
Solving equations (3-36, 37), we get the values of k1 and k2.
The case of circuits involving more than one energy-storing element is
introduced only to show the complicity of this situation. In this introductory
course a restriction is made for one energy-storing element for simplicity
purposes. In case of multi-resistor circuits, an equivalent is computed to result
in an ideal source plus one resistor (practical source). In general words, the
algorithm can be classified into steps as following:
Step 1 Assume a solution for the circuit in the form
x (t )  k1  k 2 e  t / Tc
Step 2 Determine the initial conditions from the circuit condition prior to
switch changing, vc (0  ) and iL (0  )

55
Step 3 Considering the values prior t  0 to continue just after switching
x ( 0  )  x (0  )

Step 4 A long time such as t  5Tc is enough for the circuit to reach steady
state conditions, i.e.
x (t ) t 5Tc  x()
Step 5 In case of multi-element circuit, a Thevenin’s equivalent is processed
to obtain a simple circuit with the time constant Tc given as following
( Tc  L Rth ) or ( Tc  RC ).
Step 6 Results obtained in steps (3,4 and 5) are substituted to result in the
final solution as follows:
x (t )  x()  x(0)  x()  e  t / Tc
Example (3-3):
For the circuit shown in figure (3-16), R1  10k , R1  20k , and C  4 F .
If Switch S is closed at t  0 , find capacitor’s voltage vC (t ) and current iC (t )
as time functions.

Fig. (3-16): Circuit for example (3-3).

Solution:
In this type of problems, employing Thevenin’s or Norton principle may be
considered as a very good, and easy, approach. The choice between the two
equivalents is determined according to the nature of the circuit and its
components. Therefore, the circuit is modified as in figure (3-17).

56
 iC(t)
Req +
S
ٍ

Eth C
vC(t)

--

Fig. (3-17): Modified circuit for example (3-3).

The Thevenin’s equivalent has the following values as follows:
R2 2
Eth  vS  12  8V
R1  R2 2 1
(3-38)
R1  R2 10  20
Req    6.66k
R1  R2 10  20
The quantity RC in equation (3-Now, the voltage across the capacitor is as
follows:
   
vC  Eth 1  e t RC   8 1  e t / 6.610 410   8 1  e 0.37510 t volt
3 6 2

and the capacitor current is as follows:

dvC 8  0.37510 2 t  3  0.37510 2 t
iC  C  e  1. 2  10 e amp.
dt 6.6  10 3
Drill (3-3):
For the circuit shown in figure (3-18), if switch S was closed for a long time
and suddenly opened t  0 . The circuit parameters are R1  R2  10k and
C  100F find an expression for the capacitor voltage vC (t ) and the input
current i (t )

Fig. (3-18): Circuit for drill (3-3).

Drill (3-4):
For the circuit shown in figure (3-19), switch S was closed for a long time and
at opens at t  0 . Find vo (t ) for t  0 .

57
Drill (3-5):
For the circuit shown in figure (3-20), switch S was closed for a long time and
at opens at t  0 . Find vo (t ) for t  0 .

Fig. (3-19): Circuit for drill (3-4). Fig. (3-20): Circuit for drill (3-5)
Example (3-4):
For the circuit shown in figure (3-21), switch S is at position 1 for a very long
time. At t  0 , switch S moves to point 2. Find v o (t ) for t  0

Fig. (3-21): Circuit for example (3-4).

Solution:
Before switching (i.e. t  0 ) S is connected to 1 for a long time, we have
i A  12 4  3 A
Also, a constant current flows in the 3H inductor resulting in v L (0  )  0 .

i L (0  )  12  6  6  3 A
Therefore, the output voltage is computed as follows:
12  vO (0  )  2i A  vO (0  )  12  2  3  18V
At t  0 , switch S moves to point 2 and the 12 V source is replaced. The
circuit for this condition is shown in figure (3-22). Now, since the 6Ω resistor
is in series to the 3H inductor it must be clear that voltage at t  0  is as
follows:

58
 vo (0  )  vO (0  )  18V
The steady state condition of the circuit, using node analysis, shown in figure
(3-22) is as follows:

Fig. (3-22) Circuit for example (3-4) after t  0

v B  36 v B v B  2i A v
   0 and i A  B
2 4 6 4
Solving the above equation, we have Vo ()  v B  2i A  27V
Now, it is required to obtain the circuit time constant TC which is a function of
the equivalent-circuit resistance. In order to determine the equivalent
resistance, open- and short circuit tests we performed because of the existence
of the dependent voltage source. Figure (3-23) shows circuits for open- and
short-circuit tests. From figure (3-23a), the open circuit voltage is given as
follows:
36
iA   6 A  Voc  4i A  2i A  36V
24

Fig. (3-23) Open and short-circuit tests for example (3-4).

From figure (3-23a), the short circuit current is given as:
v B  36 v B v B  2 v B 4 v  2 vB 4
   0  I SC  B  4.5 A
2 4 6 6
The equivalent resistance is Req  VOC I SC  36 4.5  8

The time constant of the reduced circuit is as follows:

59
 Tc  L / Req  3 / 8 seconds
The output voltage of the original circuit, v o (t ) , is given as follows:
k1  v o ()  27V , k 2  vo (0)  vo ()  9V
and finally, we have:
vo (t )  k1  k 2 e  t / TC  27  9e 8t / 3V
Note: Series inductors prevent sudden current changes, iL (0  )  i L (0  ) . In
the example (3-4), the 6Ω resistor enjoys the same condition since it is series-
connected to the 6H inductor. On the other hand, capacitors prevent sudden
voltage changes, vC (0  )  vC (0  ) In case of having a resistor in parallel-
connection with a capacitor; the resistor voltage is not allowed to change
suddenly.
Drill (3-6):
For the circuit shown in fig. (3-24), switches S1 and S2 are open for a long
time. At t  0 both switches are closed in the same instant. Find io (t ) for
t  0.

Fig. (3-24) Circuit for drill (3-6).

Drill (3-7):
For the circuit shown in fig. (3-24), switch S is open for a long time. At t  0 ,
S is closed. Find v o (t ) for t  0 .

Fig. (3-25): Circuit for drill (3-7).

60
3.5 Source-Free circuits:
Sometimes circuits, involving inductor or capacitor, are energized for long
time and suddenly all sources are switched off leaving inductors with steady-
state currents and charged capacitors. In this situation there is a need to
explore how this stored energy behaves. In these circuits, the analysis differs
no much away except for zero steady-state conditions. In fact, it is clear that
the post-switching behavior of these circuits depends mainly on the initial
conditions. Examples will be employed to address this type of circuits.
Example (3-5):
For the circuit shown in figure (3-26), Switch is set in position 1 for a long
time. At t  0 , switch is changed to position 2 suddenly. Find an expression for
i (t ) for t  0 .

Fig. (3-26): Circuit for example (3-5).

Solution:
Before t  0 , steady-state conditions results in:
vc (0  )  12  3 3  6   4V , i (0  )  12 / 9  4 / 3 A
At t  0 , due to the capacitor, the voltage across the 3kΩ is constant and
consequently its current such as:
vc (0  )  vc (0  )  4V , i (0  )  i (0  )  4 / 3 A
After t  0 , after long time the new circuit receives steady state conditions as
follows:
vc()  0 , i ()  0
The circuit time-constant, which is a function of the equivalent resistance, is
as follows:

61
 63
Req   2k ,
63
and Tc  Req C  2  10 3  10 4  0.2 sec

The coefficients k1 and k2 are computed as follows:

k1  i ()  0 , k 2  i (0)  i ()  4 / 3
Finally, the current i (t ) is expressed as follows:
i (t )  k1  k 2 e  t / Tc  1.33e 5t mA.
Drill (3-8):
For the circuit shown in figure (3-27), switch S was closed for a long time. At
t  0 , switch S opens. Find vo (t ) for t  0

Fig. (3-27): Circuit for drill (3-8).

Drill (3-9):
For the circuit shown in figure (3-28), switch S was opened for a long time. At
t  0 , switch S closes. Find vo (t ) for t  0

Fig. (3-28): Circuit for drill (3-9).

Example (3-6):
For the circuit shown in figure (3-29), switch S was closed for a long time. At
t  0 , switch S opens. Find i (t ) for t  0 .

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 Fig. (3-29): Circuit for example (3-6).
Solution: Step-by-step solution
Step 1: The solution current is as i (t )  k1  k 2 e  t / Tc

Step 2: Before t  0 , the circuit enjoys steady-state conditions and therefore

the inductor represents a short-circuit. The current of the 36V source
is expressed as follows:
36
i S (0  )   6A
2  6  12  6  12 
and the individual branch currents are as follows:
12 6
i L (0  )  i S ( 0  )  4A , and  2A i (0  )  i S (0  )
6  12 6  12
Step 3: At t  0 , switch S opens and the inductor current continues in the
same direction and magnitude as the inductor prevents sudden current
change. This implies that the 4Ω current reverses its direction but with
the value of the inductor current as follows:
i L (0  )  i L (0  )  4 A , i (0  )   i L (0  )   4 A

Step 4: After long time, the circuit reaches steady state operation with zero
final current i ()  0 .
Step 5: The circuit time constant is as follows:
Req  6  4  8  18  Tc  L Req  2 18 sec.

Step 6: The solution constants k1 and k2 are as follows:

k1  i ()  0 A , k 2  i (0)  i ()  4 A
Therefore the transient current is as follows:
i (t )  k1  k 2 e  t / Tc  4e 9t A.

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Drill (3-10):
For the circuit shown in figure (3-30), S was closed for a long time and opens
at t  0 . Find vo (t ) for t  0
Drill(3-11):
For the circuit shown in figure (3-31), S was opened for a long time and closes
at t  0 . Find io (t ) for t  0

Fig. (3-30): Circuit for drill (3-10) Fig. (3-31): Circuit for drill (3-11).

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