UNIDAD DIDÁCTICA

4 ENGLISH CONSONANTS.

FONETICA Y MORFOSINTAXIS

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 Lesson 4. English Consonants

CONTENTS.

In this lesson we will study deeply English consonants.

At the beginning, it is compulsory to know how to make a distinction between
consonants and vowels, and then, we will learn to distinguish all the consonant
sounds one by one.
For a better understanding we will follow the traditional classification of the
consonants, based on three different parameters.
- Place of articulation
- Manner of articulation
- Voicing.

After the main explanation, we will try to clarify all the classification with a useful
chart that you will see many times in this subject.

Finally, we will explain the consonant symbols, one by one, adding different
examples from the common use.

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INTRODUCTION

After knowing English vowels, next step is to study English consonants.

For a better understanding, first thing to do is to define what a consonant is, and
distinguish them perfectly from vowels.

Basically, we can say that a vowel is a sound that is made with the mouth and
throat not closing at any point.

In contrast, a consonant is a sound that is made with the air stopping once or
more during the vocalization. That means that at some point, the sound is
stopped by your teeth, tongue, lips, or constriction of the vocal cords.

There are, of course, some other differences between vowels and consonants.
For instance, in English, you can find vowels that are, they alone, entire words,
such as “a” or “I.” But, you won’t find a consonant that is a word by itself,
however. Words in English need vowels to break up the sounds that
consonants make. So, while every word has to have a vowel, not every word
has to have a consonant.

There is a curious case in English, which you already know, and that is known
as “Semivowels”. If you remember, in English we talk about 2 semivowels: “y”
and “w”, and are named like that, because sometimes they appear as vowels
and sometimes they appear as consonants.

The first difference studied between consonants and vowels, explains why “y”
is only “sometimes” a vowel. Depending on which word “y” is being used in, it
can represent different sounds. In words like “myth” or “hymn,” the letter takes
on a sound like a short “i” and the mouth and throat don’t close when the sound
is made. However, in words like “beyond,” it acts as a bridge between the “e”
and the “o,” and there is some partial closure, making “y” a consonant.

Another “strange” letter that share this ability with the “y” is “w.”

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 Lesson 4. English Consonants

While “w” is almost always a consonant, (see the words “what” or “which”), it is
considered a vowel at the end of words like “wow” or “how.” You can see for
yourself when saying these words that your mouth doesn’t fully close while
pronouncing the letter.

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LESSON 4.

ENGLISH CONSONANT CLASSIFICATION.

So, as we have already seen in the introduction, we could conclude, that

consonants are sounds where there is an obstruction or a "blocking" of the
airflow. This obstruction can be caused by your lips (/m/), teeth (/θ/), tongue (/l/),
palate (/ŋ/) or even deep down in your larynx (/h/).

But… what makes one consonant different from another?

Producing a consonant involves making the vocal tract narrower than it usually
is, and it can occur at any point of the vocal tract. We call this narrowing a
constriction. Which consonant you're pronouncing depends on where in the
vocal tract the constriction is and how narrow it is. It also depends on a few
other things, such as whether the vocal folds are vibrating and whether air is
flowing through the nose or it isn´t.

We classify consonants along three major dimensions:

 Place of Articulation
 Manner of Articulation
 Voicing

The place of articulation specifies where in the vocal tract the constriction is.
The voicing parameter specifies whether the vocal folds are vibrating. In the
manner of articulation parameter, is essentially everything else: how narrow
the constriction is, whether air is flowing through the nose, and whether the
tongue is dropped down on one side.

For example, for the sound /d/:

 Place of articulation = alveolar. (The narrowing of the vocal tract involves

the tongue tip and the alveolar ridge.)

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 Lesson 4. English Consonants

 Manner of articulation = oral stop. (The narrowing is complete -- the

tongue is completely blocking off airflow through the mouth. There is also
no airflow through the nose.)
 Voicing = voiced. (The vocal folds are vibrating.)

Let´s study one by one the three parameters, to be able to classify properly all
the consonants.

1. Voicing.

In order to understand better the consonants, we can distinguish two major

categories: Voiced and Unvoiced consonants. Let´s describe and classify them
in the following lines, but first, we will define what the process is: Voicing.

We call “voicing” the process in which the vocal folds may be held against
each other at just the right tension so that the air flowing past them from the
lungs will cause them to vibrate against each other.

Sounds which are made with vocal fold vibration are said to be voiced. Sounds
made without vocal fold vibration are said to be voiceless (or unvoiced). When
the vocal folds are tensed, they vibrate as the air stream passes them,
producing a voiced sound. When the vocal folds relax, the air stream passes
them without causing vibration; and then, the result is a voiceless sound.

Voiced Consonants

Voiced consonants are those that make sound using the vibration of your vocal
folds in your larynx, what is called the "voice box". You can tell if a consonant is
voiced in a couple of ways:

1. Put your finger on your throat when you say it. If you feel vibration, then, it is
voiced. Be careful because you can confuse the vibration of a consonant with

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the vibration caused by a vowel if you pronounce it in a word. (Remember that

all the vowels are always voiced.)

2. Put your fingers in your ears when you are producing the sound. If you can
still "hear" the consonant through the vibrations in your neck, ears and head,
then, it is voiced.

Voiced consonants in English:

/b/ as in ball
/d/ as in dog
/ʤ/ as in joke
/g/ as in good
/v/ as in van
/ð/ as in that
/z/ as in zoo
/ʒ/ as in vision
/m/ as in mouth
/n/ as in no
/ŋ/ as in thing
/l/ as in love
/r/ as in right
/w/ as in why
/j/ as in you

Unvoiced consonants

Unvoiced consonants do not use this vibration. Instead they make sound using
the movement of air through your teeth, tongue, lips and other articulators.

Unvoiced consonants in English:

/p/ as in pea
/t/ as in tea

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 Lesson 4. English Consonants

/ʧ/ as in cheap
/k/ as in coffee
/f/ as in fat
/θ/ as in thin
/s/ as in see
/ʃ/ as in she
/h/ as in he

There are several pairs of sounds in English which differ only in voicing, that is,
the two sounds have identical places and manners of articulation, but one has
vocal fold vibration and the other doesn't. The [θ] of thigh and the [ð] of thy are
one such pair. The others are:

voiceless voiced

[p] [b]

[t] [d]

[k] [ɡ]

[f] [v]

[θ] [ð]

[s] [z]

[ʃ] [ʒ]

[tʃ] [dʒ]

2. Manners of Articulation

In the production of a consonant sound, the narrowing of the vocal tract can be
made in many different forms, resulting in the following classification. (Most
definitions have been taken from the web page: http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca,
where you can find a further information if you wish it.)

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Stops

A stop consonant completely cuts off the airflow through the mouth. In the
consonants [t], [d], and [n], the tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge and cuts off
the airflow at that point. In [t] and [d], this means that there is no airflow at all for
the duration of the stop. In [n], there is no airflow through the mouth, but there is
still airflow through the nose. We distinguish between:

 nasal stops, like [n], which involve airflow through the nose, and
 oral stops, like [t] and [d], which do not.

Nasal stops are often simply called nasals. Oral stops are often called
plosives. Oral stops can be either voiced or voiceless. Nasal stops are almost
always voiced. (It is physically possible to produce a voiceless nasal stop, but
English, like most languages, does not use such sounds.)

Fricatives

In the stop [t], the tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge and cuts off the airflow.
In [s], the tongue tip approaches the alveolar ridge but doesn't quite touch it.
There is still enough of an opening for airflow to continue, but the opening is
narrow enough that it causes the escaping air to become turbulent (hence the
hissing sound of the [s]). In a fricative consonant, the articulators involved in
the constriction approach get close enough to each other to create a turbulent
airstream. The fricatives of English are [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], and [ʒ].

Approximants

In an approximant, (also called “frictionless”) the articulators involved in the

constriction are further apart still than they are for a fricative. The articulators
are still closer to each other than when the vocal tract is in its neutral position,
but they are not even close enough to cause the air passing between them to
become turbulent. The approximants of English are [w], [j], and [l].

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 Lesson 4. English Consonants

Affricates

An affricate is a single sound composed of a stop portion and a fricative portion.

In English [tʃ], the airflow is first interrupted by a stop which is very similar to [t]
(though made a bit further back). But instead of finishing the articulation quickly
and moving directly into the next sound, the tongue pulls away from the stop
slowly, so that there is a period of time immediately after the stop where the
constriction is narrow enough to cause a turbulent airstream. In [tʃ], the period of
turbulent airstream following the stop portion is the same as the fricative [ʃ].
English [dʒ] is an affricate like [tʃ], but voiced.

Laterals

Pay attention to what you are doing with your tongue when you say the first
consonant of [lif] leaf. Your tongue tip is touching your alveolar ridge (or
perhaps your upper teeth), but this doesn't make [l] a stop. Air is still flowing
during an [l] because the side of your tongue has dropped down and left an
opening. (Some people drop down the right side of their tongue during an [l];
others drop down the left; a few drop down both sides.) Sounds which involve
airflow around the side of the tongue are called laterals. Sounds which are not
lateral are called central.

[l] is the only lateral in English. The other sounds of English, like most of the
sounds of the world's languages, are central.

3. Places of Articulation.

The place of articulation (or POA) of a consonant specifies where in the vocal
tract the narrowing occurs. From front to back, the POAs that English uses are:

Bilabial

In a bilabial consonant, the lower and upper lips approach or touch each other.
English [p], [b], and [m] are bilabial stops.

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Fonética y Morfosintaxis.

Labiodental

In a labiodental consonant, the lower lip approaches or touches the upper teeth.
English [f] and [v] are bilabial fricatives.

Dental

In a dental consonant, the tip or blade of the tongue approaches or touches the
upper teeth. English [θ] and [ð] are dental fricatives. There are actually a couple
of different ways of forming these sounds:

Alveolar

In an alveolar consonant, the tongue tip approaches or touches the alveolar

ridge, the ridge immediately behind the upper teeth. The English stops [t], [d],
and [n] are formed by completely blocking the airflow at this place of
articulation. The fricatives [s] and [z] are also at this place of articulation, as is
the lateral approximant [l].

Postalveolar

In a postalveolar consonant, the constriction is made immediately behind the

alveolar ridge. The constriction can be made with either the tip or the blade of
the tongue. The English fricatives [ʃ] and [ʒ] are made at this POA, as are the
corresponding affricates [tʃ] and [dʒ].

Palatal

In a palatal consonant, the body of the tongue approaches or touches the hard
palate. English [j] is a palatal approximant -- the tongue body approaches the
hard palate, but closely enough to create turbulence in the airstream.

Velar

In a velar consonant, the body of the tongue approaches or touches the soft
palate, or velum. English [k], [ɡ], and [ŋ] are stops made at this POA.

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 Lesson 4. English Consonants

Glottal

The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds. In an [h], this opening is
narrow enough to create some turbulence in the airstream flowing past the
vocal folds. For this reason, [h] is often classified as a glottal fricative.

Traditionally, the classification of the consonants is shown in a chart: This chart

must follow some conventional rules:

 Columns show places of articulation, arranged (roughly) from the front of

the vocal tract to the back.
 Rows show manners of articulation.
 Within each cell, the symbol for a voiceless sound is shown toward the
left of the cell and the symbol for a voiced sound toward the right.

This is the chart for English consonants: (The one I have chosen, (table 1) is
taken from: http://www.khaledmb.co.uk/#!english-phonetics-/clu9, where you
can also find many other phonetic charts that can be very useful for you.)

Table 1. English Consonant Chart.

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Now you know how to classify the English consonants, let´s see them one by
one in order to learn more about each of them and recognize them in our
transcriptions.

PHONETIC CONSONANT SYMBOLS IN ENGLISH.

We will see now, the symbols used in English for the consonants. All
the examples have been taken from: Marian, Jacub. Improve your
English Pronunciation. If you are interested you can get this book in:
https://jakubmarian.com/pronunciation/

[b] buy, bet, big, hub, knob, superb

This sound exists in most languages and is also usually denoted by the letter
“b”. In British English, the sound is somewhere in between of “b” and “p”, in
American, it is clearly “b”. Also, “mb” at the end of a word is pronounced just as
“m”, as in numb, dumb, lamb.

[d] do, deal, dust, odd, prod, cod

Also a common sound, denoted by “d” in most languages, including English. In
British English, the sound is somewhere in between of “d” and “t”, in American,
it is clearly “d”.

[ð] that, though, there, father, breathe, bathe

A common source of problems for English learners. It is pronounced as if you
wanted to say “d”, but you only slightly touched the back of your teeth by your
tongue instead. In particular, it is not pronounced as [d] or [dz]. It is represented
by “th” in writing, but “th” is also often [θ] (see below), so you will have to learn
by heart when to use which one.

[θ] thanks, thin, think, bath, death, earth

The unvoiced possible realization of the combination of letters: “th”.

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 Lesson 4. English Consonants

[dʒ] jet, joke, giant, purge, huge, banjo

A sound approximately like [d] and [ʒ] (see below) pronounced together. It is
usually represented by “j” (which is always pronounced as [dʒ]) or by “g” which
is sometimes pronounced as [dʒ] and sometimes as [g] (as in “go”), and there is
no general rule to distinguish the two uses.

[f] fast, fat, philosophy, off, stuff, cough

Again, a sound that usually causes little trouble. It is usually represented by “f”
or “ph”, and also often by “gh” at the end of a word (but “gh” can be pronounced
also in many different ways).

[g] go, get, grass, big, dog, fig

The sound similar to “k” but voiced, i.e. with an almost uninterrupted stream of
sound coming out of your vocal chords. It is represented by the letter “g”, but “g”
can by pronounced also many different ways in different contexts. Pay attention
to “g” at the end of a word; it is not pronounced as “k”.

[h] high, how, hot, somehow, ahead, adhere

This sound may require some training. Try to make a neutral sound just by
letting air to flow through your vocal chords, and then try to “squeeze’ the
stream of air at the very bottom of your throat. The sound is represented by the
letter “h” in writing, but pay attention to all the possible letter groups in which the
letter “h” participates, e.g. “ch”, “sh”, “th”, “gh” etc. It is never located at the very
end of a word or a syllable (there’s always at least one vowel after it).

[j] you, yet, yawn, pure, cure, few

The symbol can be slightly confusing, especially for speakers of French and
Spanish. In the IPA it represents what is usually written as “y” in English at the
beginning of a syllable. It can also appear after another consonant when written
as “u”, pronounced [jʊ], or “ew”, pronounced [juː]. Notice: in words like buy [baɪ],
hey [heɪ], the sound at the end is in fact not [j], but the vowel [ɪ] as a part of a
diphthong.

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[k] keep, cat, character, sock, bloc, cheek

There are many possible ways how [k] can be written: k, c, ch, ck and others.
“Ch” and “c” can be pronounced also differently and there is no reliable rule to
decide when it is pronounced as [k].

[l], low, let, like, owl, cool, well

No special problems with this clear phonetic symbol. This sound is produced in
all the languages with a Latin origin. It is always represented by the letter “l” and
it can be located in any position inside the words.

[m] man, my, more, some, doom, seem

This sound is present in almost every language in the world and shouldn’t pose
any problem. It is always represented by the letter “m”.

[n] no, new, nose, ban, soon, keen

Again, no problem here.

[ŋ] thing, long, sang, singer, longing, bringing

This sound is produced as if you wanted to say “n” but with the back of your
tongue (the part with which you say [g]). It’s never at the beginning of a word
but can be in the middle of a word derived from a verb by adding “-er” or “-ing”
(singer, longing). In other cases when “ng” appears in the middle of a word, it
is pronounced [ŋg], as in longer. The letter group “nk” is usually pronounced
[ŋk], as in think, spank.

[p] pit, pale, poke, top, hip, cap

Nothing to say. It is a sound with presence in all Latin languages and it is
always represented by the letter “p”.

[r] or [ɹ] red, rich, rake, boar, care, tour

The correct IPA symbol of the typical English “r” is [ɹ], however, the vast
majority of English dictionaries denote the sound by [r].

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 Lesson 4. English Consonants

[s] sit, soap, same, boss, kiss, house

Again, most people have no problem with the sound, but the way it is written
may be a source of confusion. It is usually represented by “s”, “c”, “sc”, “ss”, but
all of these can be pronounced also differently (“s” and “ss” as [z], “c” as [k], “sc”
as [sk]) and there is no general rule which would help you decide which
pronunciation is the correct one. However, you should remember that “-s” at the
end of a word when it means the third person singular of a verb (e.g. “he goes”)
or a plural noun (e.g. “beds”) is always pronounced as [z], unless it follows an
unvoiced consonant (e.g. “bets”)—then it’s pronounced as [s].

[ʃ] shy, shot, chef, posh, bush, douche

This sound is created by saying [s] but bending your tongue further to the upper
palate. It is usually represented by “sh”, but sometimes also by “ch.

[t] two, tall, tea, hot, bat, put

One of the most common sounds in Latin languages. There are no problems in
the association with a letter. It is always joint to “t”.

[tʃ] chat, China, choose, rich, catch, much

This sound sounds approximately like [t] and [ʃ] together. It is usually
represented by “ch” or “tch” in writing, but be careful because “ch” is also often
pronounced [k] and sometimes [ʃ].

[v] van, very, vile, stove, leave, save

This sound is the “v” sound of most languages, but careful! not in Spanish. The
letter “v” always represents the sound which you can hear in the words above,
never [w] (as in “wow”). It is important to pronounce it as [v] and not as [f] also
at the end of a word; “leave” and “leaf” are not pronounced the same (although
the difference is subtle).

[w] we, wow, wax, dwell, swine, twain

This sound must be distinguished from [v]; “wary” and “vary” don’t sound the
same. It never occurs at the end of a word, but may appear in the middle. It is
usually represented by the letter “w”.

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[z] zoo, xenon, zoom, is, has, booze

This sound usually causes few pronunciation problems, but the way it’s written
can be confusing. The letter “z” usually represents [z], but “x-” at the beginning
of a word is also usually pronounced [z], and “s” at the end of a word is also
often pronounced [z] if it is preceded by a vowel, but not always.

[ʒ] genre, version, measure, garage, equation,

This sound is a softer version of [z]. It is usually represented by “s” in “-sion”, “-
sure”, or by “g” in “-ge”. As far as I know, there is only one English word which
starts with this sound: genre.

We have already studied all the consonant symbols. In next lesson, lesson 5,
we will study, some tendencies to place them in their appropriate occasions.

END OF LESSON 4.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY.

 Clark, John. An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology. Oxford.

United Kimdom. Blackwell. 1990
 Gimson, A. An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English by A.C.
Gimson. “2nd edition. London. Edward Arnold. 1970-
 Marian, Jacub. Improve your English Pronunciation. 2006

 The rest of the bibliography given in the General Guide.

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