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Chapter 2 Measuring distance.pdf

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dugasagemechu154
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Chapter 2

Measuring Distance

2.1 measuring horizontal distance

Measuring the horizontal distance between two points on the surface of earth is one of
the most fundamental surveying operations. It is also one of the most basic engineering
measurements. It can be measured in millimetres, centimetres, metres, and kilometres
in SI unit system and in inches, foot, yard and mile in FPS unit system. The conversion
factors are:

TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS: According to the method employed to find the distances,


there are three types of measurements. 1. Direct, 2. Indirect, and 3. Electronic.

Methods Of Measurements

1. Pacing: It is the useful method for approximate measure. A person can

determine the value of his average pace by counting the paces necessary for him to
walk a distance which has previously been measured more precisely (for example, with a
steel tape). For most people pacing is done most satisfactorily, when taking natural
steps. Some others like to try to take paces of certain lengths (e.g. 1 m), but this
method is tiring for long distances and usually gives results of lower precision for short
or long distances. As horizontal distances are needed, some adjustments should be made
when pacing is done on sloping ground.
2. Odometer: An odometer converts the number of revolutions of a wheel of a known
circumference to a distance. This has advantage in preliminary surveys where precise
distances are not necessary. Odometer distances should be converted to horizontal
distance when the slope of the ground is steep. With odometers, an accuracy of
approximately 1/200 of the distance is reasonable. Distance can be found by the following
formula:

Distance = (number of revolutions of the wheel) x (circumference of the wheel)

3. Tacheometry: Techniques that indirectly provide required measurements are called


tacheometry. Tacheometry (stadia in US) is a surveying method used to determine the
horizontal distance to, and elevation of, a point. In this, distance is measured not
directly but indirectly with the help of an optical instrument called tacheometer. A
theodolite with three cross-hairs can be used with the intercept on a levelling staff
between the top and bottom crosshairs multiplied by a constant giving the horizontal
distance. An accuracy of 1/500 of the distance is achieved with reasonable care.

4. Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM): EDM instrument function by sending a light


wave or microwave along the path to be measured and then measuring the phase
difference between the transmitted and received signals (microwave), or measuring the
noted phase difference when reflecting the light wave back to its source.

5. Chain: Chain is one of the most common instruments for measuring distances (Rarely
used in Pakistan). It has medium precision level. The chains are composed of 100 pieces
of steel or iron wire called links. The end of each link are bent into a loop and
connected together by means of three oval rings. The end of the chain is provided with
a brass handle. The outside of the handle is the zero point or end of the chain, and the
length of the chain is measured from the outside of the one handle to the outside of the
other. The length of a link is the distance between the centres of the two consecutive
middle rings.
6. Tapes: Tapes come in a variety of lengths and materials. For engineering work the
lengths are generally 10 m, 30 m, 50 m and 100 m. For general use, linen or glass fibre
tapes may be used. The linen tapes are made from highclass linen, combined with metal
fibres to increase their strength. These are graduated in 5 millimetres. More precise
versions of the above tapes are made of steel and graduated in millimetres. For high-
accuracy work, steel bands mounted in an open frame are used. They are standardized
so that they measure their nominal length when the temperature is 20°C.

2.2 Errors in Taping/ Taping corrections: There are two types of errors,

1) Systematic errors and 2) Random errors.

1 Systematic errors: Systematic errors in experimental observations usually come from


the measuring instruments. This can be due to erroneous length, temperature, tension
or pull, sag, slope and wrong alignment.

Incorrect length of tape: An error, caused by incorrect length of a tape, occurs each
time the tape is used. If the true length, known by standardization, is not exactly equal
to its nominal value recorded for every full length, the correction can be determined as:

DL = D′L′
Where,

D = True distance (m or ft),

L = True length of tape used (m or ft),

D ' = Erroneous or incorrect distance measured m or ft,

L '= )incorrect length of tape used m or ft.

OR the correction in length is given by:

Cl = D-D’

Where

Cl= Correction in total length due to use of erroneous tape.

NOTE: Too short means that the tape measures more than the true length, therefore we
have to subtract the correction in length Cl from erroneous length, and Too long means that
the tape measures lesser than the true length, therefore we have to add the correction
in length Cl to erroneous length.

Example The distance between two stations were measured with a 20 m chain and
found to be 1000 m. The same distance was measured from 30 m chain and found to
be 996.17 m. If a 20 m chain was 50mm too short. What was the error in 30 m chain?

Solutions

Calculate the error per meter for the 20m chain:

• The 20m chain is 50mm (0.05m) too short


• Error per meter for the 20m chain: 0.05 m / 20 m = 0.0025 m/m

Calculate the true distance:

• The measured distance with the 20m chain was 1000m, but it was 0.0025m short per meter.

• Total error in the 1000m measurement with the 20m chain: 1000 m * 0.0025 m/m = 2.5 m

• True distance: 1000 m + 2.5 m = 1002.5 m

Calculate the error in the 30m chain measurement:

• The measured distance with the 30m chain was 996.17 m.

• Error in the 30m chain measurement: 1002.5 m (true distance) - 996.17 m (measured
distance) = 6.33 m

Calculate the error per meter for the 30m chain:

• Error per meter for the 30m chain: 6.33 m / (996.17 m / 30 m) ≈ 0.190 m/m (Note: We divide
the measured distance by 30 to find how many 30m segments were measured)

Temperature correction: The correction applied to the length of the tape due to change
in temperature Ct is given by,

The resulting sign of Ct will be either positive or negative and is added algebraically to
the length measured to obtain the correct length.
Pull correction: If the tension or pull is greater or less than that for which the tape
is verified, the tape will be elongated or shortened accordingly. The correction for
variation in tension in a steel tape is given by the formula,

Cp = (p-po/AE)D

Where:
Cp = correction per distance L, ft or m
P = applied tension,
P0 = tension for which the tape is standardized,
D = measured length , ft or m
A = cross-sectional area, in2 or cm2
E = elastic modulus of the steel,
Random errors: This is also known as human error. They are may be of the form:
 Plumbing
 Marking tape ends with tape fully supported
 Adding or dropping full tape length
 Adding a foot or decimetre
 Other points incorrectly taken as end mark on tape
 Reading numbers incorrectly
 Calling numbers incorrectly or not clearly

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