TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING

CTE 124

Goal: The course is design to enable students acquire basic knowledge of Technical
Report Writing.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES:
On completion of this course, the student will be able to:
1. Understand the concept of proposal writing
2. Know content of a Technical Report
3. Understand the information that is required in technical report writing

By Engr. Otobong
Onwunali

THE CONCEPT OF PROPOSAL WRITING

Writing a good proposal is a very important tool for organizing time and resources to
complete a project which fully realizes your objectives. Some use it as an informal
"Contract" to establish an agreement about the content and limits of the final project
report.

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In order to have a good project proposal, you must put the following things into
consideration:
1. Client’s requirement: Client Requirements means the materials and/or
information which is required from the Client in order for the Company to
provide the Services, as set out in the Order Form, or as subsequently becomes
necessary from time to time in the course of providing the Services. This
requirement can vary as the project proceeds.
2. Specification: This is a general description of the system to be developed. In
the IT world there are two types of specifications namely, Software
Requirements Specification (SRS) and System Requirements Specification
(SyRS).
A Software Requirements Specification (SRS) is a document that describes what
the software will do and how it will be expected to perform. It also describes the
functionality the product needs to fulfill the needs of all stakeholders (business,
users). This involves: Define your product's purpose, Describe what you're
building, Detail the requirements. Deliver it for approval.
A system requirements specification (abbreviated as SyRS to
differentiate from SRS) presents general information on the requirements of
a system, which may include both hardware and software, based on an analysis
of business needs.
3. Proposed drawing: A schematic drawing of the system is necessary to create
a pictoral understanding of the project. The drawing may be in form of
flowcharts, entity-entity relationship diagrams, etc.
4. Cost estimates: An estimated cost of the of project materials, labour etc.
should be computed in order to determine a successful completion.
5. Execution period: A time-frame should be in implementation so as to avoid
lagging. The project should be divided into frames and a deadline should be
given to each frame to aid a successful completion of the overall project.

WHAT IS A TECHNICAL REPORT?

International Standard Organization 5966 in “Documentation – Presentation of
scientific and technical reports” defines, that a scientific or Technical Report
describes a research process or research and development results or the
current state-of-the-art in a certain field of science or technology. Therefore
all documents in the following list are Technical Reports, if they deal with a technical
subject:
 reports about laboratory experiments
 construction and design reports
 reports about testing and measurements
 various theses written at the end of study courses, doctorate theses
 articles or reports about research works in scientific journals
 project reports etc.
A technical report is a formal report designed to convey technical information in a
clear and easily accessible format. It is divided into sections which allow different
readers to access different levels of information. This guide explains the commonly
accepted format for a technical report; explains the purposes of the individual
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sections; and gives hints on how to go about drafting and refining a report in order to
produce an accurate, professional document.
A technical report in science and technology may be defined as a written document
which presents the results or findings of an experiment or field observation in a
coherent and logical manner.
The Purpose and Functions of Technical Reports
A technical report, whether commissioned, routine, or produced on the author's
initiative, normally aims to achieve one or more of the following objectives:
 accurately and objectively compose and present information on an object, idea,
process, or event (the "communication objective").
 promote or "sell" an idea, product or service through rational/logical
presentation (the "marketing objective").
 clarify issues that may have remained obscure before the report was produced
(the "educational objective")
 put forward ideas in a conventional, usable or acceptable form (the "social
objective")
 recommend a specific course of action, or non-action (the "judicial objective").
Thus, a well written technical report may perform the function of informing, educating,
clarifying, socialising, modifying attitudes, or directing behaviour, in an organisation.

Types of Technical Reports

1. Formal or Informal Reports: Formal reports are carefully structured; they
stress objectivity and organization, contain much detail, and are written in a
style that tends to eliminate such elements as personal pronouns. Informal
reports are usually short messages with natural, casual use of language. The
internal memorandum can generally be described as an informal report.
2. Short or Long Reports: This is a confusing classification. A one-page
memorandum is obviously short, and a twenty-page report is clearly long. But
where is the dividing line? Bear in mind that as a report becomes longer (or
what you determine as long), it takes on more characteristics of formal reports.
3. Informational or Analytical Reports: Informational reports (annual reports,
monthly financial reports, and reports on personnel absenteeism) carry
objective information from one area of an organization to another. Analytical
reports (scientific research, feasibility reports, and real-estate appraisals)
present attempts to solve problems.
4. Proposal Report: The proposal is a variation of problem-solving reports. A
proposal is a document prepared to describe how one’s organization can meet
the needs of another. Most governmental agencies advertise their needs by
issuing “requests for proposal” or RFPs. The RFP specifies a need and potential
suppliers prepare proposal reports telling how they can meet that need.
5. Vertical or Lateral Reports: This classification refers to the direction a report
travels. Reports that more upward or downward, the hierarchy are referred to as
vertical reports; such reports contribute to management control. Lateral reports,

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 on the other hand, assist in coordination in the organization. A report traveling
between units of the same organization level (production and finance
departments) is lateral.
6. Internal or External Reports: Internal reports travel within the organization.
External reports, such as annual reports of companies, are prepared for
distribution outside the organization.
7. Periodic Reports: Periodic reports are issued on regularly scheduled dates.
They are generally upward directed and serve management control. Preprinted
forms and computer-generated data contribute to uniformity of periodic reports.
8. Functional Reports: This classification includes accounting reports, marketing
reports, financial reports, and a variety of other reports that take their designation
from the ultimate use of the report. Almost all reports could be included in most of
these categories. And a single report could be included in several classifications.
These report categories are in common use and provide a nomenclature for the
study (and use) of reports. Reports are also classified on the basis of their format.

Characteristics of Technical Reports

1 Technical Accuracy: To enhance sound scientific judgment and sound business
decision-making, based on data presented in the report. Technical accuracy also
preserves the image of the as a careful and dependable person.
2 Consistency in Presenting:
 weights and measures
 decimal or imperial systems, not a mixture of both
 numbers by maintaining generally accepted conventions in using
 words and numerals throughout the report
 alphabetic style: being consistent in your use of capitals and small letters
 punctuation, especially in your use of the full stop and the semi-colon; and
abbreviations, with or without the full stop.
The benefits of consistency in, these and other regards include pleasurable reading
and avoidance of various forms of disorientation for the reader of your report.
3 Clarity: For easy comprehension by the non-technical reader in particular, the
writer should carry out audience analysis, or at least some preliminary consideration
of the target reader(s) of the report. As an authority on the subject puts it,
“communication is an act of the recipient”.
4 Mechanical Accuracy: Standard rules of spelling, punctuation, and grammar
should be followed. Many large organisations, just like media publishing houses,
Investigation Units etc. have their own house-styles. In addition to making use of
these, dictionaries and standard reference works should be consulted when in any
doubt. A report shall be accurate when facts are stated in it. It shall not be biased with
personal feelings of the writer.
5 Conciseness or Brevity: Technical reports should be in the shortest possible form.
Brevity or conciseness makes the reading of the report less time-consuming for busy

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executives. Conciseness is also achieved through presenting the report in brief
sections with sub-titles, rather than in one long, unbroken piece, and • avoiding
needless repetition.
6 Persuasiveness: A technical report should be very persuasive as it literally means
selling a job, but it should show no emotions of the writer.
7 Interest: The interest of the reader must be retained throughout the report without
being chatty or colloquial. This can be achieved by making it lucid.
8. Suitable Title: A suitable title has to be provided to each report according to the
nature of contents. It should also highlight upon its origin and the person for whom it
is being prepared.
9. Simplicity: The language should be as simple as possible so that the report is
easily understandable. Jargons and technical words should be avoided. Even in a
technical report there should be a restriction of use of technical terms if it has to be
presented to laymen.
10. Positivity: As far as possible, positive statements should be made instead of
negative ones. For example, it is better to say what should be done and not what
should not be done.
11. Approach: There are two types of approaches: (a) Person—When a report is
written based on personal enquiry or observations, the approach can be personal and
the sentences can be in the first person and in direct speech, (b) Impersonal—When a
report is prepared as a source of information and when it is merely factual (e.g. a
report on a meeting), the approach can be impersonal and the sentences can be in
the third person and in indirect speech.
12. Logical Sequence: The points in a report should be arranged with a logical
sequence, step by step and not in a haphazard manner. A planning is necessary
before a report is prepared.
13. Proper Form: A report must be in the proper form. Sometimes there are statutory
forms to follow.
14. Consistency: A report should be prepared for many years from the same type of
information and statistical data. If so, there is a possibility of preparing a report in
consistency. It is possible if same accounting principles and concepts are used for
collecting, classifying, tabulating and presenting the information. The usage of report
is increased through consistency.
15. Routine Details: Every report should contain the routine details like the period of
time of preparing report, the period covered in the report, date of presentation of
report, the units of information, the name of the person preparing and presenting it,
names of persons to whom it is being submitted. etc.
16. Timeliness: A report should be prepared and presented within the stipulated
time. If a report is received late, there is no meaning of preparing such report and no
use for management. If the report is presented in time, necessary actions may be
taken. Obviously financial data are more valuable when the events are fresh in the
minds of users. The element of time elapsing between the events and the report

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determines to a large extent, the value of financial reports. Timeliness is generally
more important than a high degree of accuracy in the figures.
17. Up to Date: A report should contain latest information. Even though, excessive
information cannot be included in the report. It means that report should be kept up to
date which are necessitated by the changing conditions.

ASSIGNMENT 1
1. State two definitions of technical report
2. Differentiate between a technical report and a simple report
3. Discuss “Report is not an essay”

QUIZ 1
1. What do you understand by “a proposal”?
2. Why is a technical report a formal report?

SECTIONS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT

Good Form and Content
The following points are to be considered while drafting a report:
 A report is prepared in well classified paragraph with suitable heading and
subheading if possible.
 The title of the report explains the purpose for which the report is prepared
and the period covered by the report. For example: Report of the Performance of
Computer System Maintenance of April 2023.
 The title also enables to point out the persons who need the report.
 If statistical figures are to be given only significant figures given in the body of
the report and other detailed figures should be given in appendix.
 The reports should contain facts and not opinions. The opinions are given if
necessary.
 The report must contain the date of its preparation and date of
submission.
 Sometimes a report is prepared on the basis of request made by the
management. If so, the report should bear the reference number of such
request or letter.
 A report is prepared to satisfy only one purpose. Separate reports be
prepared for different subjects.
 The contents of the report should be in a logical sequence.

STRUCTURE OF A TECHNICAL REPORT

A technical report should at least contain the following sections and in the order;

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Section Details
The Cover page This is the first visible page. The cover of a commissioned
technical report should be done in colour and carry the logo of
the pertinent organisation. The quality of paper varies from
glossy bond paper to treated cardboard, depending on the
funds available and the importance attached to the role of the
report in shaping the image of the organisation.
In institutions, students can design the cover page of a
technical report with “Page Borders”, name of the school, name
of the Department, the student’s registration number and
name. the title of the report, the Supervisors’ names, title of
the project and the month and the year carried out.

Title page Must include the title of the report. Reports for assessment,
where the word length has been specified, will often also
require the summary word count and the main text word count.
It should also include: name of the school, name of the
Department, the student’s registration number and name, the
title of the report, the Supervisors’ names, title of the project
and the month and the year carried out.
Acknowledgeme List of people who helped you research or prepare the report,
nts including your proof-readers.
Abstract This summarizes the contents of a report.
Summary A summary of the whole report including important features,
results and conclusions.
Contents Numbers and lists all section and subsection headings with
page number.
Introduction States the objectives of the report and comments on the way
the topic of the report is to be treated. Leads straight into the
report itself. Must not be a copy of the introduction in a lab
handout.
The sections Divided into numbered and headed sections. These sections
which make up separate the different main ideas in a logical order.
the body of the
report
Conclusions A short, logical summing up of the theme(s) developed in the
main text
References Details of published sources of material referred to or quoted in
the text (including any lecture notes and URL addresses of any
websites used.
Bibliography Other published sources of material, including websites, not
referred to in the text but useful for background or further
reading.
Appendices (if Any further material which is essential for full understanding of
appropriate) your report (e.g. large scale diagrams, computer code, raw
data, specifications) but not required by a casual reader

Presentation
For technical reports required as part of an assessment, the following presentation
guidelines are recommended:

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Script The report must be printed single sided on white A4 paper. Hand
written or dotmatrix printed reports are not acceptable.
Margins All four margins must be at least 2.54 cm
Page Do not number the title, summary or contents pages. Number all
numbers other pages consecutively starting at 1
Binding A single staple in the top left corner or 3 staples spaced down the
left hand margin. For longer reports (e.g. year 3 project report)
binders may be used.

How to Write a Technical Report

Engineers, scientists, and medical professionals need to be good writers too—and
technical reports prove it! A good technical report presents data and analysis on a
specified topic in a clear, highly-organized, and effective manner. Before you begin
writing, define your message and audience, and make an outline. Then, write the
main body of the report and surround it with the other necessary sections, according
to your chosen layout.

 Planning Your Report

 Establish the message you want to convey through the report
 Define your audience before you begin writing
 Create an outline to follow while you write. Technical
 Create a thorough but focused introduction to the report.
 Provide background information and/or a literature review in the next section.
 Follow up with a clear and detailed project description. In this section, you
basically tell your reader what it is you actually did to tackle the problem or
issue at hand. Tell them what type of testing or analysis you did, using what
methods and equipment, and any other relevant details.
 If, for instance, your report is focused on a particular experiment, be
specific on the way it was conceived, set up, and conducted.
 This is sometimes called a “methods” section, since you are describing
the methods used to conduct your research
 Present your data and describe what it all means in the next sections
 Round out the report with a conclusion that bookends your introduction
Check for specific guidelines with your institution, employer, etc. While there is
a fair amount of standardization when it comes to organizing technical reports,
the particular layout can vary somewhat by discipline or other factors. The
following layout, for instance, is a fairly standard guide one that might be used
in your particular case:
 Title Page
 Abstract
 Executive Summary
 Table of Contents
 List of Figures / List of Tables
 Main Report: Introduction; Background / Literature Review; Project
Description;

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 Data / Description of Data; Conclusion
 Acknowledgements
 References
 Appendices
Provide a condensed overview of the report in the abstract. The goal of a
technical report abstract is to boil down the essentials of the report into about 300
words. You need to provide a very quick rundown of what the report covers and any
conclusions or recommendations you make in it.
 Write the abstract after you have written the actual report. You want it to be a
condensed description of what you have written, not of what you intend to
write.
 Check to see if there is a specific word limit for your abstract. Even if there is
not, 300 words is a good word limit to aim for.
Create an executive summary that condenses the report by about 90%.
Executive summaries get their name due to the fact that they are targeted toward
high-ranking executives who presumably would not have time to read the whole
report. The executive report should be longer and more detailed than the abstract, but
still be only about 10% of the length of the main report.
 The executive summary should focus on your findings, conclusions, and/or
recommendations, and allow the report itself to present the data—although
highlights of the data should be provided.
 Depending on your situation, you may need to write an abstract, an executive
summary, or both.
 Draw up a table of contents, list of tables, and list of figures. The table
of contents should break down the entire report section-by-section, so readers
can quickly get a feel for the entire report and find any particular section.
Technical reports are data-driven and invariably have many tables and figures,
so provide lists of each that quickly identify them and let readers know where to
locate them.
 Follow the main body of the report with an acknowledgments section.
While acknowledgements sections in books or other types of research papers
often thank friends and family, in technical reports they typically focus on
mentioning those who directly helped facilitate the creation of the report.
 Use appendices to provide useful but not essential information. If, for
instance, you have a great deal of raw data that is not in itself essential to the
report, but which is enlightening nevertheless, include it in one or more
appendices. Never put anything you consider essential to the report in an
appendix—find a place for it in the main body of the work.
 Use a consistent, easy-to-navigate format when creating appendices.
They are not meant to be dumping grounds for random snippets of data or
information.

Aim and Objectives: This specifies the main aim of the report, keynotes from
which conclusions can be drawn. These objectives often fall under a number of broad
groupings.

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Scope and Limitations: You should make your scope notes clear and precise. Any
known limitations of the report should be similarly stated and hence the reservations
and precautions that have to be exercised in reading and/or using it. If such limitations
are due to specific problems encountered in the course of data collection or analysis,
you should state them explicitly.

Data Analysis: Data analysis is the method of processing and presentation of data
in a form that can be understood by the reader. This includes the use of:
(a) Graphical Method: This includes the use of graphs and charts, histogram etc.
to present data in a form that conveys information.
(b) Tabular Method: This involves the use of tables to present data in a form that
conveys information to the reader.
(c) Descriptive Method: This is the use of text to explain by describing the
information represented by the data.
Presentation of Data (Use of Appendices)
Appendices are sections at the end of academic writing with nonessential information
on the topic that still might be helpful for the reader. They typically contain charts,
graphs, maps, images, or raw statistical data.
Appendices are used to present helpful supplemental information in a way that
doesn’t distract from the flow of the main text. That’s why they typically come at the
end of a paper, set apart but still easy to find.
Appendices can include virtually any content that’s relevant to the paper’s topic
without being necessary. Usually, this consists of charts, graphs, maps, images,
videos, lists, and documentation on the research testing process (like interview
transcripts).
Each appendix should start on a separate page at the end of a paper, after the
bibliography. If you have more than one appendix in your paper, label each by letter,
as in Appendix A, Appendix B, etc. Appendices should also have a separate title that
describes their content, such as “Map of the Mongol Empire,” which is written on a
separate line.

KEY SECTIONS OF PROJECT

1. Introduction: Introduction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole;
whereas, deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise. In fact,
logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision
making.
2. Literature review: The term LITERATURE REVIEW means to organise the
knowledge of the specific area of research to evolve an edifice of knowledge to
show that this study would be an addition to this field. The task of review of
literature is highly creative and tedious because the research has to synthesise
the available knowledge of the field in a unique way to provide the rationale for
his/her study.
3. Methodology: This is the method implemented by the writer to carry out the
tasks.
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 4. Results & discussions: This is the end-product of the work carried out by the
writer.
5. Conclusions: This is a note by the writer which can state the challenges he/she
encountered and suggestions of more work to be done by another researcher.

ASSIGNMENT 2
1. Why is it necessary to follow the structure in writing a technical report
2. Differentiate between abstract and introduction
3. What do you understand by executive summary

THE MAIN SECTION

Terms of Reference
A commissioned report should contain the agreed terms of reference for the report.
While the primary value of this part of the report is to enable the clients evaluate the
product they had contracted to pay for, it may also serve to adjudicate in any dispute
between the clients and the writer(s) of the report.

Technical Terms and Symbols

Technical report writing in science and technology will normally use a large number of
technical terms and symbols. You should list and explain only those that have been
used in the report, not some general list of terms and symbols in a particular branch
of science. The writer may also wish to assemble them as a 'Glossary of Technical
Terms and Symbols', either as part of 'preliminary' or as 'end matter.'
Main Report
The 'main body' of your technical report should contain all that is new in your study
which you want to share with your readers as clearly and completely as you can. No
extraneous material, that is, material that should properly belong to the 'preliminary'
or 'end' aspects of your report, must be found here.

Executive Summary
This is much more than an 'abstract' or 'summary' in a scientific paper. It is rather a
comprehensive overview of what the reader is going to find in the body of the report.
You should write it keeping in mind the busy executive who will have neither the
inclination nor the time to read the whole of your report. It is a mistake, however, to
make it so snappy that the reader is forced to refer constantly to the body of your
work in order to get the "Comprehensive overview" that you are trying to convey. It
requires considerable practice before you get the required balance right.
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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Collect four scientific documents of about 50, 100, 150, and 200 pages respectively.
Beginning with the shortest document, prepare an executive summary
(comprehensive overview) of each document until you are confident of doing the
longest document with considerable ease.

Methods of Data Collection

You should endeavour to give as much detail here as is necessary to leave your reader
in no doubt whatsoever about which methods you have used, why you have used
them, and any special circumstances for using them. If you suspect that a 'general
method' may not be well known to your targeted audience, provide all the necessary
explanations to remove all doubt.

Analysis and Interpretation of Data

Remember that you are analysing and interpreting your data for the study, not
someone else's. Occasionally, of course, you will have to compare your analysis and
interpretation with those of previous or contemporary writers on the subject. You must
do so with care so that the reader's attention is not unduly diverted away from your
analysis and interpretation.
Findings/Results
Some writers prefer 'results' to 'findings' as the outcome of their scientific work.
Generally, 'results' are the outcome of experimental research, while 'findings'
normally relate to field observations. The important point here is that you list your
results/findings in a logical manner most suitable for the kind of study you are
reporting.

Discussion and Conclusions

Here, you give discussion full reign by citing as many relevant references as possible -
published and unpublished. Your discussion should lead logically to your conclusions
for the study, and you will be wise to number all your conclusions for easy grasp.

Recommendations
Based on the conclusions, your recommendations are also best presented in a
numbered list and justified with the pertinent conclusions. Since this may be the only
section of your report that many important readers will have time for, you should give

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deep thought to writing it. In particular, always remember that your recommendations
must derive scientifically from material within, not outside, the report.

End Matter
The 'end matter’ comprises material which, though important, is not essential to the
understanding or even appreciation of your report. In the interest of your self-image
as a writer, however, you should give it the same level of attention as you gave the
preliminary and main components of your report.
Appendices
This is where to place statistics, photographs, questionnaires, interview schedules,
and such other information necessary to your report but too cumbersome to include in
the main body without disturbing your trend of thought.

References and Bibliography

Unless your report is essentially academic, a list of references in the report will do
without a bibliography. The important point for you to note is that the references must
be listed in accordance with the rules of a specified house-style or published text. A
bibliography includes all documentary sources consulted but not necessarily
mentioned in the main body of your report.

Acknowledgements
You should acknowledge any significant help that you received from any individual.
Specifically, you should acknowledge the source of special equipment, cultures or
other materials. Further, you should acknowledge the help of anyone who contributed
significantly to your study or to the interpretation of your data. The important element
in acknowledgements is simple courtesy.

Distribution List
Where relevant, you may include a distribution list at the end to ensure that your
report reaches all those entitled to receive it.

ASSIGNMENT
List and explain the components of a technical report.

IMPORTANT THINGS TO CONSIDER WHILE WRITING A REPORT

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Planning the report
Here is a checklist of the main stages;
 Collect your information. Sources include laboratory handouts and lecture notes,
the University Library, the reference books and journals in the Department
office. Keep an accurate record of all the published references which you intend
to use in your report, by noting down the following information;

Journal article:
author(s)
title of article
name of journal (italic or underlined)
year of publication
volume number (bold)
issue number, if provided (in brackets)
page numbers

Book:
author(s)
title of book (italic or underlined)
edition, if appropriate
publisher
year of publication
 Creative phase of planning. Write down topics and ideas from your researched
material in random order. Next arrange them into logical groups. Keep note of
topics that do not fit into groups in case they come in useful later. Put the
groups into a logical sequence which covers the topic of your report.
 Structuring the report. Using your logical sequence of grouped ideas, write out a
rough outline of the report with headings and subheadings.

Writing the first draft

Who is going to read the report? For coursework assignments, the readers might be
fellow students and/or faculty markers. In professional contexts, the readers might be
managers, clients, project team members. The answer will affect the content and
technical level, and is a major consideration in the level of detail required in the
introduction.
Begin writing with the main text, not the introduction. Follow your outline in terms of
headings and subheadings. Let the ideas flow; do not worry at this stage about style,
spelling or word processing. If you get stuck, go back to your outline plan and make
more detailed preparatory notes to get the writing flowing again.
Make rough sketches of diagrams or graphs. Keep a numbered list of references as
they are included in your writing and put any quoted material inside quotation marks
(see Section 11).
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Write the Conclusion next, followed by the Introduction. Do not write the Summary at
this stage.

Revising the first draft

This is the stage at which your report will start to take shape as a professional,
technical document. In revising what you have drafted you must bear in mind the
following, important principle;
 the essence of a successful technical report lies in how accurately and concisely
it conveys the intended information to the intended readership.
Avoid the most common pitfalls in the use of English. Use what you have learnt and
the recommended books to guide you. Most importantly, when you read through what
you have written, you must ask yourself these questions;
 Does that sentence/paragraph/section say what I want and mean it to say?
If not, write it in a different way.
 Are there any words/sentences/paragraphs which could be removed without
affecting the information which I am trying to convey?
If so, remove them.

Diagrams, Graphs, Tables and Mathematics

It is often the case that technical information is most concisely and clearly conveyed
by means other than words. Imagine how you would describe an electrical circuit
layout using words rather than a circuit diagram. Here are some simple guidelines;

Keep them simple. Draw them specifically for the report. Put small
Diagrams diagrams after the text reference and as close as possible to it. Think
about where to place large diagrams.

A graph should be labeled as a Figure, not a Table. The title of the

Graphs figure should include enough detail that the image could "stand alone"
without having to read too much of the paper.

Is a table the best way to present your information? Consider graphs,

bar charts or pie charts.
Dependent tables (small) can be placed within the text, even as part of
Tables a sentence.
Independent tables (larger) are separated from the text with table
numbers and captions. Position them as close as possible to the text
reference. Complicated tables should go in an appendix.

Only use mathematics where it is the most efficient way to convey the
Mathematic
information. Longer mathematical arguments, if they are really
s
necessary, should go into an appendix.

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The report layout
The appearance of a report is no less important than its content. An attractive, clearly
organised report stands a better chance of being read. Use a standard, 12pt, font,
such as Times New Roman, for the main text. Use different font sizes, bold, italic and
underline where appropriate but not to excess. Too many changes of type style can
look very fussy.

Headings
Use heading and sub-headings to break up the text and to guide the reader. They
should be based on the logical sequence which you identified at the planning stage
but with enough sub-headings to break up the material into manageable chunks. The
use of numbering and type size and style can clarify the structure as follows;

3 Methods of harnessing wave

energy
3.1 Shore-based systems
3.2 Deep-water systems
3.2.1 "Duck" devices
3.2.2 Rafts

References to diagrams, graphs, tables and equations

 In the main text you must always refer to any diagram, graph or table which you
use.
 Label diagrams and graphs as follows.
 Label tables in a similar fashion
 Number equations as follows;

F(dB) = 10*log10(F)
……………………………………………………………………………………………… (3.6)

Originality and plagiarism

Whenever you make use of other people's facts or ideas, you must indicate this in the
text with a number which refers to an item in the list of references. Any phrases,
sentences or paragraphs which are copied unaltered must be enclosed in quotation
marks and referenced by a number. Material which is not reproduced unaltered should
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not be in quotation marks but must still be referenced. It is not sufficient to list the
sources of information at the end of the report; you must indicate the sources of
information individually within the report using the reference numbering system.
Information that is not referenced is assumed to be either common knowledge or your
own work or ideas; if it is not, then it is assumed to be plagiarised i.e. you have
knowingly copied someone else's words, facts or ideas without reference, passing
them off as your own. This is a serious offence. If the person copied from is a fellow
student, then this offence is known as collusion and is equally serious. Examination
boards can, and do, impose penalties for these offences ranging from loss of marks to
disqualification from the award of a degree
This warning applies equally to information obtained from the Internet. It is very easy
for markers to identify words and images that have been copied directly from web
sites. If you do this without acknowledging the source of your information and putting
the words in quotation marks then your report will be sent to the Investigating Officer
and you may be called before a disciplinary panel.

12 Finalising the report and proofreading

Your report should now be nearly complete with an introduction, main text in sections,
conclusions, properly formatted references and bibliography and any appendices. Now
you must add the page numbers, contents and title pages and write the summary.

The Summary
The summary, with the title, should indicate the scope of the report and give the main
results and conclusions. It must be intelligible without the rest of the report. Many
people may read, and refer to, a report summary but only a few may read the full
report, as often happens in a professional organisation.
 Purpose - a short version of the report and a guide to the report.
 Length - short, typically not more than 100-300 words
 Content - provide information, not just a description of the report.

Proofreading
This refers to the checking of every aspect of a piece of written work from the content
to the layout and is an absolutely necessary part of the writing process. You should
acquire the habit of never sending or submitting any piece of written work, from email
to course work, without at least one and preferably several processes of proofreading.
In addition, it is not possible for you, as the author of a long piece of writing, to
proofread accurately yourself; you are too familiar with what you have written and will
not spot all the mistakes.
When you have finished your report, and before you staple it, you must check it very
carefully yourself. You should then give it to someone else, e.g. one of your fellow
students, to read carefully and check for any errors in content, style, structure and

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layout. You should record the name of this person in your acknowledgements.

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