Inductors

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 Inductors
 The inductors consisting of coils of insulated copper wire wound around a former that will
have some type of core at its centre.
 This core might be a metal such as iron that can be easily magnetised; or in high frequency
inductors, it will more likely to be just air.
 A single wire with electricity flowing through it has a small magnetic field around it.
 When the wire is coiled or looped with one or more turns the magnetic field add together
and reinforce the magnetic effect. This magnetic field helps to store the electric current
for a short time, even if the supply is removed. When the magnetic field around the coil
collapses, the electric current also falls off.
 Working of an inductor is based on the Faraday’s Laws of Induction. The magnetic

field is referred to as magnetic flux. For most coils the current, flowing through the coil

produces a magnetic flux, around it that is proportional to this flow of electrical current.
 Inductance

 Inductors resist or oppose changes of current but will easily pass a steady state

DC current. This ability of an inductor to resist changes in current is

called Inductance which is given the symbol L .

 Inductance of a coil is measured in Henry.

 One Henry is the amount of inductance required to produce an e.m.f. of 1 volt

in a conductor when the current in the conductor changes at the rate of 1

Ampere per second.

5
 Factors Affecting Inductance.
 The amount of inductance in an inductor is dependent on:
 The number of turns of wire in the inductor.
 The material of the core.
 The shape and size of the core.
 The shape, size and arrangement of the wire making up the coils.

 Applications
 Inductors are used in many analog circuits and are also used along with capacitors for
forming filter circuits and thus signal processing. They are also used in Switched Mode
Power Supplies (SMPS), oscillators, transmitters, receivers, voltage regulators and
also for over voltage protection.
 Inductor cores
 Inductors are normally made in the form of a coil. The reason for this is that the magnetic
field is linked between the windings and builds up. As the permeability of the medium in
which the coil is located has a major effect on the inductance.

 Cores such as iron, ferrite and other magnetic materials are used. These all significantly
increase the level of inductance that can be obtained, but care has to be taken in the choice
of core to ensure its performance is suitable for the power level, frequency and general
application of the inductor.

 Air Core : Higher frequency operation due to no core losses but a lower inductance.

 Iron Core: Low resistance with high inductance. Core losses, eddy currents, magnetic
saturation limit the operating frequency and current.

 Ferrite Core: Non-conductive ceramic material for higher frequency operation. Magnetic
saturation limits the current capacity.

 Torroidal Core: it reduces radiated EMI and provides high inductance. (NMRI)

 Laminated Core: High inductance with lower eddy current losses.

 Types of Inductors
Inductors have a wide variety and important applications in electronics.

 Coupled Inductors
 Coupled inductors: are types of inductors that share a magnetic path and influence each
other. Coupled inductors are often used as transformers to step up or step down voltage,
provide isolated feedback, and in applications where mutual inductance is required.
 Multi-layer Inductors
 Multi-layer inductors get their name from the layers of coiled wire that is wound around
a central core. Adding additional layers of coiled wire to an inductor increases the
inductance but also increases the capacitance between the wires.
 Molded Inductors
 Inductors that are molded (‫ )مصبوب‬in to a plastic or ceramic housing are known as
molded inductors. Generally these inductors have a cylindrical or bar form factor and
can be found with several types of winding options.
 Types of Inductors
 RF Inductors:
 High frequency types of inductors, also called radio frequency or RF
inductors, are designed to operate at high frequencies.
 These inductors often have a higher resistance and lower current rating.
Most RF inductors have an air core rather than use a ferrite or other
inductance boosting core material due to the increase in losses when those
core materials are used which would reduce the operating frequency of the
inductor.
 Types of Inductors
 Chokes Coil: (‫)ملف خانق‬
 A choke is an inductor that is designed to block high frequency pulses while letting
lower frequency pulse through.
 Their names comes from the choking off or blocking of high frequency signals.
 There are two classes of chokes, power chokes and RF chokes.
 Power and audio frequency chokes typically have a iron core to increase
their inductance and make them more effective filters.
 RF chokes use iron powder or ferrite beads combined with complex winding patterns to
reduce parasitic capacitance and operate effectively at high frequencies.
 Surface Mount Inductors:
 The push for smaller and more mobile devices has led to the explosion in options for
surface mount types of inductors. Surface mount inductors are often used in DC-DC
converters, EMI filtering, energy storage, and other applications. Their small size and
footprint make surface mount inductors an essential element in the mobile and portable
electronic component.
 Variable Inductor
 It is formed by moving the magnetic core in and outside of the inductor
windings.
 By this magnetic core we can adjust the inductance value.
 These types of inductors are used in radio and high frequency
applications where the tuning is required.
 These inductors are typically ranged from 10 μH to 100 μH and in
present days these are ranged from 10nH to 100 mH.
Comparison Between Capacitors and Inductors
 Capacitors:
 Blocks Direct Current
 Passes Alternating Current
 Voltage in Capacitor cannot change instantly
 Quick Voltage change produces large Current
 Stores Energy in Electric Field

 Inductors:
 Blocks Alternating Current
 Passes Direct Current
 Current in an Inductor cannot change instantly
 Quick Current change produces large Voltage
 Stores Energy in Magnetic Field
Transformers
 Transformers
 Static device which transforms electrical energy from one circuit to
another without any direct electrical connection and with the help
of mutual induction between two windings.
 Transforms power from one circuit to another without changing its
frequency but may be in different voltage level.
 Transformers are commonly used in applications which require
the conversion of AC voltage from one voltage level to another.
 Transformer Classification
 Two categories of transformers:
 Electronic transformers: operate at very low power levels, and power
transformers, which process thousands of watts of power.
 Electronic transformers are used in consumer electronic equipment like
television sets, CD players, personal computers, and many other devices,
to reduce the level of voltage from 220V- AC to the desired level at which
the device operates.
 Power transformers: are used in power generation, transmission and
distribution systems to raise or lower the level of voltage to the desired
levels.
 The basic principle of operation of both types of transformers is the same.
 Transformer -Working Principle
 Works on the principle of mutual induction of two coils or Faraday Law’s
of Electromagnetic induction.
 Faraday’s law states that a voltage appears across the terminals of an
electric coil when the flux linkages associated with the same changes.
This emf is proportional to the rate of change of flux lines.
emf =dφ/dt
 Where, emf is the induced emf in volt and φ is the flux lines in Weber turn.
 Transformer-Structure

 Need two coils having mutual inductance and a laminated steel core.
 The two coils are insulated from each other and from the steel core.
 The device will also need some suitable container for the assembled core and windings, a
medium with which the core and its windings from its container can be insulated.
 Consists of two inductive coils; primary winding and secondary winding. The coils are
electrically separated but magnetically linked to each other. When, primary winding is
connected to a source of alternating voltage, alternating magnetic flux is produced around
the winding.
 Transformer Structure
 The core provides magnetic path for the flux, to get linked with the
secondary winding.
 Most of the flux gets linked with the secondary winding.
 As the flux produced is alternating, emf gets induced in the secondary
winding according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
This emf is called 'mutually induced emf', and the frequency of
mutually induced emf is same as that of supplied emf.
 If the secondary winding is closed circuit, then mutually induced
current flows through it, and hence the electrical energy is transferred
from one circuit (primary) to another circuit (secondary).
 Transformer-Structure
 As the transformer is basically a linear device, a ratio exists between the
numbers of turns of the primary coil divided by the number of turns of the
secondary coil.
 This ratio, called the ratio of transformation, more commonly known as a
transformers (turns ratio) = (TR).
 It is necessary to know the ratio of the number of turns of wire on the
primary winding compared to the secondary winding.
 The turns ratio, which has no units, compares the two windings in order and
is written with a colon, such as 4:1 (4-to-1). This means in this example, that
if there are 4 volts on the primary winding there will be 1 volt on the
secondary winding, 4 volts-to-1 volt.
 Transformer emf Equation
 N1 = Number of turns in primary
 N2 = Number of turns in secondary
 Ømax = Maximum flux in the core in webers = Bmax X A
 f = Frequency of alternating current input in hertz (HZ)
 As shown in figure above, the core flux increases from its zero value to maximum value Ømax in one
quarter of the cycle , that is in ¼ frequency second.
 Therefore, average rate of change of flux = Ømax/ ¼ f = 4f ØmaxWb/s
 Now, rate of change of flux per turn means induced electro motive force in volts.
 Therefore, average electro-motive force induced/turn = 4f Ømaxvolt
 If flux Ø varies sinusoidally, then r.m.s value of induced e.m.f is obtained by multiplying the average
value with form factor.
 Form Factor = r.m.s. value/average value = 1.11
 Therefore, r.m.s value of e.m.f/turn = 1.11 X 4f Ømax = 4.44f Ømax
 Now, r.m.s value of induced e.m.f in the whole of primary winding = (induced e.m.f./turn) X Number of
primary turns
 Therefore, V1 = 4.44f N1Ømax = 4.44fN1BmA
 Similarly, r.m.s value of induced e.m.f in secondary is
 V2 = 4.44f N2 Ømax = 4.44fN2BmA
 Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)
 This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.
 V2/ V1 = N2/N1 = K
 (1) If N2>N1 , that is K>1 , then transformer is called step-up transformer.
 (2) If N2<N1, that is K<1 , then transformer is known as step-down transformer.
 For an ideal transformer,
 Input V1 = output V2
 V1I1 = V2I2
 Or, I2/I1 = V1/V2 = 1/K
 Hence, currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio.
 Transformers based on voltage levels
 Classified as step-up and step-down transformers as the voltage ratios from
primary to secondary
 Step-up transformer
 The secondary voltage is stepped up with a ratio compared to primary

voltage. This is achieved by increasing the number of coil turns in the

secondary as shown in figure.

 Step-down transformer
 Voltage is stepped down at the secondary from high voltage primary so
that it is called as step-down transformer.
 The winding turns will be high at primary side where as it will less
at secondary side.
 Electromechanical Devices
 Devices which carry out electrical operations by using moving parts are known
as electromechanical devices.

 Devices which involve an electrical signal to create mechanical movement, or

mechanical movement to create an electric signal.

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 Electromechanical Relays
 A relay is an electrically operated switch.
 Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically operate a switch.
 Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-
power signal or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal.
 Relay- Constructional Diagram
 Electromechanical relays are electrically operated switches that rely on mechanical contacts
as the switch mechanism.
 Relay consists a inductor coil, a spring, Swing terminal (armature), and two high power
contacts named as normally closed (N/C) and normally opened (N/O).
 Relay uses an Electromagnet to move swing terminal between two contacts (N/O and
N/C).
 When there is no power applied to the inductor coil (Relay is OFF), the spring holds the
swing terminal is attached to NC contact.
 Whenever required power is applied to the inductor coil, the current flowing through the
coil generates a magnetic field which is helpful to move the swing terminal and attached
it to the normally open (NO) contact. Again when power is OFF, the spring restores the
swing terminal position to NC.
Constructional Diagram and Schematic
Representation
 Pole and Throw
 A switch has at least two terminals: one for the signal to go in and one for the
signal to go out.
 A relay is said to switch one or more poles. Each pole has contacts that can be
thrown in mainly three ways. They are
 Normally Open Contact (NO) – NO contact is also called a make contact. It
closes the circuit when the relay is activated. It disconnects the circuit when the
relay is inactive.
 Normally Closed Contact (NC) – NC contact is also known as break contact.
This is opposite to the NO contact. When the relay is activated, the circuit
disconnects. When the relay is deactivated, the circuit connects.
 Change-over (CO) / Double-throw (DT) Contacts – This type of contacts are
used to control two types of circuits. They are used to control a NO contact and
also a NC contact with a common terminal. According to their type they are
called by the names break before make and make before break contacts.
 Electromechanical Relays-Types
 There are two types of electromechanical relays: latching and non-
latching.
 A latching relay maintains its state after being actuated. It has no
default position and remains in its last position when the drive current
stops flowing.
 A latching relay has internal magnets that hold the relay once current
starts flowing; this reduces energy because once actuated, it requires
no current flow to maintain its position.
 Electromechanical Relays-Types
 A relay can also be classified by its number of throws and poles.
 Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) – This type of relay has a total of four terminals.
Out of these two terminals can be connected or disconnected. The other two terminals
are needed for the coil.
 Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) – This type of a relay has a total of five terminals.
Out f these two are the coil terminals. A common terminal is also included which
connects to either of two others
 Double Pole Single Throw (DPST) – This relay has a total of six terminals. These
terminals are further divided into two pairs. Thus they can act as two SPST’s which are
actuated by a single coil. Out of the six terminals two of them are coil terminals.
 Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) – This is the biggest of all. It has mainly eight
relay terminals. Out of these two rows are designed to be change over terminals. They
are designed to act as two SPDT relays which are actuated by a single coil.
Electromechanical Relays-Types
 Relays-Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages of relay:
 Contacts can switch AC or DC
 Low initial cost
 Very low contact voltage drop, thus no heat sink is required
 High resistance to voltage transients
 No Off-State leakage current through open contacts

 Limitations of Electromechanical relay

 Low speed of operation.
 Change in characteristics over a period due to ageing effect.
 Shorter mechanical lifetime.
 Component failure leading to relay failure.
 Relay is Bulky: Because there are internal mechanical components with physical
dimension restraints, the package size of an electromechanical Relay can limit the
size of a PCB design Excessive power consumption.
 Applications of Relay
1. Relays are used to realize logic functions.
2. They play a very important role in providing safety critical logic.
3. Relays are used to provide time delay functions.
4. They are used to time the delay open and delay close of contacts.
5. Relays are used to control high voltage circuits with the help of low voltage
signals. 6. They are used to control high current circuits with the help of low
current signals.
7. They are also used as protective relays.
 Contactors
 When a relay is used to switch a large amount of electrical power
through its contacts, it is designated by a special name: contactor.
 Contactors typically have multiple contacts, and those contacts are usually
(but not always) normally-open, so that power to the load is shut off when
the coil is de-energized.
 Perhaps the most common industrial use for contactors is the control
of electric motors.
Contactor Circuit Diagram

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 Contactor
 The top three contacts switch the respective phases of the incoming 3-
phase AC power, typically at least 480 Volts for motors 1 horsepower or
greater. The lowest contact is an “auxiliary” contact which has a current
rating much lower than that of the large motor power contacts, but is
actuated by the same armature as the power contacts. The auxiliary
contact is often used in a relay logic circuit, or for some other part of the
motor control scheme, typically switching 120 Volt AC power instead of
the motor voltage.