Advances in Internet of Things, 2022, 12, 9-17

https://www.scirp.org/journal/ait
ISSN Online: 2161-6825
ISSN Print: 2161-6817

A Review of Lightweight Cryptographic

Schemes and Fundamental Cryptographic
Characteristics of Boolean Functions

Nahla Fatahelrahman Ibrahim1, Johnson Ihyeh Agbinya2

1
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, Sudan University of Science and Technology (SUST),
Khartoum, Sudan
2
School of Information Technology and Engineering, Melbourne Institute of Technology, Melbourne Victoria, Australia

How to cite this paper: Ibrahim, N.F. and Abstract

Agbinya, J.I. (2022) A Review of Lightweight
Cryptographic Schemes and Fundamental In this paper, we survey a number of studies in the literature on improving
Cryptographic Characteristics of Boolean lightweight systems in the Internet of Things (IoT). The paper illustrates re-
Functions. Advances in Internet of Things,
cent development of Boolean cryptographic function Application and how it
12, 9-17.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ait.2022.121002 assists in using hardware such as the internet of things. For a long time there
seems to be little progress in applying pure mathematics in providing security
Received: November 29, 2021
since the wide progress made by George Boole and Shannon. We discuss cryp-
Accepted: January 16, 2022
Published: January 19, 2022 tanalysis of Boolean functions to avoid trapdoors and vulnerabilities in the de-
velopment of block ciphers. It appears that there is significant progress. A
Copyright © 2022 by author(s) and comparative analysis of lightweight cryptographic schemes is reported in terms
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
of execution time, code size and throughput. Depending on the schemes and
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International the structure of the algorithms, these parameters change but remain within
License (CC BY 4.0). reasonable values making them suited for Internet of things applications.
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
The driving force of lightweight cryptography (LWC) stems mainly from its
Open Access
direct applications in the real world since it provides solutions to actual prob-
lems faced by designers of IoT systems. Broadly speaking, lightweight crypto-
graphic algorithms are designed to achieve two main goals. The first goal of a
cryptographic algorithm is to withstand all known cryptanalytic attacks and
thus to be secure in the black-box model. The second goal is to build the cryp-
tographic primitive in such a way that its implementations satisfy a clearly
specified set of constraints that depend on a case-by-case basis.

Keywords
Internet of Things, Lightweight Cryptographic Scheme, Vectorial Boolean
Functions, IoT Differential Cryptanalysis

DOI: 10.4236/ait.2022.121002 Jan. 19, 2022 9 Advances in Internet of Things

N. F. Ibrahim, J. I. Agbinya

1. Introduction
Data security is an important issue in any wireless cryptographic protocol; a cryp-
tographic algorithm is an essential part of network security. One of the break-
through techniques is “Lightweight Cryptography (LWC)”. A lightweight cryp-
tographic scheme is suitable for implementation in resource-constrained envi-
ronments such as RFID, sensor networks, healthcare, IoT, cyber-physical sys-
tems, distributed control systems, indicators, meters, custom controls, smart
energy systems, etc. [1]. However, most of the above IoT devices suffer from
many limitations. They are resource-poor devices with limited computing pow-
er, battery (lifetime), memory, and computational speed. Therefore, a lot of at-
tention needs to be paid to these devices, especially when it comes to data
processing. The huge amount of data exchanged between all nodes in wireless
networks brings new risks and more challenges. One of them is the limitation of
resources (e.g., energy), and many other combinations of factors suffer from fi-
nancial constraints. However, the share of resources devoted to security is very
small and represents only a fraction of the total resources available.
The structure of the paper is as follows: Section 2 discusses different types of
cryptographic techniques. Section 3 briefly surveys various examples in the text
that illustrate lightweight cryptographic algorithms for IoT. This paper should
not consider as a comprehensive history of cryptology or the algorithms them-
selves, but rather a focused review on lightweight cryptography for IoT. Section
4 begins with a history of the notion of Boolean functions history, which at-
tempts to illustrate their importance in the particular building blocks of symme-
tric cryptographic systems modern block ciphers, and also provides review in-
cludes cryptanalysis of Boolean functions. Finally Section 5 concludes the work.

2. Kind of Cryptographic Schemes

2.1. Lightweight Cryptographic Schemes
We define lightweight cryptography to have the following attributes, occupies
less memory, small computational resources, and low energy consumption (when
compared with state or the art standard cryptographic schemes such as AES,
DES, RSA) to provide a security solution that can operate on resource-constrained
devices. Lightweight cryptography is expected to be simpler and faster compared
to traditional cryptography.

2.2. Heavy Cryptographic Schemes

Heavyweight cryptography systems such as DES and AES are not suitable for
IoT scenarios as their resources such as energy and real-time execution are li-
mited. Therefore, lightweight cryptography solutions are well desirable for IoT.

3. A Lightweight Cryptographic Scheme for IoT

In [2], the authors proposed a family of new lightweight variants of DES (Data
Encryption Standard), which are called DESL/DESX/DESXL (lightweight mod-

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 N. F. Ibrahim, J. I. Agbinya

ified versions of the well-known DES). The main idea of the new variants of DES
is to use just one S-box recursively, instead of eight different S-boxes in order to
minimize the hardware implementation.
A study in [3] presented PRINCE in 2012, which provides a new dimension to
lightweight cryptography by achieving low latency. It also focuses on hardware
implementation. It utilized 128 bits key and comprised of 64 bits block with 12
rounds. The S-box of this cipher was non-linear i.e. it used Feistel structure. The
main advantage of the Feistel structure is that the same program code can be
used for the encryption and decryption process. It also helps in reducing the
usage of memory. Unfortunately the cipher can be susceptible to related-key at-
tacks if the Feistel structure utilizes alternating keys. Some other lightweight
cryptographic schemes noteworthy to mention from this generation are Hum-
ming-Bird, KASUMI, and Piccolo.
A study in [4] have shown a simple, lightweight block cipher, SIMON, and
SPECK in 2015 that performs on heterogeneous platforms with ease due to its
inherent simplicity.
In [5] was presented in 2015. Notably is appropriate for RFID tags and WSN
etc. The main idea in the design of Simeck is use of a slightly simplified version
of the round function of Simon by changing shift numbers in order to realize an
acceptable trade-off between hardware performance and security.
In [6], the authors proposed lightweight design choices for LED-like block ci-
phers. In this work, 4 × 4 Serial matrices are preferred choice for building diffu-
sion layers of lightweight block ciphers in order to satisfy the optimization of a
reduced area in hardware designs.
In a study [7], authors elaborated on various aspects of lightweight crypto-
graphy (LWC). The authors purposed a lightweight hybrid algorithm for IoT
devices. It tells which LWC algorithm should be used on a specific device. This
decision is made on the basis of memory storage, and power of the device along-
side the computational power required for the LWC algorithm. This article cov-
ered the timeline until 2016.
In [8], authors proposed a simplified new version of the round function of the
original Simon by reducing its impact by changing the shift numbers, so the first
rotation is removed in order to enhance the speed of SIMON and execution
time.
In [9], authors proposed a new and robust version of the original XXTEA by
employing an improved S-box in order to enhance security to overcome such
key-related and chosen-plaintext attacks.
Based on the literature survey conducted, some lightweight symmetric algo-
rithms are mentioned on the basis of block size, key size, structure, and the num-
ber of rounds.
Generally, a significant amount of focus in LWC has been on design of the
S-box to match execution speed, code size, low energy consumption and resis-
tance to attack.

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N. F. Ibrahim, J. I. Agbinya

Table 1 and Table 2 provide a comparative overview of some lightweight

cryptography schemes. The first table provides evidence on their structures
which determine the outcomes in Table 2. Interestingly the execution times
are very small typically less than 2.65 milliseconds for all of them. Simon and
PRESEN have the highest code sizes of 1510 bytes and 936 bytes respectively
which can fit fairly well in current IoT devices. They also require very little
power to process them. Twine has the highest throughput of 1304 kilo bytes
per second.

Table 1. Summary of the list of some lightweight cryptographic algorithms.

Algorithm Block size Key size Structure No. of rounds

AES [10] 128/192/256 128 SPN 10/12/14

DESL [2] 64 184 Feistel 16

Twine [11] 64 80/128 Feistel 32

PRESEN [12] 64 80/128 SPN 31

HIGHT [13] 64 128 GFS 32

Simon [8] 32 64 Feistel 32

Table 2. Comparison of lightweight cryptographic algorithms.

Execution Code size Power Throughput

Algorithm
time (μs) (bytes) consumption (μm) (kbs@100kHz)

AES-128 [10] 2.606 12.40 - -

DESL [2] - 3.192 0.18 44.40

Twine [11] 592.87 - - 1304

PRESEN [12] 2648.65 936 0.18 200.00

HIGHT [13] - 5.672 0.25 188.20

Simon [4] 105.67 1510 0.13 35.6

SPECK [4] 49.02 0.13 4.2

Simeck [5] - - 0.065 5.6

PRINCE [3] - - 0.13 529.9

4. Boolean Functions Fit Lightweight Cryptographic

Schemes
4.1. Bit of History
Boolean function was introduced about 150 years ago by the English mathemati-
cian George Boole (1815-1864) in the context of the foundations of mathematics
and mathematical logic as one of the most fundamental objects of study in pure
and applied mathematics and computer science. Boole’s treatment of the algebra
of logic (now known as Boolean algebra) in his work “The Laws of Thought”

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 N. F. Ibrahim, J. I. Agbinya

[14] laid the foundation for the development of modern digital computer cir-
cuits. Claude Shannon (1916-2001) was a gifted electrical engineer and mathe-
matician. Claude worked on his mathematical theory of communications at the
Advanced Study Institute in Princeton in 1940-41. During the world war years
he worked at Bell Labs on fire control; he continued his work on communica-
tions and also on cryptography. Based on his nascent communication theory, he
created a mathematical foundation for cryptography in 1945.

4.2. Cryptographic of (Vectorial) Boolean Functions

Boolean functions are the building blocks of symmetric cryptographic systems.
Boolean functions are found almost everywhere. In symmetric cryptography, we
find Boolean functions in stream ciphers, in S-boxes in block ciphers. Little is
known about similar trapdoor avoidance properties in block ciphers. In crypto-
graphy, confusion and diffusion are two properties of the operation of a secure
cipher identified by Claude Shannon in his 1945 secret report a “Mathematical
Theory of Cryptography” [15]. Some of the properties belonging to Boolean
functions actually affect the properties of the cipher. This is of course true for
the resistance to some attacks such as linear cryptanalysis, which was actually
intended for the block cipher. The properties of the S-boxes affect the resistance
of the cipher. But there is also some implementation properties that arise from
the Boolean functions used in the cipher. Let n, m ∈  . A function 2n → 2
with
( x1 , , xn ) → f ( x1 , , xn ) (1)

be called a Boolean function. Similarly, a Vectorial Boolean function or (vec-

tor-valued Boolean function) is a function 2n → 2m with
( x1 , , xn ) → ( f1 ( x1 , , xn ) , , f m ( x1 , , xn ) ) (2)

The functions fi : 2n → 2 are also called the coordinate functions of f.

4.3. Cryptanalysis of Boolean Functions

A study in [16], one of the most important cryptographic criteria for Boolean
functions used in block ciphers is called the generalization of the Strict Ava-
lanche Criterion (SAC). The concepts of completeness and avalanche can be
combined to define a new property, which we will call the strict avalanche crite-
rion. A cryptographic function is said to satisfy the SAC if each output bit
changes with probability one-half when a single input bit is added. The ideas of
completeness and avalanche effect were first introduced by [17] and [18], re-
spectively.
In [19], authors presented a new criterion called Global Avalanche Characte-
ristics (GAC) to measure the global avalanche properties of cryptographic func-
tions. In this work, two indicators for the new criterion were introduced. One
predicts the cross sum and the other predicts the absolute avalanche characteris-
tics of a function. However, in order to achieve good diffusion, cryptographic

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N. F. Ibrahim, J. I. Agbinya

functions should achieve low scores on both indicators.

In [20], authors presented in this work the first powerful cryptanalysis tech-
nique applied to symmetric key block ciphers: differential cryptanalysis. In the
subsequent work [21], they cracked the FEAL cipher and recently they suc-
ceeded in cracking the full 16-round DES cipher by attacking with selected
plaintexts [22].
Linear cryptanalysis was presented by [23] as a theoretical attack on the Data
Encryption Standard (DES) and later successfully used in practical cryptanalysis
of DES [24].
A study in [25] introduced a new type of attack, the algebraic attack, which
was also presented in [26] [27]. Algebraic attacks involve recovering a secret key
by solving over-defined systems of algebraic multivariate equations over GF (2).
To defend against such attacks, many authors have focused on proposing Boo-
lean functions that do not have a good linear approximation and are correla-
tion-immune with respect to a subset of several input bits, see for example [28].
In a study [29], authors A elaborated on aspects of cryptographic properties of
4-bit S-boxes with Generation and Analysis of crypto secure S-boxes such as
Output Bit Independence Criterion (BIC), SAC, Higher order SAC, Extended
SAC, Linear Cryptanalysis, Differential Cryptanalysis, and Differential Crypta-
nalysis as well as Linear Approximation Analysis. It tells 4-bit S-boxes are better
S-boxes than the 32 4-bit DES S-boxes. Boolean functions are in general lead to
fast small times due to operating speeds on binary values rather than integers.

5. Conclusions
A number of studies related to the design of lightweight cryptographic schemes
have been reviewed. A brief history of Boolean function has been expressed, for
shedding light on this function’s progress and applications. The role of Boolean
function in lightweight cryptography has been recognized with accompanying
application to IoT.
Future application opportunities for Boolean function in IoT are expected to
increase as demonstrated recently and used in a wide area. Table 1 compares the
system parameters for the schemes reviewed. Apparently, the size of the key and
cryptographic architectures are determinants for the processing times. The per-
formance of lightweight cryptographic schemes is provided as a guide in the
choice of application for chosen IoT devices and networks.

Acknowledgements
We thank Prof. Johnson Ihyeh Agbinya for his contributions for many useful
comments and his encouraging this work.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this pa-
per.

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 N. F. Ibrahim, J. I. Agbinya

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