SHREE SWAMINARAYAN COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

CC- 405. COMPUTER NETWORK

B.SC.IT SEMESTER - 4
UNIT - 2
Unit - 2
Data Networks and Data Communication System

 Circuit Switching and Packet Switching

 Many internetworks often include redundant data paths that you can use to route messages.
Typically, a packet passes from the local LAN segment of the source PC through a series of
other LAN segments, until it reaches the LAN segment of the destination PC.
 The OSI Network layer oversees the process of determining paths and delivering packetacross
the internetwork.
 Switching techniques are similar mechanisms for moving data from one network
segment to another. These techniques are as follows:
o Circuit switching
o Message switching
o Packet switching

Circuit Switching
 In telephone communication, this switching technique is used.
 In this method, transmission line is opened between two parties and held open until their
Communication is finished.
 To establish a circuit-switched connection, it is first necessary to find an available data path
and dedicate it to the exclusive use of the communicants.
 This technique is most suitable for carrying large amount of data.
 Once connection is established, no processing is required to maintain it. The entire bandwidth
and other resources allocated to a circuit and owned by the communicants until the connection
is terminated
 Circuit switching provides devices with a dedicated path and a well defined bandwidth, but
Circuit switching is not free of disadvantages
 First, establishing a connection between devices can be time consuming.
 Second, because other traffic cannot share the dedicated media path, bandwidth might be
inefficiently utilized. This can be compared to having a telephone conversation, yet not
speaking.

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 SHREE SWAMINARAYAN COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
CC- 405. COMPUTER NETWORK
B.SC.IT SEMESTER - 4
UNIT - 2

 Finally, circuit-switching networks must have a surplus of bandwidth, so these types of

Switches tend to be expensive to construct.

Packet Switching
 In packet switching, messages are divided into smaller pieces called packets. Each packet
Includes source and destination addresses information so that individual packets can be routed
through the internetwork independently.
 As you can see in Figure, the packets that make up a message can take very different routes
through the internetwork.
 Several methods of packet switching exist. Two common methods of packet switching are as
follows:

Datagram
Virtual circuit

Datagram Packet Switching

 Datagram services treat each packet as an independent message. Each packet is routed
through the internetwork independently, and each switch node determines which network
Segment should be used for the next step in the packet’s route.
 This capability enables switches to bypass busy segments and take other steps to speed
packets through the internetwork.
 Datagrams are frequently used on LANs. Network layer protocols are responsible for
delivering the frame to the appropriate network.
 Then, because each datagram includes destination address information (in most cases this is
the MAC address), devices on the local network can recognize and receive appropriate
datagrams.
 Packet switching meets the need to transmit large messages with the fairly small frame size
that can be accommodated by the Physical layer. The Network layer is responsible for
fragmenting messages from upper layers into smaller datagrams that are appropriate for the
Physical layer.
 The Network layer is also responsible for reconstructing messages from datagrams as they are
received.

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 SHREE SWAMINARAYAN COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
CC- 405. COMPUTER NETWORK
B.SC.IT SEMESTER - 4
UNIT - 2
Virtual Circuit Packet Switching
 Virtual circuits operate by establishing a formal connection between two devices in
Communication. When devices begin a session, they negotiate communication parameters,
such as maximum message size, communication windows, and network paths.
 This negotiation establishes a virtual circuit, which is a well-defined path through the
Internetwork by which the devices communicate.
 This virtual circuit generally remains in effect until the devices stop communicating. Virtual
circuits are distinguished by the establishment of a logical connection.
 Virtual means that the network behaves as though a dedicated physical circuit has been
established between the communicating devices.
 Even though no such physical circuit actually exists, the network presents the appearance of a
physical connection to the devices at the ends of the circuit.
 Virtual circuits are frequently employed in conjunction with connection-oriented services.

 PABX (Private Branch Exchange)

 PBX switch station consists of a switchboard and operator who make the appropriate
connection.
 The PBX was developed by Telephone Company to enables this type of local switching or
change over.
 The main part of PBX system are:
a. Switching system.
b. Interface.
c. Control mechanism to relay calls from outside lines to other users.
 In the year 1971, the first data line carrying digital information were installed using PBX. In
This types of PBX, voice communication was digitized using coded which are converted
analog to digital and digital to analog conversions.
 It is a private network which used in company or organization.
 Using PBX user can talk internally.
PBX control Mechanism
 The PBX system is combination of hardware and software; it is responsible for accepting
input data, translating that data into form recognized by the PBX network circuit and
supplying output data to the destination station.
 Voice enter in the analog form at the integrated interface (I) , at this point it is converted
digital form and integrated into a data channel.
 The voice data are separated from the data at the destination integrated interface. , at this point
voice data are returned to analog form.
 Voice information can also be entered into the system via analog interface, which also
converts into digital but does not integrate it into a data channel. In this case, the digitized
voice information is routed separately to the destination node.

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 SHREE SWAMINARAYAN COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
CC- 405. COMPUTER NETWORK
B.SC.IT SEMESTER - 4
UNIT - 2
 Facsimile (FAX)
 Fax (short for facsimile) is a telecommunications technology used to transfer copies of
documents.
 A fax machine is essentially an image scanner, a modem, and a computer printer combined
into a highly specialized package.
o The scanner converts the 1content of a physical document into a digital image,
o The modem sends the image data over a phone line,
o Printer at the other end makes a duplicate of the original document.

How Fax works?

 A fax machine scans an image, whether it can be text or a photo, by reading a very small area
of the image at a time.
 The fax machine decides whether the area it is reading is light or dark and assigns the area a
number such as "0" for white and "1" for dark.
 Then the fax transmits the number to a remote facsimile receiver (usually via telephone lines).
 The receiver makes a mark on paper corresponding to the area on the original image Working.

Fax System:

(Figure shows an overall layout for a fax system)

 The voice/fax/Mux block differentiates between a fax signal and regular voice call on the
telephone.
 In this block, voice communications are directed to a regular telephone handset, while fax
data are sent to an appropriate modem.
 The modem receives and demodulates the fax data, which are decoded and processed by the

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 SHREE SWAMINARAYAN COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
CC- 405. COMPUTER NETWORK
B.SC.IT SEMESTER - 4
UNIT - 2
processor block and sent to a specific peripheral printer for hard copy and terminal for video
display.
 Fax data can be entered into the system through a scanner or from data previously scanned
and stored on disk or in a computer’s memory.
 The data are encoded and sent to the modem. These are modulated and sent out onto the
telephone lines to their destination.

Types of Fax
1. Inkjet Fax Machines:
 Inkjet Fax Machines They produce prints at a much lower cost, as the consumables are not as
costly as a laser printer.
 Inkjet fax machines produce good quality prints of faxes, though the speed is slower when
compared to the other type.
 Disadvantage
o Slow Speed: If the number of faxes received per day is more than 30, then the
slow speed could be annoying and so it is not advised in places where more
faxes are expected to come. As they tend to get mechanical problems in the
long run, they arenot advised in heavy faxing and fax receiving areas.

2. Laser Fax Machines:

 Laser Fax Machines Laser printers are fit for an office environment and places where a high
flow of incoming and outgoing faxes are expected.
 These are heavy duty machines and do a good job typing out the matter neatly and clearly.
 They are also very fast and so there is no need to wait in queue to send or receive a fax.
 The Laser fax machines use a light emitting diode or an LED, which is very reliable and is
definitely long lasting.
 They are however, expensive when compared to the inkjet and thermal, but looking at the
performance, they are definitely worth the cost.
 The quality of the images and letters produced is also high.

 Introduction to ISDN (Integrated Service Digital Network)

 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication standards for
simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the
traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network
 ISDN has been specifically designed to solve the low bandwidth problems that small offices
or dial-in users have with traditional telephone dial-in services.
 Telephone companies developed ISDN with the intention of creating a totally
 Digital network making use of the existing telephone wiring system.
 ISDN works very much like a telephone - When you make a data call with ISDN, the WAN
link is brought up for the duration of the call and is taken down when the call is completed.
 Before ISDN, the telephone system was seen as a way to transmit voice, with some special
services available for data.

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 SHREE SWAMINARAYAN COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
CC- 405. COMPUTER NETWORK
B.SC.IT SEMESTER - 4
UNIT - 2
 The main feature of ISDN is that it can integrate speech and data on the same line, which were
not available in the classic telephone system.
 This results in potentially better voice or data quality than an analog phone can provide.

What is ISDN?
 ISDN is a set of standards which define an end to end Digital Network
 ISDN allows digital signals to be transmitted over existing telephone wiring.
 This became possible when the telephone company switches were upgraded to handle digital
signals.
 ISDN is generally viewed as an alternative to leased lines, which can be used for
telecommuting and networking small and remote offices into LANs.

WAN Technology

What Can ISDN Do?

 ISDN's ability to bring digital connectivity to local sites has many benefits, including the
following:

• ISDN can carry a variety of user traffic signals including:

– Digital video, packet-switched data and telephone network services.
• ISDN offers much faster call setup than modem connections
– For example, some ISDN calls can be setup in less than one second.
• ISDN provides a faster data transfer rate than modems
• ISDN can provide a clear data path

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 SHREE SWAMINARAYAN COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
CC- 405. COMPUTER NETWORK
B.SC.IT SEMESTER - 4
UNIT - 2
ISDN Interface
There are two ISDN Interface:

BRI (Basic Rate Interface)

 Connection from the ISDN office to the user location provides for access to three channels.
The channels are two 64Kb B-channels and one 16Kb D-channel
 The B-channels and the D-channel provide the user with access to the circuit switched
network

PRI (Primary Rate Interface)

 ISDN Primary Rate Interface service provides digital access via a T1 line. A T1 line provides
a 1.544 bandwidth. This bandwidth is divided into 24 64Kb channels. The ISDN PRI service
uses 23 B channel access and uses the 24th (D) channel for signaling purposes

 Multiplexing / Channelization
 Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than bandwidth needs of
the devices, the link can be shared.
 Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple
signals across a single data link.
 Multiplexing is a set of techniques that allow multiple signals to travel across the same link at
the same quarter of time. In this technique ‘n’ devices share the capacity of the channel.
 The sending devices direct their transmission to the multiplexer which combine them into a
single stream and at the receiving end this stream fed into the De-multiplexer which separates
them back.
 Multiplexing is a technique in which multiple data channels can combine and sent through
single transmission medium.
 Process of combining data stream is called multiplexing.
 Devices used for multiplexing is called multiplexer(MUX).
 Multiplexer is a device which takes n input lines and gives one output line.
 Multiplexer follows many to one approach.
 On the receiver end we use de multiplexer which separate signal into multiple signals.
 The opposite process of multiplexing is called demultiplexing.
 Demux follows one to many approach.

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 SHREE SWAMINARAYAN COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
CC- 405. COMPUTER NETWORK
B.SC.IT SEMESTER - 4
UNIT - 2

When we required multiplexing?

o There are multiple signals which share one transmission such medium, so transmission
medium divided in a way that each signal share some portion of medium bandwidth.
o When transmission medium is costly.
o When bandwidth is idle.
o There is possibility of collision
o To avoid we use concept of multiplexing
o Used in telecommunication.

Multiplexing is divided into the following categories:

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

 FDM is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of the link is greater than
the combined bandwidth of signals to be transmitted. The figure given below shows the
concept of FDM. In this example the transmission path is divided into 3 parts each
representing a channel (path) to carry transmission.
 Available bandwidth of a communication channel is shared among multiple users.
 The carrier bandwidth is divided into sub channels of different frequency width and each sub
channel is allocated to the user.
 Signal generated by each user are modulated into different carrier frequency and then

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 SHREE SWAMINARAYAN COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
CC- 405. COMPUTER NETWORK
B.SC.IT SEMESTER - 4
UNIT - 2
combined into a single composite signal and transported by the link.
 Used in broadcast radio and television.
 Guard Band: As shown in the figure channels must be separated by the Strips of unused
bandwidth. To prevent the signal from overlapping there is no Signal on the guard band and
thus causes a waste of bandwidth of the channel.

FDM Process: [Multiplexer]

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 SHREE SWAMINARAYAN COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
CC- 405. COMPUTER NETWORK
B.SC.IT SEMESTER - 4
UNIT - 2

[De-Multiplexer]

 FDM is an analog process in which various devices connected to the multiplexer penetrate
signals of almost similar frequency range. These signals are fact into the multiplexer.
 Inside the multiplexer they first arrive to the modulator which modulates them at different
carrier frequencies and thus generates a second version or the modulated version of the
original signal.
 The different modulated signals are then combined into a single atmosphere signal which is
suitable for transmission over the media link.
 On the receiving side there is a Demultiplexer. The Demultiplexer uses a set of filters to
decompose the multiplexed signal into its original components signal.
 The individual signals are then passed on to the Demultiplexer that separates them from their
carries and pass it on to the waiting receivers.

2. WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing)

 Light has different wavelength (colors). In fiber optic mode, multiple optical carrier signals
are multiplexed into an optical fiber by using different wavelengths. This is an analog
multiplexing technique and is done conceptually in the same manner as FDM but uses light as
signals.

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 SHREE SWAMINARAYAN COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
CC- 405. COMPUTER NETWORK
B.SC.IT SEMESTER - 4
UNIT - 2

3. TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)

 It is a digital technique.
 In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time with
different frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all signals operate
at the same frequency with different time.
 In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is distributed
among different users.
 Each user is allotted a particular time interval called time slot or time slice during which the
data is transmitted by that user.
 A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
 each sending device takes control of entire bandwidth of the channel for fixed amount of time.
 In TDM the data rate capacity of the transmission medium should be greater than the data rate
required by sending or receiving devices.
 In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously rather the
data is transmitted one-by-one.
 In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames.
 It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex digital
signals.

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 SHREE SWAMINARAYAN COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
CC- 405. COMPUTER NETWORK
B.SC.IT SEMESTER - 4
UNIT - 2
 TDM can be implemented in two ways:
 Synchronous
 Asynchronous
 Synchronous TDM
 In synchronous TDM, each device is given same time slot
 Each device places its data onto the link when its time slot arrives to transmit the data over the
link.
 If any device does not have data to send then its time slot remains empty.
 The various time slots are organized into frames and each frame consists of one or more time
slots dedicated to each sending device.
 If there are n sending devices, there will be n slots in frame

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 SHREE SWAMINARAYAN COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
CC- 405. COMPUTER NETWORK
B.SC.IT SEMESTER - 4
UNIT - 2
 For example time slot A is always assigned to the first slot irrespective of whether it is
utilizing it or not. Under any condition slot A will not be utilized by slot B or any other
device.
 Time slots are grouped together to form a frame. A frame consists of 1 complete cycle of time
slots including 1 or more slots assigned to each and every device. Thus for n input lines
frames would consist of at least ‘n’ slots.
 In synchronous TDM the transmission lines moves like fast rotating switch collecting
information from device to device at a constant rate and in a constant order. This process is
known as ‘inter-leaving’.
 At the receiving side the order of transmission tells the Demultiplexer where to direct each
time slot. Therefore addressing is not necessary.
 However one or more synchronization bits are to be appended before each frame for
sequencing and other information. These bits are known as Framing Bits.

Disadvantage
 The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also transmitted which
is having no data.
 The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total speed of the input lines.
An alternative approach to the Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous Time Division
Multiplexing.

 Asynchronous TDM
 An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.
 Here, also a number of low speed input lines are multiplexed to a single high speed line. In an
asynchronous system if we have n input lines, we can have m slots in the frame where ‘m’ is
always less than ‘n’.
 An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the case of
Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those devices which have the data to
send. Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits only the
data from active workstations.
 An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the devices.
 Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and creates a
frame that contains only data with no empty slots.
 In this system slots are not predefined, the slots are allocated to any of the device that has data
to send.

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 SHREE SWAMINARAYAN COLLEGE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
CC- 405. COMPUTER NETWORK
B.SC.IT SEMESTER - 4
UNIT - 2

 The above diagram shows the concept of asynchronous TDM where 4 computers are sharing
the data link having the frame of 3 time slot.
 The main limitation of this technique is addressing. As it is not fixed that which slot of frame
will contain the data of which device? Addressing is necessary for each piece of transmitted
data so extra addressing bits are required with each and every slot, so that the Demultiplexer
can identify the output line where the data is to be directed.

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