International Journal of Instruction July 2024 ● Vol.17, No.

3
e-ISSN: 1308-1470 ● www.e-iji.net p-ISSN: 1694-609X
pp. 509-528

Article submission code: Received: 06/10/2023 Accepted: 10/03/2024

20231006005651 Revision: 03/03/2024 OnlineFirst: 03/04/2024

Students’ Perceptions of Project-Based Learning in K-12 Education: A

Synthesis of Qualitative Evidence

Frederick Oduro
Beijing Normal University (BNU), China, [email protected]
Allan Muganga
Beijing Normal University (BNU), China, [email protected]
Deborah Parker
Beijing Normal University (BNU), China, [email protected]
Guoyuan Sang
Prof., Beijing Normal University (BNU), China, [email protected]

As an engaging instructional approach, project-based learning has gained

prominence as a means of adapting K-12 education to a changing world. However,
research assessing the effectiveness of project-based learning has primarily
focused on teachers, whereas studies on students' perceptions of project-based
learning have been limited to isolated cases. This review aimed to provide a
comprehensive synthesis of qualitative and mixed-approach studies that
investigated K-12 students’ perceptions of project-based learning. A meta-
ethnography approach was employed to identify, evaluate, and combine the
findings of the 14 peer-reviewed studies. These studies were selected based on an
extensive search of databases such as Web of Science, ERIC, and ScienceDirect.
Six themes were identified to reflect K-12 students’ perceptions of project-based
learning: enhancing 21st-century skills, enhancing enthusiastic engagement,
fostering interdisciplinary integration, time consumption, evoking initial jitter, and
content insufficiency. Additionally, two research gaps were identified, with the
majority of studies conducted among senior high school students in Europe and
Asia. In conclusion, this synthesis highlights the effectiveness of project-based
learning in promoting essential contemporary skills. However, caution is advised
regarding challenges, such as content insufficiency. Stakeholders should consider
targeted support and resource adequacy to optimize project-based learning benefits
for diverse students.
Keywords: K-12 education, meta-ethnography, project-based learning, students’
perceptions, synthesis of qualitative evidence
INTRODUCTION
As education continues to evolve, there is an increasing need to explore alternative
approaches to teaching and learning that equip students with the skills necessary for the
Citation: Oduro, F., Muganga, A., Parker, D., & Sang, G. (2024). Students’ perceptions of Project-
Based learning in K-12 education: A synthesis of qualitative evidence. International Journal of
Instruction, 17(3), 509-528. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2024.17328a
510 Students’ Perceptions of Project-Based Learning in K-12 …

rapidly changing modern world. The traditional model of education, which is mainly
teacher-centered, has been predominant for decades. Although the traditional approach
has some advantages (e.g., it facilitates the transmission of a large amount of
information to a considerably large number of students), it often falls short with regard
to engaging students and helping them develop the necessary knowledge and skills
(Deslauriers et al., 2019; Serin, 2018; Suyantiningsih et al., 2023). Consequently,
educators are exploring alternative teaching approaches to adapt to a changing world
(Lucas & Spencer, 2017), and project-based learning (PBL) has gained prominence
because it meets the need for education to adapt to a changing world (Boss & Jane,
2022). This approach has been identified as an effective and engaging teaching
approach in the context of K-12 education (Markula & Aksela, 2022). PBL is an
instructional approach that emphasizes hands-on collaborative learning, in which
students mainly focus on completing specific projects within a given period (Boss &
Jane, 2022; Thuan, 2018). At the heart of PBL is the belief that students must be
actively engaged in learning and have opportunities to apply their knowledge and skills
to real-world problems (England et al., 2020).
Moreover, research (e.g., Marsiti et al., 2023a; Othman et al., 2022) has suggested that
PBL can improve students' creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, and problem-
solving skills while enhancing their motivation and engagement in learning. Despite its
potential benefits, no consensus has yet been reached regarding the effective
implementation of PBL in K-12 education (Condliffe et al., 2017), and some teachers
may hesitate to adopt this approach because of concerns about its practicality and
effectiveness (Mou, 2020). Although teacher factors (e.g., classroom management,
facilitation skills, assessment, and feedback) are important for the successful
implementation of PBL, it is ultimately students who are at the center of the educational
experience (Farrow et al., 2022), and their perceptions play a crucial role in determining
whether PBL effectively caters to their unique learning needs (Wongdaeng & Hajihama,
2018). Therefore, it is crucial to consider the perceptions of K-12 students when
evaluating PBL effectiveness. Students' attitudes toward PBL can greatly impact their
motivation and engagement in the learning process, which in turn can lead to improved
learning outcomes (Almulla, 2020). By examining students’ perspectives and feedback,
educators and researchers can gain valuable insight into the alignment between the PBL
approach and students’ individual requirements. Students’ perceptions of PBL refer to
their individual understanding, interpretation, and evaluation of the instructional
approach (Parker, 2020). Such perceptions encompass their thoughts, beliefs, attitudes,
and opinions regarding the various aspects of PBL, including its effectiveness,
relevance, engagement, and overall impact on their learning experiences (Amerstorfer
& Münster-Kistner, 2021). By understanding and addressing students' perceptions of
PBL, educators can create more effective and engaging learning experiences that better
meet students’ needs (Strahan & Poteat, 2020).
Despite the abundance of research on teachers’ and students’ experiences in the context
of PBL, there is a paucity of studies focusing exclusively on students’ perceptions of
PBL (Virtue & Hinnant-Crawford, 2019). Moreover, it is noteworthy that there is a
conspicuous absence in the realm of research pertaining to the qualitative synthesis of
studies examining students’ perceptions of PBL. This notable gap in the literature

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highlights the significance and novelty of this study. Therefore, by synthesizing the
available qualitative evidence, this research endeavors to shed light on the invaluable
insights obtained from students’ perceptions on PBL, thus offering a pioneering
contribution to the field. Two research questions were proposed to guide this review: (1)
How do K-12 students perceive their PBL experience? and (2) What gaps arise from the
available results?
Theoretical Background
PBL has seen a growing trend in its use as a teaching methodology within K-12
education. Numerous studies have explored students’ perceptions on PBL, but they
have mainly focused on a specific aspect (e.g., translations with the help of PBL or the
use of a flipped classroom approach with PBL), providing various perspectives on how
this approach to learning can impact students’ academic experiences (Shih & Tsai,
2017). As an innovative instructional method, PBL promotes collaboration and
cooperation among students (Othman et al., 2022; Turcotte et al., 2022), making it a
valuable pedagogical tool for K-12 education. Although its origins can be traced back to
Dewey's constructivist approach, PBL has been used in various disciplines throughout
history (Larmer et al., 2015). From the Italian School of Architecture's “progetti” in the
16th century to engineering studies in North America and Europe in the 18th century,
PBL has been an integral part of education (Ferreira et al., 2017; Knoll, 1997; Larmer et
al., 2015). PBL is still recognized for its inquiry-based learning experiences, problem-
solving approach, and collaborative projects, all of which align with its constructivist
and participative nature (Chu et al., 2021; Lenz et al., 2015). Students’ perceptions of
PBL have also been overwhelmingly positive, highlighting its ability to enhance critical
thinking, foster creativity, and enable students to develop essential skills that are crucial
for success in their future academic and professional pursuits (Ayish & Deveci, 2019;
Marsiti et al., 2023; Meyer, 2015).
Based on the assumption that PBL should be incorporated more completely into K-12
education, Marqués (2001) found that PBL is part of a broader group of active
methodologies that have evolved to reflect the changing needs and expectations of
teachers and students. In this context, PBL incorporates a diverse range of frameworks
and models that offer useful support and guidance to K-12 students. These frameworks
enable students to navigate the complexities of the learning process and gain a deeper
understanding of key concepts and skills (Weiss & Belland, 2018). In particular, PBL
frameworks consider the fundamental shifts taking place in education and provide a
roadmap for transforming traditional didactic models into dynamic, interactive, and
collaborative learning experiences. By leveraging these frameworks, students can
develop the critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication skills they need to
succeed in today’s rapidly changing world (Boss & Jane, 2022; Mulcahy & Wertz,
2021).
As the educational landscape evolves, as mentioned above, it has become increasingly
clear that PBL can play a crucial role in helping K-12 students develop critical skills
and competencies. However, for PBL to truly reach its potential, it must be fully
integrated into the curriculum in a flexible manner that meets unique needs and is in

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line with the unique interests of each student (Boss & Larmer, 2018; Simonton et al.,
2021). Recent research has highlighted the importance of aligning students’ perceptions
of PBL with its practical implementation in the classroom and has emphasized the need
for educators to explore innovative approaches to curriculum design and delivery that
can empower students to take ownership of their learning journeys (Boss & Jane, 2022;
Kaput, 2018).
METHOD
This study employed a meta-synthesis to identify, assess, and synthesize qualitative
studies that investigated K-12 students’ perceptions of PBL. The study utilized a “meta-
ethnography” approach, an interpretive methodology initially developed by Noblit and
Hare (1988), which is used to combine qualitative data in the field of education (Britten
et al., 2002; Park et al., 2020). Unlike a quantitative meta-analysis, the meta-
ethnography approach involves interpretation rather than data aggregation (Atkins et al.,
2008; Lee et al., 2015). Using meta-ethnography, the reviewers have analyzed and
compared studies while developing novel interpretations across multiple studies (Cahill
et al., 2018). The key stages of this study are presented in Table 1.
Table 1
The process of completing meta-ethnography (Cahill et al., 2018; Noblit & Hare, 1988)
Phases Steps involved in this study
(1) Aim Our main area of interest pertains to perceptions of PBL among
K-12 students.
(2) Deciding what is Conducted search in relevant databases; applied exclusion criteria;
relevant appraised selected studies using an adapted version of CASP
(3) Reading the studies Upon careful examination of the studies, key concepts were
identified as articulated by the students and the authors
(4) Determining how the Key concepts from each study were compiled into a single file and
studies are put together the file was imported into Nvivo 14 software
(5) Translating the studies Key concepts within and across papers were analyzed, comparing
into one another each concept with others to categorize them into broader
conceptual categories
(6) Synthesizing the Evaluated whether the studies offered differing or similar
translations accounts. A line of argument was established since the studies’
accounts were similar (i.e., reciprocal)
(7) Expressing the synthesis This involved writing the synthesis while considering the intended
audience
Phases 1 and 2 focused on determining the research focus of the study and locating the
sample, respectively. The sample of studies included in this meta-synthesis was
identified through an extensive search of the Web of Science, Elsevier ScienceDirect,
and EBSCO-ERIC databases. The search was based on combinations of the keywords
outlined in Table 2. Other search filters, such as (a) peer-reviewed, (b) journal articles,
and (c) publication dates between January 2018 and April 2023 were used in the search
engines.

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Table 2
Keywords and search blocks used in databases
Search Keywords
Block 1 PBL OR project-based learning
AND
Block 2 K-12 education OR primary education OR secondary education OR primary
OR secondary OR school
The reviewers opted to conduct a review of studies published from January 2018 to
April 2023 due to the previous literature review conducted by Condliffe et al. (2017),
which encompassed the literature on the use of PBL in K-12 settings published from
2000 to 2017. The search for articles was completed on April 24, 2023, by the review
team, which comprised four meta-ethnographers of this article, all of whom were
experienced in PBL research. The search yielded 180 journal articles. After excluding
duplicate and review articles, the remaining articles were examined for their compliance
with three criteria for inclusion in the meta-synthesis after a careful reading of the
abstract and methodology: (1) the research should focus on PBL in K-12 education, (2)
the research design should be either qualitative or feature a mixed-methods design, and
(3) the research should seek the perceptions of K-12 students (as shown in Figure 1).

Figure 1
Flowchart for determining relevance
Fourteen articles were included in this review, and their quality as well as potential gaps
were assessed using a modified version of the Critical Appraisal Skills Program
(CASP)1 from 1988 (Long et al., 2020). Table 3 displays the evaluation criteria applied

1 The Critical Appraisal Skills Program was created to provide individuals with tools and
resources that can facilitate the critical evaluation of research studies. Its purpose is to help assess
the trustworthiness, accuracy, and significance of the evidence presented in these studies.

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by the three reviewers for all 14 studies. Any discrepancies between reviewers were
resolved through discussion. Moreover, throughout the critical appraisal process,
reviewers discovered that certain methodological aspects were either absent or
inadequately described in some studies. Specifically, the sampling method was either
missing or insufficiently explained in 11 of 14 studies. Despite these omissions or
ambiguities pertaining to methodological details, all 14 studies made valuable
contributions to the synthesis, and as a result, were included in the review report.
Table 3
Quality criteria and results (Atkins et al., 2008, based on the CAS Program)
Questions Yes No Unclear
(1) Does the study involve qualitative research? 14 0 0
(2) Are the research questions clearly stated? 12 0 2
(3) Is the qualitative approach justified? 13 0 1
(4) Is the approach appropriate for the research question? 12 0 2
(5) Is the study context clearly described? 12 0 2
(6) Is the role of the author clearly described? 12 0 2
(7) Is the sampling method clearly described? 03 3 8
(8) Is the sampling strategy appropriate for the research question? 06 2 6
(9) Is the method of data collection clearly described? 14 0 0
(10) Is the method of data collection appropriate to the question? 14 0 0
(11) Is the method of analysis clearly described? 11 0 3
(12) Is the analysis appropriate for the research question? 11 1 2
(13) Are the claims made supported by sufficient evidence? 14 0 0

During the subsequent phase, which focused on “reading the studies” (Phase 3), the
reviewers aimed to acquaint themselves with the content and specific details of the 14
selected articles and to identify key concepts and gaps. In the consolidation phase
(Phase 4), key concepts from both students and authors were extracted from all articles
and compiled into a unified file, which was then imported into the NVivo 14 software.
The reviewers collaborated to code the key concepts provided by the students. In cases
where students’ statements were unclear, the authors’ insights 2 were used to provide
contextual understanding. The translation and synthesis processes (Phases 5 and 6)
involved analyzing and comparing each coded key concept (totaling 47) with others to
categorize them into broader conceptual categories, resulting in six distinct themes to
explain K-12 students’ perceptions of PBL. Two additional themes were identified,
reflecting gaps in these studies. The reviewers considered the accounts of the studies as
reciprocal (i.e., similar) instead of refutational (i.e., different) and developed a line of
argument to write the synthesis (Phase 7). Table 4 presents an example of the coding
and categorization processes.

2That is, the authors for the 14 included articles

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Table 4
An excerpt of the coding and categorization process
Key concepts Conceptual categories Theme
Communication with peers
Communication with a mentor Communication and collaboration
Peer feedback 21st-century skill
Easy to understand science
Gaining new knowledge Knowledge acquisition
Throughout this process, careful consideration of and repeated references to the original
data were ensured to verify, challenge, or enrich the interpretations. Any discrepancies
in coding, grouping, or categorization among the reviewers were resolved through
comprehensive discussion. Each theme is thoroughly described and relevant examples
are provided in the Results section. The general profiles of all the reviewed studies are
presented in Table 5.
Table 5
Overview of the included articles
First Year Regional Topic Method Respondents
Author Context
Chang 2022 Taiwan Educational values and Mixed method: Open- 48 freshmen from
challenges of i-STEM project- ended questionnaire and senior high school
based learning: A mixed- interviews
methods study with data-
transformation design
Drljača 2020 Bosnia and Constructivist learning theory Systematic observations, 29 primary school
Herzegovina and logopedagogy in arts introspection, a survey, students in year
education interviews, and selected nine; 29 general
case studies secondary students
in year two
Gómez- 2020 Spain Project-based learning in the Semantic differential 114 year one high
Pablos classroom: A case study at and semi-structured school students;
High school level interviews 23/28 groups were
interviewed
Imaduddin 2021 Indonesia Students’ Attitude toward Documentations and 101 high school
STEM Project-Based Learning narrative responses students
in the Fun Cooking Activity to
Learn about the Colloid
System
Kilic 2022 Turkey Teachers’ and students’ views Semi-structured 38 students (6th -7th
about the applicability of the interviews graders);
project-based learning 11 science and
approach in science courses in technology
Turkey teachers
Lin 2021 Taiwan The Effect of a Pedagogical Quasi experimental, 114 senior high
STEAM Model on Students’ semi-structured students (14-16
Project Competence interviews years); 8 students
and Learning Motivation were interviewed
Othman 2022 Malaysia Creative Teaching STEM Case study: Worksheets, 31 grade 8
Module: High School classroom observation students & 26
Students' Perception. forms, and an open- grade 11 students
ended questionnaire

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Prachagool 2021 Thailand Literature and Project-Based Observations, 25 young children

Learning and Learning debriefing, a focus (5-6 years)
Outcomes of Young Children group, and interviews
Tran 2021 Vietnam Vietnamese EFL High School Questionnaire and semi- 147 high school
Students’ Use of Self- structured interviews students (grade
Regulated Language Learning 10-12), 40
Strategies for Project-Based participated in the
Learning interviews
Tsybulsky 2022 Israel IoT in Project-Based Biology In-depth interviews, 11 students in
Learning: Students’ observations, and one- eleventh grade
Experiences and Skill on-one discussions with
Development students
Turcotte 2022 USA This School is Made for Semi-structured Five biology
Students: Students’ interviews, group students (grade
Perspectives on PBL interviews, and 10)
observations
Ubuz 2019 Turkey Project-based geometry Classroom observations 97 students in the
learning: Knowledge and and interviews seventh grade
attitude of field-
dependent/independent
cognitive style students
Virtue 2019 USA “We’re doing things that are A focus group and semi- 28 high school
meaningful”: Student structured interviews juniors
Perspectives of “We’re doing
things that are meaningful”:
Student Perspectives of
Project-based Learning Across
the Disciplines
Zhou 2022 China Developing Core Competence Semi-structured 16 students (public
with Project-Based Learning: interviews high school
Voices from Chinese High students and 9th
School Students Serving graders)
Visually Impaired Students.

FINDINGS
According to the synthesis, the findings revealed eight prominent themes, with six
themes pertaining to students’ subjective interpretations of their PBL experiences in the
K-12 educational context, thus answering the first research question. The other two
themes that highlighted the research gaps identified based on the results answered the
second research question. The synthesized findings were grouped into three sections:
(1) four themes related to students’ classroom experiences with PBL; (2) two themes
examining PBL design and implementation; and (3) two themes addressing the
identified gaps. Table 6 provides a detailed representation of the key themes pertaining
to each study (excluding those related to gaps).

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Oduro, Muganga, Parker & Sang 517

Table 6
Key themes pertaining to each article
Study Key themes
Enhances Enhances Time- Evokes Content Inter-
21st-Century Enthusiastic Consu Initial Insuffi- disciplinary
Skills Engagement ming Jitter ciency Integration
Chang (2022) x x x x
Drljača (2020) x x
Gómez-Pablos x x x x x
(2020)
Imaduddin (2021) x x
Kilic (2022) x x
Lin (2021) x x
Othman (2022) x x x
Prachagool x x
(2021)
Tran (2021) x x
Tsybulsky (2022) x x x
Turcotte (2022) x x
Ubuz (2019) x x x
Virtue (2019) x x x x
Zhou (2022) x x
Key Themes Associated with Students' Classroom Experiences
Theme 1: Enhancing 21st-Century Skills. An overall theme observed in 13 out of 14
studies relates to how PBL enables K-12 students to develop 21st-century skills. Eleven
studies (e.g., Prachagool, 2021) reported communication and collaboration skills, eight
studies (e.g., Virtue & Hinnant-Crawford, 2019) observed knowledge acquisition, eight
studies (e.g., Kilic & Ozel, 2022) highlighted creativity and innovation, seven studies
(e.g., Tsybulsky & Sinai, 2022) found practical abilities such as writing skills, digital
competence, and leadership skills, six studies (e.g., Lin & Tsai, 2021) documented
metacognitive skills, four studies (e.g., Turcotte et al., 2022) focused on students’
autonomy, and four studies (e.g., Ubuz & Aydınyer, 2019) described students’ ability to
apply concepts.
To illustrate the development of communication and collaboration skills, a seventh-
grader acknowledged the importance of working together as a group: “I have
understood the importance of working together, respecting others’ decisions, helping
each other, group work, and sharing ideas. Our work finished more easily and faster. I
became better friends with my group mates. (…). It increased communication” (Ubuz &
Aydınyer, 2019, p. 297). Moreover, the students remarked that PBL makes it very easy
to understand concepts and apply them to real life. An eleventh-grade student in the
study conducted by Othman et al. (2022) illustrated the ease with which knowledge is
acquired during PBL: “These methods make it easier for students to understand science
concepts and the ability to apply them” (p. 2131). Senior high school freshmen in the
study conducted by Chang and Chen (2022) expressed their ability to apply the
knowledge they had acquired in real life: “I generally understood the concept of robot

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518 Students’ Perceptions of Project-Based Learning in K-12 …

and principles of robot motion taught by the teacher and later learned how to put them
into practice” (p. 8). Likewise, “I seldom operated the multimeter in school before, so I
was unfamiliar with it. After the teacher’s demonstration, I’m able to measure the
voltage” (p. 9).
Furthermore, PBL gives students autonomy in the classroom and provides them with
the opportunity to hone their creative and innovative skills. Drljača (2020) and Zhou
and Li (2022) provided comments demonstrating students’ autonomy in the PBL
classroom: “The students said they can have fun in the art class, choose the audience
they wish to present their completed projects to, (…) all of which are factors that have a
positive effect on student motivation” (Drljača, 2020, p. 194) and “All materials and
sources were collected by ourselves; that made the information more reliable and made
me understand them better” (Zhou & Li, 2022, p. 386). Classroom autonomy in PBL
settings establishes a conducive environment for student creativity and innovation.
Two students –eleventh and eighth graders– in the study conducted by Othman et al.
(2022) explained that PBL offers space for students’ creativity and innovation: “This
activity encouraged the students’ high-level thinking skills, creating various creative
and innovative ideas” (p. 2132) and “I had to think more creatively from every
perspective to give ideas to my group” (p. 2132).
Additionally, PBL enhances students’ metacognitive skills. Students had the
opportunity to plan, monitor, and evaluate their thinking and learning strategies. The
following narratives provided by high school students in the study conducted by Tran
and Tran (2020) attest to the enhancement of students’ metacognitive skills: “From my
perspective, planning is the most essential SRLL strategy because it helps me scaffold
my projects step by step” (p. 466), “I believe that attention control helps me choose the
order of assignment in priority, so I consider it as the most important strategy” (p. 468),
“In my opinion, the most important strategy when implementing PBL is self-
monitoring” (p. 469) and “I can use a self-evaluation strategy to evaluate my own
projects, so it is an important strategy” (p. 470). Regarding practical abilities, a tenth-
grader in the study conducted by Turcotte et al. (2022) explained how PBL afforded
him/her the chance to demonstrate leadership abilities: “And it’s like, I’ve learned so
much about who I am -- I mean, my leadership skills have actually come to shine. I’m
good with public speaking; I’m good with taking on a role if somebody’s not here. I’ve
found kinda who I am in a sense, and I’m a leader!” (p. 58). Another high school
student –in first year– reported working with technology: “We did a lot of computer
activities, apps, blogs, we also did a video” (Gómez-Pablos et al., 2020, p. 435).
Theme 2: Enhances enthusiastic engagement. This theme was mentioned in 10 out of 14
studies (e.g., Imaduddin et al., 2021), thereby providing insights into the motivational
aspects of PBL. Two subthemes emerged from these studies: engaging classroom
experiences, and enthusiasm for PBL. Regarding engaging classroom experiences,
students expressed their appreciation for PBL as it provided them with interactive and
engaging learning environments (Drljača, 2020). They reported feeling more invested in
their education because they actively participated in the learning process through hands-
on activity. A seventh-grader in the study conducted by Ubuz and Aydınyer (2019)
expressed his or her enjoyment and noted that PBL helped him/her understand geometry

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better, stating, “It is more enjoyable and meaningful to learn in this way. This
experience helped me understand geometry more” (p. 294). Additionally, students
demonstrated enthusiasm for PBL, viewing it as a refreshing and exciting learning
approach. They exhibit genuine excitement, eagerness, and interest in the learning
process, indicating a strong desire to learn and actively participate in PBL projects
(Tsybulsky & Sinai, 2022). Their enthusiasm was reflected in their curiosity,
motivation, and creativity when working in groups. For example, an eleventh grader in
the study conducted by Othman et al. (2022) expressed the motivation to be more active
in learning, stating, “I am motivated to be active while learning. I also must think
creatively because we do every activity in groups. If I’m passive, I won’t be able to give
a creative opinion, and I might burden my team members” (p. 2132). Students
emphasized the importance of being active and seeking additional knowledge and skills
while working as a team on their assigned projects.
Theme 3: Time-consuming. This theme was identified in five studies. While students
generally had positive perceptions of PBL, they perceived it as time-consuming because
of the increased workload and the demands of their efforts. In the study conducted by
Gómez-Pablos et al. (2020), first-year high school students mentioned increased
workload as a significant obstacle that required considerable time and effort. As they
claimed, “You have to use up more time because you have to reach agreement with
your classmates, and that takes more time,” “It took us time, and we had to do the
project and study for exams,” and “It took a lot of work and effort” (Gómez-Pablos et
al., 2020, p. 435). Similarly, in the study conducted by Imaduddin et al. (2021), high
school students voiced concerns regarding the time-consuming nature of PBL, with the
most frequent negative experience being the perception that the process requires
excessive time. Furthermore, the students discussed the frustration caused by the lack of
adequate time to complete their projects. For instance, an eighth-grader stated, “At first,
I was excited, but now I'm a little disappointed because I didn't get the chance to
complete the task because the time given was too short” (Othman et al., 2022, p. 2132).
Another student –a senior high school freshman– made the following statement: “I had
never studied programming before, and I think it is a little bit difficult, and the time and
content are insufficient” (Chang & Chen, 2022, p. 9).
Theme 4: Evokes initial jitter. One notable finding that emerged in 5 of the 14 studies
pertained to students’ nervousness regarding PBL. This sentiment was evident when
students expressed apprehension and unease when they were first introduced to the PBL
concept. In the study conducted by Zhou and Li (2022), one quotation from a high
school student encapsulated students’ apprehension concerning PBL: “All my previous
experience in class was to learn what the teachers told me, so this self-initiated research
process was unfamiliar to me and made me nervous” (p. 387). Additionally, the results
of the study conducted by Tsybulsky and Sinai (2022) indicate that students encounter
challenges during PBL. Reflecting on their experiences, the eleventh graders noted the
following: “This was the first time we had such a challenging experience” in the context
of their biology studies. They highlighted their unfamiliarity with certain concepts, as
exemplified by the following comment: “Even the language was new to us, for
example, ‘constructing the experiments algorithm’ – what is that anyway? How do you
do it? We had never experienced that before” (p. 547). Similarly, a study conducted by

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Gómez-Pablos et al. (2020) revealed that many students felt lost and overwhelmed,
particularly when confronted with new and unfamiliar projects. They expressed a need
for guidance, highlighting the importance of providing scaffolding and mentorship in
the PBL context. A first-year high school student expressed confusion, noting that “We
were a bit lost because they didn't tell us what we had to do next; we finished one thing
and had to go and ask what we had to do next because we didn’t know; they hadn't told
us what we had to do next” (Gómez-Pablos et al., 2020, p. 436). Therefore, offering
clear instructions, clarifying expectations, and providing ongoing support are crucial for
empowering students to overcome their initial confusion and confidently navigate the
complexities of PBL.
Key Themes Associated with PBL Design and Implementation
Theme 5: Content insufficiency. This issue was identified as a theme in three studies
(e.g., Chang & Chen, 2022) in which students expressed concerns regarding their
learning experiences and cited insufficient content in the provided materials and the fact
that the content was somewhat difficult for beginners. One senior high school freshman
noted, “I had never studied programming before, and I think it is a little bit difficult, and
the time and content are insufficient” (Chang & Chen, 2022, p. 9). Another student in
junior high school expressed concern with the fact that students in the PBL class lagged
behind students in the regular chemistry class, which was a source of worry to him/her:
“The only thing that bugs me is how in doing projects, we’ll focus on a certain chapter
that we’re learning, and we have, you know, a few weeks to do it and you talk to the
regular chemistry classes and they are so far ahead. I feel like in New Tech, we don’t
get to learn everything we could be learning in a whole school year” (Virtue & Hinnant-
Crawford, 2019, p. 9).
Theme 6: Interdisciplinary integration. This theme was identified in two of the 14
studies. Students acknowledged the value of an interdisciplinary curriculum in
enhancing their understanding of core concepts and their ability to apply knowledge
across multiple subject areas. In the study conducted by Lin and Tsai (2021), senior
high students provided comments referring to the diverse subject applicability
associated with PBL classrooms: “(After taking part in the curriculum) I was able to
apply this approach while reading the social studies textbook… I used to read it slowly
and in detail, but now I am able to know where the main points are immediately” (p.
120) and “For me, the High Scope curriculum allowed us to discuss different topics and
articles…and we were able to care about various situations or problems from different
perspectives” (p. 121). Furthermore, in the study conducted by Kilic and Ozel (2022),
sixth-seventh graders expressed a preference for the implementation of PBL in the
context of science and technology: “It is science because there are more projects to
choose. Also, I like science courses very much. The science course teacher is also our
classroom teacher, and she helps a lot with the projects” and “With the science course,
there are various topics to choose from, and it contains important information about life,
such as magnets and atoms” (p. 6).

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Oduro, Muganga, Parker & Sang 521

Key Themes Addressing Gaps in the Research Results

Theme 7: Geographical area. The articles included in this review were conducted in 11
different contexts across Europe, North America, and Asia. Within Europe, both the
Western and Southern regions were the focus of two studies that examined K-12
students' perceptions of their PBL experiences. Two studies focused on North America,
specifically the United States. Asia, on the other hand, accounted for a total of ten
studies, with three studies conducted in East Asia, four in Southeast Asia, and three in
West Asia. However, no studies have been conducted in Northern Europe, Eastern
Europe, Central Asia, South Asia, Africa, South America, or Oceania to investigate K-
12 students' perceptions of their PBL experiences.
Theme 8: Educational level. All studies included in this synthesis were conducted
within K-12 educational settings. Specifically, seven studies focused exclusively on
senior high school students, two exclusively involved junior high school students, and
one included only primary school students. Furthermore, three studies included both
junior and senior high school students, whereas one study involved both junior and
primary school students. It is worth noting that research on primary school students is
relatively scarce in the reviewed literature.
DISCUSSION
This meta-ethnography focused on K-12 students’ perceptions of their PBL experiences
and the gaps arising from the available results. Eight themes: 21st-century skill
enhancement, enhanced enthusiastic engagement, time consumption, evoking initial
jitter, content insufficiency, interdisciplinary integration, geographical area, and
educational level emerged from the synthesis. This section discusses the results in terms
of four aspects: (1) the implications of PBL in K-12 education, (2) PBL design and
implementation, (3) research gaps in PBL research in K-12 educational settings
focusing on student perceptions, and (4) the limitations of the study. The first and
second aspects pertain to answering the primary research question, and the third
addresses the second research question. The limitations of the study are thereafter dealt
with in the fourth aspect.
PBL Implications in K-12 Classrooms
The findings of this meta-ethnography have significant implications for PBL
implementation in K-12 classrooms. One key theme pertains to the enhancement of 21 st-
century skills. Studies (e.g., Zhou & Li, 2022) have consistently shown that PBL can
effectively enable students to develop critical thinking, problem-solving, collaboration,
and communication skills. These skills are crucial for students’ success in the modern
world and are in line with the needs of the workforce (González‐pérez &
Ramírez‐montoya, 2022). Another important theme pertains to the enhancement of
enthusiastic engagement. Students expressed appreciation for PBL, as it provided them
with interactive and engaging learning environments (Othman et al., 2022; Ubuz &
Aydınyer, 2019). They reported feeling more invested in their education and exhibiting
genuine excitement, eagerness, and interest in the learning process (Drljača, 2020; Ubuz
& Aydınyer, 2019). PBL can foster a positive learning experience that motivates

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522 Students’ Perceptions of Project-Based Learning in K-12 …

students to actively participate, be creative, and develop a strong desire to learn (Lin &
Tsai, 2021; Marsiti et al., 2023; Turcotte et al., 2022).
However, students perceive PBL to be time-consuming because of the increased
workload and demands entailed by their efforts (Gómez-Pablos et al., 2020; Imaduddin
et al., 2021). They mentioned the additional time they required to collaborate with
classmates and complete projects, as well as the need to balance PBL tasks with exam
preparation (Gómez-Pablos et al., 2020; Othman et al., 2022). Although PBL offers
valuable learning experiences, it is essential to address student concerns regarding time
management (Imaduddin et al., 2021). Educators can support students by providing
clear guidelines, structuring project timelines, and facilitating efficient group work to
ensure that PBL activities are manageable within a given timeframe (Schwalm & Tylek,
2012). Additionally, students expressed nervousness and uncertainty, as PBL requires a
shift from traditional teacher-led instruction to a self-initiated research process. They
felt unfamiliar with this new approach and encountered challenges in their attempts to
understand certain concepts and project requirements (Chang & Chen, 2022). To
address this initial jitter, it is crucial to provide clear instructions, clarify expectations,
and offer ongoing support. Educators can provide scaffolding, mentorship, and
guidance to help students overcome their initial confusion and develop confidence in
their ability to navigate PBL complexities (Boss & Larmer, 2018; Grossman et al.,
2022).
PBL Design and Implementation
The findings of this meta-ethnography have significant implications for the design of
PBL curricula. While PBL offers valuable learning opportunities, some students
experience difficulties with insufficient content in the provided materials, particularly
regarding new or challenging topics (Chang & Chen, 2022). Educators must carefully
select and develop resources in line with students’ levels of understanding and provide
adequate content to support their learning needs (Drljača, 2020; Lin & Tsai, 2021). By
ensuring the availability of relevant and comprehensive resources, educators can help
students overcome content-related challenges and promote a deeper understanding of
their subject matter (Virtue & Hinnant-Crawford, 2019). Moreover, students appreciate
the opportunity to connect and integrate knowledge from multiple disciplines into PBL
projects (Othman et al., 2022; Tsybulsky & Sinai, 2022). This interdisciplinary
approach allowed them to see the relevance and interconnectedness of different subjects,
promoting a holistic understanding of the real-world problems that they were addressing
(Chang & Chen, 2022; Ubuz & Aydınyer, 2019). Educators should strive to incorporate
interdisciplinary elements into PBL projects, thus fostering a multidisciplinary
perspective and encouraging students to connect with various areas of knowledge
(Tsybulsky & Sinai, 2022; Ubuz & Aydınyer, 2019).
Research Gaps Regarding PBL Research in K-12 Educational Settings
In response to the second research question, the literature review also revealed several
research gaps in the PBL field in the K-12 educational setting, focusing on students’
perceptions. One notable gap pertains to the geographical areas in which these studies
were conducted. Most of the included studies were conducted in Europe, North America,

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Oduro, Muganga, Parker & Sang 523

and Asia, whereas other regions, such as Africa, South America, and Oceania, received
only a limited representation. Future research should include a more diverse range of
geographical areas to provide a comprehensive understanding of students' perceptions
of PBL in different cultural contexts. Another gap pertains to the limited research on
primary school students. Most studies have focused on senior high school students, with
a smaller number of studies including junior high school students. The inclusion of
primary school students in PBL research is relatively rare. Further research should
explore the effectiveness of PBL in younger students and investigate how it can be
adapted to suit their developmental needs and abilities.
The Limitations of the Study
It is important to acknowledge the limitations of this meta-ethnography. The studies
varied in terms of methodology, sample size, and geographical location, which could
affect the generalizability of the findings. In addition, when reading the 14 papers and
exploring the students’ statements (first-order concepts) and the authors’ interpretation
of the first-order concepts (second-order concepts), it was impossible to determine
which student statements were excluded from the authors’ original findings and
discussion, and whether this would have altered our findings.
CONCLUSION
The primary aim of this meta-ethnography was to investigate K-12 students' perceptions
of PBL experiences and identify research gaps. The synthesis revealed eight key themes
encompassing the enhancement of 21st-century skills, enthusiastic engagement, time
consumption, initial jitter, content insufficiency, interdisciplinary integration,
geographical variation, and educational level disparities. The results underscore PBL's
potential to foster critical skills and engagement while acknowledging challenges
related to time management and initial apprehension. Implications suggest the need for
targeted support in PBL design and implementation, emphasizing resource adequacy
and interdisciplinary integration. The study's limitations include variations in
methodologies and sample sizes, potentially impacting generalizability. Future research
should explore PBL's effectiveness in primary school settings, incorporate more diverse
geographical representations, and adopt a longitudinal design to study the long-term
impact of PBL. Despite these limitations, this meta-ethnography contributes to the
literature by synthesizing diverse studies and offering insights into students' varied
experiences with PBL, paving the way for informed educational practices.
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