UNIT-V

LASER
&
OPTICAL FIBRES
Introduction to UNIT – V
LASERS LASER

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

 WHAT IS LASER?

 It is an acronym for L ight A mplification by S timulated E mission

of R adiation.
 It is the most important optical device to be invented in past 50
years.
 Based on Einstein’s idea of wave-particle duality of light.
 Invented in 1958 by Charles Townes (Noble prize in Physics in
1964) and Arthur Schawlow.
 Originally called MASER (where M = Microwaves). The MASER is
similar to LASER but produced only microwaves.

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 3

 Interaction of Radiation with Matter
According to Einstein Interaction of radiation with matter could be expressed in terms of 3 basic
processes:

1.Induced Absorption
2.Spontaneous emission
3.Stimulated emission

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 4

1. Induced Absorption

When an atom is at ground level (E 1 ) and an electromagnetic

wave of suitable frequency 𝜐 is incident on the atom, there is
possibility of the atom getting excited to higher level (E 2 ). The
incident photon is absorbed. It is represented as :
Atom + Photon → Atom*

▪ If N 1 is the number density of the lower energy state and

𝜌(𝜈) is the energy density of incident radiation. Then,
▪ Rate of absorption = B 12 N 1 𝝆(𝝂)
▪ Where B 12 is the proportionality constant called Einstein
Coefficient of induced absorption.
Nab= B12N1 ρ(v) Δt

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 5

2. Spontaneous Emission:
The emission of a photon by the transition of a system
from a higher energy state to a lower energy state without
the aid of an external energy is called spontaneous
emission.
Atom* → Atom + Photon
The photons emitted in spontaneous emission may not
have same direction and phase similarities. It is
incoherent. e.g.: Glowing electric bulbs, Candle flame etc.

Spontaneous emission depends on N 2 which is the number

of atoms present in the higher level.
Rate of spontaneous emission = A 21 N 2
where A 21 is the proportionality constant called Einstein
coefficient of spontaneous emission.
N sp = A 21 N 2 Δt

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 6

3. Stimulated Emission:
The phenomenon of forced emission of a photon by an excited atom due to action of an
external agent is called stimulated emission. It is also known as induced emission.
The emitted two photons have same phase, frequency, direction and polarization with the
incident photon. This kind of action is responsible for lasing action.
Atom* + Photon → Atom + 2Photons
 If N 2 is the number of atoms present in the higher energy level and 𝜌(𝜈 ) is the energy density.
Rate of stimulated emission = B 21 N 2 𝝆(𝝂)
where B 21 is the proportionality constant called Einstein’s Coefficient of stimulated emission.

Nst= B21N2 ρ(v) Δt

7
Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur
Stimulated Emission:

The emitted two photons have same phase, frequency, direction and polarization with the
incident photon. This kind of action is responsible for lasing action.

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 8

 Comparison: Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission
Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

1. The spontaneous emission was postulated by Bohr. The stimulated emission was postulated by Einstein

2. It is a random process. It is not a random process.

Additional photons are not required in spontaneous

3. Additional photons are required in stimulated emission.
emission.

4. One photon is emitted in spontaneous emission. Two photons are emitted in stimulated emission.

5. Light is non-directional. Light is produced is highly directional.

The photons emitted in this process are all in phase.

6. The emitted radiation is Incoherent.
Hence, emitted radiation is coherent.

7. The emitted radiation is less intense. The emitted radiation is high intense.

8. Emitted radiation is not monochromatic. The emitted radiation is nearly monochromatic.

Example: light from sodium or mercury lamp. Example: light from laser source.

9
 Population inversion
A non-equilibrium state in which the number of atoms present in the
excited state (N 2 ) is greater than the number of atoms present in the
ground state (N 1 ) i.e. (N 2 >> N 1 ) is called population inversion.
This is also known as inverted state.

10
Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur
Population inversion

According to Boltzmann’s distribution the population of an energy level 𝐸𝑖 at temperature T is given by

𝑵𝒊 = 𝑵𝟎𝒆 (− 𝑬𝒊 /k𝑻)
Where 𝑁0 𝑖𝑠 the population of the lower level or ground state and k is the Boltzmann’s constant.

Population inversion is achieved by the process called Pumping.

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 11

 Pumping
 For maintaining a state of population inversion atoms have to be raised continuously
to excited state. It requires energy to be supplied to the system.
 The process of raising the atoms/molecules from their low er energy state to higher
energy state is known as pumping. The pumping is needed to achieve population
inversion.

Commonly used pumping types are : —

1.Optical pumping: Light/ flash tube is used to raise the atoms to higher energy states. Optical
pumping is used in solid lasers e.g. Ruby laser, Nd:YAG laser etc.

2.Chemical pumping: Chemical reactions are used to raise the atoms.

3.Electrical pumping: A strong field is applied to the atomic system with the help of high voltage
power supply. The high energy electrons collide with the atoms and transfer their kinetic energy to
the later. As a result, atoms rise to the higher states.
4.It is used in gas lasers e.g. He-Ne laser, CO2 laser, Argon-ion laser

5.Direct conversion: In this method theIntroduction

electrical energy
to Lasers. directly
By: Dr. Vanita Thakur creates the state of population 12
 Metastable State
 Metastable state is an excited state of an atom or other system with a longer
lifetime than the other excited states. Atoms in the metastable state remain
excited for a considerable time in the order of 10 -6 to 10 -3 s.
 A large number of excited atoms are accumulated in the metastable state.
➢ The population of metastable state can exceed the population of a lower level thereby
establishing the population inversion between metastable state and the lower energy level.
➢ Population inversion could not be created without a metastable state.

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 13

 Components of Laser
 Every LASER consists of three basic components. These are –

1.Lasing material or active medium.

2.The Pump
3.Optical resonator.

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 14

Contd…..
1. Active Medium:
1. The active medium is the material in which lasing action takes place.
• An active medium is a medium which when excited reaches the state of population
inversion and promotes stimulated emissions leading to light amplification.
• Semiconductors, gases (He, Ne, CO 2 , etc), solid materials (YAG, sapphire (ruby) etc.)
are usually used as lasing materials and often LASERs are named for the ingredients
used as a medium.
2. The Pump: The excitation source, pump source provides energy which is needed for
the population inversion and stimulated emission to the system. Pumping can be done
in different ways – optical method, electrical discharge method and direct conversions.
Examples of pump sources are electrical discharges, flash lamps, arc lamps, light from
another laser, chemical reactions etc.

3. Optical Resonator: The active medium is enclosed between a fully reflective mirror
and partially reflective mirror. These mirrors constitute the optical cavity or resonator.
The reflectors enhance the stimulated emission process by reflecting the photons into
the active medium. As a result we get high-intensity monochromatic and coherent laser
light through the partially reflecting portion of the mirror.
15
Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur
 PROPERTIES OF LASER BEAM
 Laser radiation has the following important characteris tics over
ordinary light source. They are:

i) Monochromaticity:
i.e. laser light consists of nearly one color or single wavelength. Directionality
i i ) Directionality:
i . e . t h e l a s e r b e a m i s w e l l c o l l i ma t e d a n d t r a v e l s a l o n g d i s t a n c e w i t h v e r y
little spread (low divergence).
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚
Divergence (ɸ) = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
iii) Coherence:
i.e. all the emitted photons of laser light have constant phase
relationship with each other in time and space.

i v) High Irradiance:
i.e. power of em radiation emitted per unit area
 The energy of the laser beam is approximatel y given by:
𝟏𝟎 𝟐
 𝑰= P (W/m 2 ) Coherence
𝝀
 where P is the power radiated by the laser.
 Requirements for Achieving Laser Action

1. Population inversion

2. Metastable states

3. Confining radiation within the medium

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 17

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 18
 Types of LASER
LASERs are categorized on various parameters.
2. By mode of operation
1. By active medium ❖ Continuous Wave (CW)
❖ Pulsed mode
❖ Solid State laser: In this kind of lasers solid state, materials
are used as active medium. 3. By pumping and laser levels
e.g. Ruby laser, Nd:YAG laser, Ti:Sapphire laser ❖ 3-level laser
❖ 4-level laser
❖ Gas Laser: In this kind of lasers gases are used as active
medium.
e.g. He-Ne laser, CO2 laser, Argon-ion laser.

❖ Semiconductor Laser: In these type of lasers, junction

diodes are used.
e.g Group III-V, Group II-VI, Group VI-VI

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 19

 He-Ne lase r

 It is a type of gas laser.

 Uses 4-level pumping scheme.

 It emits a laser beam of wavelength of 632.8nm

in the red portion of the visible spectrum.

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 20

Construction:
❖ Active Medium: Mixture of He and Ne gases in the ratio 10:1 placed in glass tube.
❖ Ne atoms are the active centers, He atoms help in exciting Ne atoms.

❖ Pump source: High voltage DC power supply (~10 kV)

❖ Resonating cavity: The glass tube (containing a mixture of helium and neon gas) is placed between two
parallel mirrors which are silvered. One mirror is fully silvered whereas, another mirror is partially silvered.

In He-Ne laser discharge tube is

generally made up of 80 cm length
and 1 cm diameter.
The output power of these gas lasers
depends on the length of the glass
discharge tube and the pressure of the
gas mixture.

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 21

Working:
High voltage (10kV) produces energetic electrons

These electrons travel through gas mixture

Transfer some energy to He atoms in gas

Lower state electrons in He atoms get excited (higher/metastable state)

These can not return to ground state by spontaneous emission

But can return to ground state by transferring their energy to Ne atoms (Resonant energy transfer)

As a result Ne atoms get excited to higher/metastable state and He atoms fall to ground state

Thus, He atoms help Ne atoms in achieving population inversion.

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 22

➢ This excited state of Ne atoms is a metastable state and, thus, have a longer lifetime. Therefore, a large
number of neon atoms will get accumulated in the metastable states and so, population inversion is
achieved.

➢ After some time, neon atoms in the metastable states (E4) will spontaneously fall into the next lower
energy states (E3) by releasing photons of wavelength 632.8 nm.

➢ These photons will further trigger a chain of stimulated emissions, which will produce photons of
wavelength 632.8 nm.

➢ These photons will bounce back and forth between the end mirrors, causing more and more stimulated
emissions with each passage. Hence, light is amplified, and a strong, intense laser beam comes out from
the partially reflecting mirror.

➢ The excited neon atoms come to the ground state through frequent collisions with the walls of the glass
discharge tube and again available for excitation to higher energy levels and participation in laser action.
It is important for the continuous wave (CW) operation.

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 23

Energy level diagram

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 24

❖ Salient features

▪Uses a 4-level pumping scheme.

▪Active centers are Neon atoms.
▪The electric discharge is the pumping source.
▪Operates in continuous wave (CW) mode.
▪Low efficiency and low power output.

❖ Advantages of Helium-Neon laser

✓ Helium-Neon laser emits laser light in the visible portion of the spectrum.
✓ It has high stability.
✓ It is of low cost.
✓ It operates at a higher temperature without any damage.

❖ Disadvantages of Helium-Neon laser

✓ It gives low efficiency

✓ Its applications are limited to low power tasks only.

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 25

 Semi-conductor Laser
➢ It is a solid state semiconductor laser.
➢ Gallium arsenide (GaAs) laser gives infrared
radiation in the wavelength 8300 to 8500 A .
➢ It emits light when it is forward biased.
➢ Emitted light is in near IR region.

Construction:
❖ Active Medium: A pn junction diode made of single crystal of
GaAs is used as an active medium.
❖ Pump source: The direct conversion method.
❖ Resonating cavity: The end faces of the junction diode
which are well polished and parallel to each other, act as an
optical resonator through which the emitted light comes out.

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 26

A typical semiconductor laser consists of following parts:
➢Metal Contact
➢P-type Material
➢Active/Intrinsic Region
➢N-type Material
➢Metal Contact

Principle:
When a p-n junction diode is under forward bias, the electrons from n-region and holes from p-region cross
the junction.
In the process, electrons from the conduction band jump into a hole in the valence band and excess energy is
released in the form of photons.
This electron-hole recombination is the basic mechanism responsible for the emission of light in laser diodes.
The wavelength of light emitted is given by the relation:
λ= hc/Eg

27
Working…
At Equilibrium
➢ When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, the
electrons from n–region and the holes from the p-
region cross the junction and recombine with each
other.

➢ During the recombination process, the light

radiation (photons) is released from a certain
specified direct band gap semiconductors like Ga-As.
This light radiation is known as recombination Forward bias
radiation.

➢ The photon emitted during recombination stimulates

other electrons and holes to recombine. As a result,
stimulated emission takes place which produces
laser.

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 28

 Advantages & Applications of Laser diode
❖Advantages:
1. It is very small in size and very simple and compact (0.1mm).
2. It has high efficiency (≈40%).
3. The laser output can be easily increased by controlling the junction current
4. It is operated w ith lesser pow er than ruby and CO 2 laser.
5. It can have a continuous w ave output or pulsed output.

❖Applications:
1. It is widely used in fiber optic communication.
2. It is used in laser printers and CD writing and reading.
3. It is also used as a pain killer.

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 29

 Advantages of Lasers
1. It has high i nformation carr ying capacit y and hence is used in communication domain for
transmission of informat ion .

2. It is free from electro -magnetic interference . This phenomenon is used in optical w ireless
communication for telecommunication as w ell as computer netw orking.

3. Laser based fiber opti c cables are ver y light in w eight and hence are used in fiber optic
communication system .

4. It is less damaging compared to X -rays and hence w idely used in medical field for treatment of
cancers. It is used to burn small tumors on eye surface and also on tissue surface.

5. High intensity and low diver gence of laser is used for knocking dow n the enemy tank w ith
accurate range determination. For this purpose neodymium and carbon dioxide laser types are
used.

6. Single laser beam can be focused in areas smaller than 1 micro diameter. One square micro
area is needed to store 1 bit of data. This helps in storing 100 million data in one square cm. Due
to this fact, laser is being used in laser CDs and DVDs for data storage in the form of audio,
video, documents etc.

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 30

 Applications of Lasers
 Lasers in Communications
1 . Laser light is used in optical fiber communications to send information over large distances
w ith low loss.
2. Laser light is used in underw ater communicat ion netw orks.
3. Lasers are used in space communication, radars and satellites.

 Lasers in Industries
1 . Lasers are used to cut glass and quartz.
2. Lasers are used in electronic industries for trimming the components of Integrated Circuits
(ICs).
3. Lasers are used for heat treatment in the automot ive industry.
4. Laser light is used to collect the information about the prefixed prices of various products in
shops from the bar code printed on the product.

 Lasers in Science and Technology

1. Lasers are used in computers to retrieve stored information from a Compact Disc (CD).
2. Lasers are used to store large amount of information or data in CD -ROM.
3. Lasers are used to measure the pollutant gases and other contaminants of the atmosphere.
4. Lasers are used in computer printers.
5. A gallium arsenide diode laser can be used to setup an invisible fence to protect an area.

31
Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 32
 Atmospheric Probing using – LIDAR -Nd-Yag
LASER

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 33

Introduction to Lasers. By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 34
That’s all !!!
Thank you!!
 Unit-V

An Introduction and
Applications

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

 37

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

It is a technology in which signals are converted from electrical form into
optical signals, transmitted through a thin glass fibre and reconverted into
electrical signals.

Optical fibre is a cylindrical waveguide made of a transparent dielectric (glass or plastic), in

which light waves are guided along its length along its length by total Internal reflection.

Its thickness is around ~70 𝜇𝑚.

So, Fiber Optics is a technology related to transportation of optical energy (light energy) in guiding
medium specifically.

38

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

• Narender Kapany coined the term fibre optics in 1960 after having
demonstrated it experimentally in 1954.
• Charles Kao published the theory of how total internal reflection can be used
to guide light in 1966 – awarded Nobel Prize in 2009 in Physics – Father of
Fiber optics
• In fact, the Nobel Committee had even acknowledged Kapany’s work in a
detailed publication.
➢ An optical fiber is essentially a waveguide for light.

➢ An Optical Fiber, is a flexible transparent fiber made by glass(silica) or plastic to a

diameter slightly thicker than that a human hair.

➢ It consists of a core and cladding that surrounds the core.

➢ The index of refraction of the cladding is less than that of the core, causing rays of
light leaving the core to be refracted back into the core

➢ A light-emitting diode (LED) or laser diode (LD) can be used for the source.
➢ It Carries EM waves of visible and IR frequencies from one end to the other end of
the fiber by means of TIR.

40

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

Optical fibre cable consists of 3-main parts:
1. Core- Innermost part
(diameter ≈ 8.5 𝑡𝑜 62.5 𝜇𝑚)

2. Cladding- Middle region

(diameter ≈ 125 μm)

3. Outer jacket or Buffer Coating- Outermost

region
(diameter 250 to 900 𝜇𝑚)

41

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

➢ Core:
• This is the physical medium that transports optical signals from an attached light source to a
receiving device.
• The larger the core, the more light the cable can carry, which correlates to a higher data
transfer rate.
• The refractive index of core is higher than cladding.

➢ Cladding:
• This is a thin layer that is extended over the core and serves as the boundary that contains the
light waves, enabling data to travel through the length of the fiber.
• It prevents the light from escaping from core i.e. it confines the light to the core.
• The refractive index of cladding is lower than core.

➢ Outer jacket or Buffer Coating:

• This is the outer layer, or sheathing, of the cable. Its purpose is to protect the cable from
environmental hazards, moisture, radiation, contaminations, etc.

42

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

• The propagation of light signal in optical fibre is based on the principle of Total Internal Reflection.

When a light ray is incident on a medium, three possibilities are there:

• If θ1 < θc, the ray refracts into the rarer medium.
• If θ1 = θc, the ray travels along the interface of denser -to- rarer media.
• If θ1 > θc, the ray is reflected back into the denser medium.

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 43

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

The critical angle can be calculated from Snell’s law:
sin 𝜃2 𝑛1
= ------- (1)
sin 𝜃1 𝑛2
where n1- refractive index of denser medium
n2- refractive index of rarer medium.
clearly, n1 > n2
when, θ1 = θc, θ2 = 90o
From eqn. (1),
𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2 sin 90 = 𝑛2
𝑛2
sin 𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛1
If the rarer medium is air, n2 = 1, and let n1 = n, we get
1
sin 𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛
44

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

• LED and laser diodes are the light sources used for this purpose
alongwith the focusing lens.
• In the optical fibre, light propagates as an electromagnetic (EM)
wave.
• Propagation of light through an optical fiber can be understood on
the basis of ray model.
• According to which, the light rays entering the fibre hit the core-
cladding interface at different angles and since the refractive index
of cladding is less than that of core, therefore the rays undergo
total internal reflections (TIR).
• Thus, the rays travel down the optical fibre via multiple total
internal reflections and emerge out at the other end of fibre, where
the light signal is detected by the photodetector.
45

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

Contd…

The total internal reflection (TIR) will take place in the fibre only if the following two conditions will be
met:
i. Refractive index of core should be made greater than the refractive index of cladding.
ncore > nclad.
ii. At the core-cladding interface, angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle (ɸc).

46

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

 Acceptance angle is the maximum angle of incidence at which a light ray may enter the fibre in
order to be guided along the core.

• Assume the light ray enters the fiber

at an angle θi to the axis of fibre and
refracts at an angle θr and strikes the
core -cladding interface at an angle φ.
• If φ > φc, the ray will undergo total
internal reflection as n2>n1.
• As long as φ > φc, the light ray will
remain within the fibre.

47

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

Applying Snell`s law to launching end,
sin 𝜃𝑖 𝑛1
= ----------- (1)
sin 𝜃𝑟 𝑛0

The maximum value of θi occurs when φ = φc.

From ∆ABC,
sin 𝜃𝑟 = sin(900 − φ) = cos φ ----------- (2)
Using eqn. (2) in (1), we get
𝑛1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 = cos φ
𝑛0

when, φ = φc
𝑛1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 max.= 𝑛 cos φc ---------- (3)
0
𝑛
But, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑𝑐 = 𝑛2
1

sin2𝜑𝑐 + cos2𝜑𝑐 = 1
cos2𝜑𝑐 = 1 - sin2𝜑𝑐 48

cos 𝜑𝑐 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜑𝑐
By: Dr. Vanita Thakur
 𝑛22 𝑛12 −𝑛22
cos 𝜑𝑐 = 1− =
𝑛12 𝑛12
1
cos 𝜑𝑐 = 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 --------(4)
𝑛1

Substituting eqn. (4) in (3), we get

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 max = 𝑛 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 -----------(5)
0

In most of the cases, light is incident from air, so, in that case no = 1
also putting, 𝜃𝑖 max = 𝜃0 , eqn. (5) becomes,
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = 𝑛12 − 𝑛22

𝜽𝟎 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐

θo is the acceptance angle of the fibre.

Thus, of all the light rays’ incident on the face of fibre, only those light rays will enter the fibre and undergo
multiple total internal reflections, which fall at an angle less than θo.
All other rays with θo > 𝜽, will refract through cladding and will escape the fibre.
49
In 3-dimensions, the light rays that fall within the cone having angle 2θo are accepted and
travel along the fibre. This cone is called acceptance cone.
• The fractional difference (∆) between the refractive indices of the core and the cladding is
known as fractional refractive index change. It is calculated as:

𝒏𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐
∆=
𝒏𝟏

• ∆ is always positive as n1 > n2, for total internal reflection condition.

• ∆ << 1, for light rays to be guided effectively.
• Typically, ∆ ≈ 0.01

50

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

• Numerical Aperture determines the light gathering capability of an optical
fiber. It is the measure of the fraction of light that can be accepted by an
optical fiber.

Numerical Aperture is defined as the sine of the acceptance angle. Thus,

NA = sinθo ---------(1)
where, θo is the acceptance angle.

51

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

Also, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = 𝑛12 − 𝑛22

NA = 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ---------(2)

𝑛1 + 𝑛2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = (n1 + n2) (n1 – n2) = 2n1
2 𝑛1
n1 + n2
But, ≈ n1,
2

n1 − n2
Also ∆= n1

Therefore, (𝑛12 −𝑛22 ) = 2 n12∆

Using above value in eqn. (2), we get NA = 2𝑛12 ∆

NA = n1 𝟐∆
The above expression gives the relation between NA and fractional refractive index
change.

52

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

• When light is launched into an optical fibre only certain ray directions are allowed to propagate. These allowed
directions correspond to the modes of the fibre.
In simple terms, modes can be visualized as the possible number of paths of light in an optical fibre.
▪ The paths are all zig zag excepting the axial direction.
▪ The light ray paths along which the waves are in phase inside the fibre are known as modes.
The zero order ray travels along the axis is known as axial ray.

In a fibre of fixed thickness, the modes that

propagate at angles close to the critical
angle are higher order modes.
The modes that propagate with angles
larger than the critical angle are lower order
modes.

53

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

• An optical fibre is also characterized by one more parameter known as normalized
frequency or V-number of optical fibre.
• The V-number of any optical fibre is helpful to decide about the number of modes
that it can support.
• A mode is a path that a light wave can follow as it travel down the core of the fibre. A step
index optical fibre can support number of modes ranging from 1 to 10,000.
• The V number of any optical is fibre is given by

2𝜋𝑎
V= 𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝜆
where ‘a’ is the radius of core and 𝜆 is the wavelength of optical signal. In term of numerical
aperture.
𝟐𝝅𝒂
V= N.A.
𝝀 54

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

For optical fibres with large V-number, the possible number of supported modes is approximately
given by
𝟏
N ≈ V2
𝟐

Note : This is an approximate formula and should not be used for fibre carrying only a few
modes i.e. small V-number. When
(i) V< 2.405, the optical fibre can support only one mode.
(ii) V > 2.405, the optical fibre can support more than one mode and known as multi mode
optical fibre.
(iii)V = 2.405, the wavelength corresponding to V = 2.405 is known as cut off wavelength 𝜆c.
In case of GRIN fibres, for larger values of V
𝟏
N ≈ V2 .
𝟒

55

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

➢Light emitters and detectors are the key elements in optical fiber technology.
➢Light emitters convert the electrical signal into corresponding optical signals that can
be injected into fibers and detectors convert the light signal in to suitable electrical
signal at the receiver.
Generally use light emitters are
1. LED
2. Laser diode
Generally use light detectors are
1. Photo diode
2. p-i-n diode
3. APD
By: Dr. Vanita Thakur
 R.I MODES Material

• Step index single • Glass/Glass

• Step-index fibres mode fibre
Refractive index

Modes of Propagation
• Plastic/Plastic
• GRIN (Graded • Step index
Based on

Materials
index)
Based on

Based on
Multimode fibre
• PCS (Plastic clad
silica)
• GRIN Multimode
fibre

57

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

1. Step-index Fibres
In such type of fibres there is uniform refractive index
within the core and a sharp decrease in refractive
index at the core-cladding interface so that the
cladding is of a lower refractive index.
Step index fiber is found in two types, that is mono mode
fiber and multi mode fiber.

2. Graded Index Fibres:

The refractive index of the core in graded-index fibers
is not constant but decreases gradually from its
maximum value n1 at the core center to its minimum
value n2 at the core-cladding interface.
58

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

Sr. No.
Step-index Fibres Graded index Fibres
1. Refractive index of core is constant Refractive index of core is not constant but
throughout and falls abruptly to a lower varies gradually over the diameter of core.
value at the core-cladding interface.

2. Both single & multimode propagations Only multimode propagations exist.

exist.
3. Used for short distance applications Used for long distance applications

4. The attenuation losses are more approx. of the Attenuation losses are less i.e of the order
order 100 dB/km for multimode fibre. However, 10dB/km.
for single mode fibres attenuation is less.
5. They are Easy to manufacture These fibres are difficult to manufacture

59

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

On the basis of modes the Optical fibres are
classified into 2-categories:

1. Single mode fibres (SMF) :

Also known as Single mode step index fibers.

2. Multimode fibres (MMF)

• Multimode Step index Fibers
• Graded index multimode Fibers

60

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

Thus, on the whole, there are three types of Optical fibres:
1. Single mode step index fibers
2. Multimode Step index Fibers
3. Graded index multimode Fibers

1. Single-mode Step Index Fibre (SMF)

• These type of fibres have a smaller core diameter and can support only one mode of
propagation.
• In these fibres, light propagates along straight path.
• Single mode fibres usually have a low signal losses and high information carrying capacity.
Therefore, SMF are generally used for long distance transmission and large bandwidth
applications such as telephone and cable television networks.

61
62
2. Multimode Step Index Fibre (MMF)

• A multimode step-index fibre is quite similar to the single mode step-index fibre except
for that it has larger core diameter.
• A multimode step-index fibre supports a finite number of modes of propagation of light.
• Different light rays will travel along different paths (zig-zag paths).

63

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

64
3. Graded Index (Multimode) Fibre (GRIN)
• It is a multimode fibre in which refractive index of core is non-uniform.
• Since, in these fibres light rays propagates from a region of higher refractive index to
a region of lower refractive index, it experiences refraction, thus, it gets bent towards
the core.
• In these fibres, the incident light rays do not travel by following a straight line path,
however, they follow parabolic path because of the non-uniformity in the refractive
index of the core.

65

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

Sr. Single mode Fibres Multimode Fibres
no.

1. Core diameter is small (8 μm to 12 μm) Core diameter is large (50-100 μm)

2. Signal entry is difficult because of small core Signal entry is easy.

diameter.
3. Single mode fibres are more expensive Multimode fibres are less expensive.
because of the use of laser diodes.

4. Single mode fibres are preferred for long Multimode mode fibres are used for short
distance communication distance communication

5. Single mode fibres have high information Multimode mode fibres have low information
carrying capacity. carrying capacity. 66

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

1. All Glass Fibres: In these type of fibres both core and cladding are fabricated from glasses.
• The optical fibres made from glass have low losses and therefore, they are used in long distance
communications.

2. All plastic Fibres: In these type of fibres both core and cladding are made from plastic.
• The main advantages of plastic fibres are low cost and high mechanical flexibility.
• Disadvantages: They exhibit high loss and are temperature sensitive.
• Therefore, these fibres are used for low cost applications and at normal temperatures, usually below
80oC.

3. PCS Fibres: Plastic clad silica (PCS) fibres are the one in which core is fabricated using silica (high
quality quartz) and cladding is formed using transparent polymer.
• PCS fibres are cheap and exhibit high losses, therefore, they are used in short distance
communications.
67

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

 Attenuation Distortion

Intrinsic Extrinsic Attenuation/ Intermodal Intramodal

Attenuation Bending losses/ Dispersion Distortion
Radiative losses

Material Rayleigh Macro Micro Material Waveguide

Absorption Scattering bending bending Dispersion Dispersion

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 68

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

• Attenuation: When a light signal propagates through an optical fibre, a small percentage of the
signal is lost with increasing distance. This loss of optical power as the light signal travels down the
fibre, is known as attenuation.
• It is defined as the ratio of the optical output power (Po) from a fibre of length L to the input power (Pi).
Po = Pi 𝒆−𝜶𝑳
where α is the fibre attenuation coefficient and it is measured in units: dB/km.
Taking log on both sides of above equation, we get
log Po = log Pi (-αL)
𝟏 𝑷𝒊
α= 𝒍𝒏
𝑳 𝑷𝒐

In units of dB/km, α is defined as

𝟏𝟎 𝑷𝒊
α= 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝑳 𝑷𝒐

In case of an ideal fibre, Po = Pi and attenuation (α) is zero.

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 69
1. Intrinsic Attenuation
i. Material Absorption
ii. Rayleigh Scattering

2. Extrinsic Attenuation
i. Macrobend losses
ii. Microbend losses

70

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

1. Intrinsic Attenuation:
i. Material Absorption: Material Absorption results from the impurities and imperfections in the fibre.
• It accounts for 3 to 5% of attenuation.
• The most common impurity is the OH- molecule
Remedy: The absorption losses can be reduced by controlling the amount of impurities during
manufacturing process.
ii. Rayleigh Scattering: The major cause of attenuation (~96%) is
Rayleigh scattering.
• The local microscopic variations in the density of glass,
act as obstructions to light.
• The Rayleigh scattering loss is function of wavelength and varies as 1/λ4.
Any wavelength that is below 800nm is unusable for optical communication because attenuation losses due
to Rayleigh scattering are high. At the same time propagation above 1700nm is not possible due to high
losses resulting from absorption.
Remedy: That is why, for long distance transmission, it is beneficial to use the longer wavelengths for
71
minimum attenuation.
i. Macrobend losses:
A macrobend is a large bent with more than 2mm radius, which causes bending
strain. This bending strain affects the refractive index and critical angle in that
particular area, as a result the light in the core will refract out and that signal will be
lost.
• Remedy: The optical fibres come with minimum bend radius specification and that
should not be exceeded in order to prevent macrobends.
ii. Microbend losses:
It is a small scale and localized bend in the fibre cable. It might occur due to
temperature or tensile stress or crushing force.
It can also be caused by imperfections in the cylindrical geometry of fibre during
manufacturing or installation.
• Remedy: Micro-bend losses can be reduced by covering the fibre cable with a
compressible jacket.
 λ (nm) Approx. loss (dB/km)
820-880 2.2
Attenuation vs. wavelength curve for a typical glass
optical fiber. 1200-1320 0.6
1550-1610 0.2

The band of wavelengths at which the attenuation is

minimum is called optical window or transmission window
or low-loss window. There are 3 principal windows
mentioned above.

73

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

The pulse broadening depends on the length of the travel of the pulse through the fibre.
• Units of dispersion: ns/km

74

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

1. Intermodal dispersion: Inter modal dispersion occurs in the optical fibre when a number of modes are
propagating through the fiber. It occurs as a result of difference in group velocities of the modes. Different
modes will have different wavelengths and hence, will take different time to reach the end of the fiber. This
leads to the intermodal dispersion.

2. Intramodal dispersion: It is the spreading of light pulse within a single mode. The two main causes of
intramodal dispersion are:
i. Material dispersion: (Chromatic dispersion)It occurs due to different wavelength travelling at different
speed inside the fibers. The short wavelength components travel slower than long wavelength
components, causing the light pulse to broaden.
Remedy: can be reduced by using monochromatic light or narrow spectral range.
ii. Waveguide dispersion: Waveguide dispersion is due to the distribution of light between core (80%) and
cladding (20%). This type of dispersion is more prominent in Single mode fibres (SMF).

Remedy: Intermodal dispersion can be reduced by using GRIN fibres.

75
• The principal source of loss in both connectors and splices is fiber-to-fiber end face misalignment.
• There are three types of misalignment loss which may occur individually or in combination. These are
1. lateral misalignment: It is the largest contributor to the total loss in a fiber connection. It arises due to the
failure of the cross sections of the two fiber cores to perfectly overlap
2. axial separation: Axial separation contributes to the connection loss when the end surfaces of the two fibers
do not come into contact with each other.
3. angular misalignment: The third loss mechanism, angular misalignment generally does not contribute
significantly to connection losses. Manufacturing tolerances virtually eliminate this misalignment in connectors
and splices

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur 76

77
1. A transmitter: It converts electrical signal into optical signals.
2. An optical fibre: It transmits (carries) the optical signal.
3. A receiver: It receives the optical signal at the other end of fibre and converts
it into electrical form.

78

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

 Transmitter: It consists of a driver circuit and light source.
A transducer converts the analog signals into electrical form. This electrical signal is then fed to the
light source.
The light source can be a LED or semiconductor laser, which converts the electrical signal into
optical signal in IR range 850nm, 1300nm, 1550nm .

Source to Fiber Connector: It is used for transmitting the light signal from source to the optical
fiber. This connector acts as a joint between the fiber and light source.

Optical Fibre: The only purpose of optical fibre is to transmit the optical signal from the transmitter
to the detector, by multiple total internal reflections. While travelling through optical fibres the signal
gets attenuated and distorted. Therefore, repeaters are used at specific intervals to regenerate
signal.

Fiber to Detector Connector: It is used for collecting the light signal from the fibre.

Receiver: The receiver comprises of a photo detector, an amplifier and a signal restorer.
Photo detector, usually PIN diode, converts optical signal back into an electric signal, which is then
amplifies and decoded to retrieve the message.
This output is fed to a transducer to convert it into the original form audio or video. 79

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

 80

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

1. Small size, light weight, flexible yet strong

2. Wider Bandwidth

3. No cross talk

4. Immune to EM and RF interference

5. Not Hazardous

6. Longer life span

7. Low cost, easy maintenance:

81

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

✓ Extremely High Bandwidth :
• Fibre optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables.
• The amount of information that can be transmitted per unit of optical fibre cable is its most
significant advantage.
✓ Size
• In comparison to copper, a fibre optic cable has nearly 4.5 times as much capacity and - cross
sectional area is 30 times less.
✓ Weight
• Fibre optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires. They also occupy less space with
cables of the same information capacity.
✓ Flexibility :
An optical fibre has greater tensile strength than copper or steel fibres of the same diameter. It is flexible, bends
easily and resists most corrosive elements that attack copper cable.
✓ Cost:
The raw materials for glass are plentiful, unlike copper. This means glass can be made more cheaply than
copper.
✓ Low Power Loss
• An optical Fibre offers low power loss.
• This allows for longer transmission distances.
• In comparison to copper; in a network, the longest recommended copper distance is 100m while
with fibre, it is 2000m.
• In order to increase the transmission distance, a repeater must be installed in the middle of the
path to re-generate the signal
• Optical fibre cable allows data to be sent far without as many repeater devices that are required
by other types of cabling
✓Interference :
• Fibre optic cables are immune to em interference.
• It can also be run in electrically noisy environments without concern as electrical noise will not
affect fibre.
• Optical fibre transmits light (photons) rather than electrons, it does not radiate electromagnetic
fields, nor is it susceptible to electromagnetic fields
Cont..

✓ Secure Transmissions :
• Optical fibre cabling provides an extremely secure transmission medium.
• Optical fibre is a dielectric, it does not present a spark hazard.
• Fibre optic cabling does not radiate magnetic fields.
• The light (photons) is confined within the fibre which makes it impossible to tap the signal
without cutting into the fibre.
• Fibre is the most secure medium available for carrying sensitive data.
• Internet: Optical fibres are used for high speed data transmission.

• Telephone industry: Optical fibre cables have a major role in telecommunication for transmitting
and receiving data at high speed and no noise.

• Military Applications: Optical fibres are used for data transmission in high level data security fields
of the military.

• Medical field: Being very thin and quite flexible, optical fibres are used in various instruments to
view internal body parts by inserting into hollow spaces in the body.

• For Broadcasting: O.F. cables are used to transmit high definition television signals in the cable-
television industry. (one optical line is sufficient for around 500 households).

• Computer networking: With the help of optical fibre cables the data transformation between
computers in nearby places has become easier and faster.
85

By: Dr. Vanita Thakur

• Limited Application—Fibre optic cable can only be used on ground, and it cannot
leave the ground or work with the mobile communication.
• Low Power— Light emitting sources are limited to low power. Although high
power emitters are available to improve power supply, it would add extra cost.
• Fragility— Optical fibre is rather fragile and more easy to damage compared to
copper wires.
• Need more expensive optical transmitters and receivers
• More difficult and expensive to splice than wires