Chapter 10

Thermal properties of matter

-

=>

Chapter 11

Thermodynamics
-
 Weightage

4
( Based on 2023 mid term )

Thermal properties
6
Thermodynamics
of matter
 Chapter 10
Ther mal properties of
>
 Temperature and heat
~ Temperature is the measure of hotness of a body

~ Heat is a form of energy transferred between two systems

( or system to surrounding) by virtue of temperature
difference.

~ The SI unit of heat is joule ( J)

~ The SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K)

Relation between ⁰C, ⁰F and K

① C F - 32
O
=
-

180
100

K
-
·
Question
Temperature of a normal human body is 98.6 F. What is
the corresponding temperature in degrees Celsius ?

= E
C
=32x10
3
c
90032x100
= =
Question
At what temperature do the Celsius and Fahrenheit
thermometers have same numerical value ?

To
C= F

180 = 100((-32)
180 = 1001 -
3200

100 - 180
3200 =

3200 = -
80C

320
c -40
=
=

-
48 = -
47
-
Thermal expansion
The increase in the dimensions of a body due to the
increase in its temperature is called thermal expansion.
There are three types of thermal expansion

Linear expansion

Area expansion

Volume expansion
Linear expansion
The expansion of length due to the increase in temperature is
called linear expansion.

e+ Bl
FAT
=
Coefficient of linear expansion
Area expansion
The expansion of area due to the increase in temperature
is called area expansion.
ACAT-

= XDT-
[a = ③
Coefficient of area expansion
Volume expansion
The expansion of volume due to the increase in temperature
is called Volume expansion.

①
⑭
Yv
DT 0
-

D = @DT-

Ov
=
Coefficient of volume expansion
 [3mark]
Derive the relation between coefficient of linear
expansion, area expansion and volume expansion.

Consider the cube of length l, due to the increase in

temperature ΔT. Length of the cube increased by Δl in all
directions.
e
Coefficient of linear expansion
l+De
xe
=
 a
Increase in area of cube
DA = Final Area - Initial Area

Da = (l+ all2-e-
(a +b)
=
= a+ 2ab + b 2

Aa = ⑰+ zeal+--
DA =
21Dl-5
a
= -

-
Xa =
2xe -
 ↑

Due to ΔT,The increase in volume of the cube is a

AV = Final volue - Initial volume .

3
DV =
(e+sel -e3-

(a +b)" =
a + 3ab + 3ab+ b3

Av =+ sear + 3+-
AV = Seale
v
=
Ov = 3Al-4
& BAT

v
=
CV = 3 .
eDT I &V = 3x1

⑰
W :Gai
a

Ge ⑦
Question
A small space is left between two rails on railway track.
Why?

F
If no space is left, the rails would bend due to thermal
expansion in summer. So small space is left between two
rails to allow thermal expansion
Question
The pendulum of clock is made of Invar , why ?
Invar has low value of coefficient of linear expansion. So
length of pendulum remains almost same in all seasons.
(The change of length affects time period of pendulum)
 Emark
①
Anomalous behaviour of water -

Generally volume of liquid increases with rise in temperature.

When water is heated it’s volume starts to decrease from 0⁰C
and reaches minimum at 4⁰C. Hence density of water is
maximum at 4⁰C.

4 Vin ↑N = m
-

max
VI
This means that water has a maximum density and
minimum volume at 4 °C.

Ec
lakes and ponds, freeze at the top first.
When the temperature falls, the top layer of water in
the pond contract becomes denser and sinks to the
bottom. A circulation is set up until the entire water in
the pond reaches its maximum density at 4OC. If the
temperature falls further the top layer remains on the
top till it freezes because the water in the bottom have
maximum density at 4O C.
 ⑳
C

F
↑p = m
-

VI
 2014

heat capacity # 200k

#

Heat capacity of substance is the quantity of heat

required to increase the temperature of whole substance.
If ΔQ is the heat required to rise the temperature by ΔT,
the heat capacity.
Specific heat capacity
Specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as
amount of heat required to increase temperature of
unit mass of substance by one unit.

301K
⑮ 3ork
S
= &
 30119

Molar specific heat capacity ⑭ 300K

/

Molar specific heat capacity of a substance is the

amount of heat required to increase the temperature of
1 mole of substance by one unit.
If a sample has n moles of substance, then it’s molar
specific heat capacity is given by

Molar specific heat capacity at constant volume (Cv)

Molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp)

c =
+
Note : ↑
Water has high specific heat capacity so it is used as
coolent in automobile radiators.

Due to high specific heat capacity of water land

is more warmer than water during day time.
Thermal stress
What happens by preventing the thermal expansion of a
rod by fixing its ends rigidly?

The rod experience a compressive strain due to the

external forces provided by the rigid support at the ends.
The corresponding stress set up in the rod is called
thermal stress.
 -
Y
=
Stree =
Y(+ ) = YCebT-G
Theme Stren = Y (xeDT) ⑤
-
Change of state
Matter normally exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. A
transition from one of these states to another is called a change
of state.
 ➡
Change of state ➡ of transition
Name

Solid Liquid Melting

Liquid Solid Freezing

> Fusion

Liquid gas Vaporisation

Gas Liquid Condensation

Solid Gas Sublimation ⑰

During the change of state, the two different state
co-exist in thermal equilibrium and temperature
remains constant, until the completion of change of
state
Question
Freezing
The change of state from liquid to solid is called _________.
.
 Melting point
The temperature at which solid and liquid coexist in
thermal equilibrium with each other is called melting point.

[I
The melting point decrease with pressure.

The melting point of a substance at standard atmosphere

pressure is called it’s normal melting point.
Regelation PPm-ph

Take an ice block, put a metal wire over the ice block and
attach 5 kg block at two ends of wire as shown. Then we can
see that the metal wire passes through the ice block to the
other side without splitting it
Explanation
The melting point of ice is just below the wire
decreases due to increase in pressure.

As ice melts, wire passes and refreeze( due to

decrease in pressure) this process is called regelation.
Boiling point
The temperature at which liquid and vapour state co exist
in thermal equilibrium with each other is called boiling
point.

The boiling point increases with increase in pressure and

decreases with decrease in pressure.

P↑ B .
P4
 PLB PL
Question
-

Cooking is difficult at high altitude why ?

B-ptP4 corker
Prese
At high altitudes, atmospheric pressure is lower, reducing
the boiling point of water as compared to that at sea
level. On the other hand, boiling point is increased inside
a pressure cooker by increasing the pressure. Hence
cooking is faster.
Vaporisation and sublimation
The change of state from liquid to vapour is called vaporisation
⑪
The from solid state to vapour state without passing through
the liquid state is called sublimation, and the substance is
said to sublime.

Eg : dry ice ,camphor, naphthalene

Latent heat
The amount of heat per unit mass transferred during
change of state of the substance is called latent heat of
the substance for the process.

L
= (J/kg)
=
=d§n=¥
slope
/ 8¥ c=

↑
>
-
 ✔

Note that when heat is added (or removed) during a

change of state, the temperature remains constant.

Note that the slopes of the phase lines are not all the
same, which indicates that specific heats of the various states
are not equal.

For water, the latent heat of fusion and vaporisation are Lf

5
= 3.33x10 J kg–1 and Lv = 22.6 x10 J kg–1 respectively.
5
Heat transfer
Heat transfer occurs due to temperature difference.
The three mode of heat transfer are

Conduction

Convection

radiation
 ✔

Conduction
It is a transfer of heat by direct physical contact.

It is due to the temperature difference, heat flows from high

temperature region to low temperature region.

It occurs in solids due to molecular collisions, without the

actual flow of matter.

It is a slow process
in this steady state, the rate of flow of heat (or heat current) H
is proportional to the temperature difference and the area of
cross section A and is inversely proportional to the length L

H2A-O
HaDT-②
Ha + -3
e

H
The constant of proportionality is called K thermal conductivity

H =
KADT
-

= /
Question
Some cooking pots have copper coating on its bottom. Why ?

Thermalconducting ↑
Because of high thermal conductivity of copper, it
distributes heat over the bottom of pot very
quickly and promotes uniform cooking.
 ✔

Convection
It is a transfer of heat by motion of fluid

It is due to the difference in density heat flows from low

density region to high density region.

It occurs in fluids by actual flow of Matter.

It is also a slow process

Convection can be natural or forced.

Natural convection
In natural convection, gravity plays an important part.
When a fluid is heated from below, the hot part expands
and, therefore, becomes less dense. It rises and the upper
colder part replaces it. This again gets heated, rises up and is
replaced by the colder part of the fluid. The process goes
on.
 ①
Sea breeze and land breeze -

During the day the land heats up more quickly than water in
lake ( due to high specific heat capacity of water). The air on
the surface of earth het heated , expands becomes less
dense and rise up. The colder air ( wind ) replaces the space
created by hot air. It create sea breeze. At night the land
losses it’s heat very quickly than water. So water remains
more warmer at night.
 -

O
set
-
Anna
Forced convection
In forced convection, material is forced to move by a pump or
by some other physical means. The common examples of forced
convection systems are forced-air heating systems in home, the
human circulatory system.
 ✔

Radiation
It is a transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves

It can takes place at large distance.

It propagate at the speed of light

Needs no medium for the heat transfer.

 Conduction and convection require some material as a
transport medium. These modes of heat transfer cannot
operate between bodies separated by a distance in vacuum.

The third mechanism for heat transfer needs no medium; it

is called radiation and the energy so radiated by
electromagnetic waves is called radiant energy.
 When this thermal radiation falls on other bodies, it is
partly reflected and partly absorbed. The amount of heat that
a body can absorb by radiation depends on the colour of the
body.
✔

We find that black bodies absorb and emit radiant energy

better than bodies of lighter colours. This fact finds many
applications in our daily life. We wear white or light coloured
clothes in summer so that they absorb the least heat from the
sun. However, during winter, we use dark coloured clothes which
absorb heat from the sun and keep our body warm.
Newton’s law of cooling
The rate of loss of heat -dQ/dt of a body is directly
proportional to the difference of temperature between
body and surrounding.

dat &T
-
*

constant of
#
=KAT
cooling
.
-
Question Mu
A pan filled with hot food cools from 94⁰C to 86⁰C in 2 minutes
when the room temperature is at[ 20⁰C. How long will it take to
cool from 71⁰C to 69⁰C.

Y
a ?
EEtY
I

&
T2
k(E2-1)
=
I
dt
94 86 8%
dTz
- =
=

dt = 2 min
Tr
989
=

Ti = 200
k =
?

z = k(90 -
20)

4 = k70k =
I k =
2/35
car
-
2
71, 69

dT = 71-69 =

dt =
?
Tz =

71697
Ti = 20c
k =
435
 ⑭an
-

= kCT2-T)

= 435 (to + 20)

10

=
= /d =
d+ 20 . 7 min = 42x
Are you rea dy ?
2024 march
1. Explain anomalous behaviour of water
~
-
2. State newtons law of cooling
( 4 marks )
 2023 impro vement

1. -
a) Whatis Convection ?
b) How does sea breeze occur ? Explain.
-
2023
Frems
1. The change of state from liquid to solid is called _________

2. The modes of heat transfer is shown below. Identify A and B.

condar

contem
2022 improvement
-
1. What is sublimation ?

2. -
Why do metal utensils have wooden handles ?
The from solid state to vapour state without passing through
the liquid state is called sublimation, and the substance is
said to sublime.

Eg : dry ice ,camphor, naphthalene

Because wood is a bad conductor of heat so
we can handle utensils even in hot conditions.
 2022
1. Among the various modes of heat transfer, which one
is the fastest ?
Radi
2.
~ A pan filled with hot food cools from 94⁰C to 86⁰C in 2 minutes
when the room temperature is at 20⁰C. How long will it take to
cool from 71⁰C to 69⁰C.
2021 improvement
A transition of matter from any one state to another is
called a change of state.

a) The temperature at which the solid and the liquid states

of a substance are in thermal equilibrium is called its
________.
multing port
b) “Value of latent heat of a substance depends on its
pressure.” State whether this statement is true or false.

~
c) 0.3 kg of ice melts completely by absorbing 10⁵ J of heat.
Calculate heat of fusion of ice.

f = M=
33x105
3 .

5/kg
 2021
1. a) What is the difference between latent heat of fusion
and latent heat of vaporization ?

b) Why burns from steam are usually more serious

than those from boiling water ?

⑮f
2020 improvement
Heat energy transferred from one body to another due
to temperature difference

a) What are the different modes of heat transfer?

-

-
b) Explain how sea breezes occur

c) Bottom of cooking vessels are blackened, give reason.

-
-
Heat transfer
Heat transfer occurs due to temperature difference.
The three mode of heat transfer are

Conduction

Convection

radiation
This is to absorb maximum heat from fire and
hence to fast up cooking
 2020
Temperature is the degree of hotness of a body
~
a) Temperature of a normal human body is 98.6⁰F. What is the
corresponding temperature in degree Celsius.

~
b) Define latent heat
Latent heat
The amount of heat per unit mass transferred during
change of state of the substance is called latent heat of
the substance for the process.
-

Chapter 11

Thermo dynamics
Intro duction
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics which deals with
transformation of heat energy in to other forms of
energy and vice- versa. It also deals the relationship
between heat,work,temperature and energy.
Thermo dynamic system
A system of thermodynamics can be defined as a matter or
region on which analysis is done, eg : A gas enclosed in a
cylinder with movable piston. Everything outside the system
is called surroundings.
#

F:
Thermodynamic variables and equation of state
Thermodynamics explains the bulk properties of a system in
terms of few macroscopic variables which are easily
observable and directly measurable the variables such as
pressure,volume,temperature and mass which are used to
specify the state of Thermodynamic system are called
thermodynamic variable
The mathematical relation connecting the state
variable of thermodynamics system is called equation
of state

C
-

art
Pr =

-
Thermodynamic state variables are two types
Extensive variables

Intensive variables

Extensive variables depend on the size of the system while

intensive variable do not

For example mass and volume are extensive variables

pressure and temperature are examples of intense the
variable
Thermal equilibrium ⑳ Temp

A system is said to be In thermodynamic equilibrium, if it’s

State variables like pressure, volume, temperature, Mass and
composition do not change with time.

The equilibrium of a system depends on its surroundings and

the nature of the wall that separate the system from the
surroundings.
 An insulating wall that does not allow the flow of
heat between the system and the surroundings or
-
between two system is known as adiabatic wall

A conducting wall which allows loss of heat between

the system and its surroundings or between two system
is known as diathermic wall.

=>
When two system having different temperatures are
separated by a diathermic wall , heat flows from the system
/

of high temperature to the system of low temperature. The

flow of heat continue till both the systems attain the same
temperature. Now the systems are said to be in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

Two systems said to be in thermal equilibrium with each

other if their temperatures are equal
Zeroth law of thermodynamics
If two thermodynamic systems are in thermal equilibrium with a
third system. Then they are in thermal equilibrium with each
other.
①

⑳ ③
Internal energy (U)
Internal energy of a system is the sum of kinetic energy and
potential energy of its molecules. It is aE
state variable and is
denoted by U. It’s value depends only on the given state and not
on the path taken to arrive the state.
Top
Fr T4 AUE the

TV AUE-Ve

Temp constit Au = 0 U = acousht

= -
Heat and work
Heat is a form of energy transfer between system and surrounding
due to temperature difference

Work is a mode of energy transfer. eg: moving a piston.

workdone Wave
by the
system
=

- were
unk done on the
syste
DW F Dx

#
= .

PADN
DW =

#"I
AW = PAY
"It
ga
-

Y
P
=
F/A
F = PA
First law of thermodynamics
First law of thermodynamics is based on the law of
conservation of energy of a system.

According to first law of thermodynamics heat supplied to a

system is used to increase its internal energy and to do work

AQ = AU + AW

AQ = Du + PAV
-
Question
First law of thermodynamics corresponds to

~
a) Conservation of energy
b) Conservation of momentum
c) Heat flow from cooler to hotter body
d) Newton’s law of cooling
Relation between Cp, Cv and R
Consider one mole of ideal gas, suppose the gas is heated at
constant pressure so that it’s temperature increased by ΔT

t
DQ Du + DW-Q
=
Cp =

AQ = AU + PAV-G
(n = 1)

PAV-3
+
CDT AU +
=
<p

<= AQ =
CpAT
 PV = nRT-⑤ -
PAV = RAT-O
-
R
=
constant volme
DUTAW-O
-

DO = DV =
0

Da = au + i
AQ = AU-D
 Du -
-
=

CUAT =

v
= (n = 1)

CV =

D
sub(12) by (7) v (4) CuDT
DO =

(v + R ⑬
-

(p =

cp-(v R- =
Work done in a thermodynamic process

A graph drawn between ↑ (P, V , )

pressure and volume of a P

gas for a thermodynamic

operation is called PV
diagram such PV diagram ①---------
"
(BVz)
is help us to calculate the
Y du
amount of work done in a
3
thermodynamic process
-

O d
-
di
Area = Pdl = dw-O

dw = Pdi U2

w =

/dw =
/Pdu-②
VI
02

=
/
W =
 ✔

Figure represents the PV diagram for the expansion of

gas from the initial stage P1V1 to the final state P2V2.

At point ‘a’ let P be the pressure and the volume

increases by a small about dV. corresponding small
amount of work done is given by,
The area under P-V diagram is numerically equal to
the work done involved in that thermodynamic process
same Temp
Isothermal process
The process in which the temperature of the system remains
constant throughout is called isothermal process.

Ideal gas equation for n moles of gas is

Port of
PV = nRT ① Bollin Water
10
PU = a constant
= * freechs
ou
For an ideal gas undergoing isothermal process, ΔU = 0
(Since temperature remains constant).

Therefore from first law of thermodynamics

Da DU + DW
Top count
=

AQ = AW Av = 0
-
That is in an isothermal process heat supplied to an ideal
gas is equal to the work done by the gas.
Work done in a isothermal process -
⑳ ~

Consider n moles of an ideal gas going isothermally from its initial

state (P1 V1) to final state ( P2 V2 ) at constant temperature T.

=
w
poo-Q

PV = nr+-

T-
0)
P
=
 /vert du
w =
.

w = nr

+ d -

w = nr+ (h[v77"-6
VI

W =
nRT(hV-hvi]-G
 hA-lB =
h(A/B)
w = nRT h(V2/vi) ⑳-

W =
nRT2 303
.

log (V2/v1)&
 0
AQ
Adiabatic process
=

A process in which the system is perfectly insulated from its

surrounding so that no heat exchange take place between them is
called adiabatic process. As no heat is enter of leave the system,
the temperature of system changes.

PV = 1 (constant)

V =
/
PV PVeV= = K
AR =
DU + AW AQz0
-

O = Du + Aw

DU = -DW
-
Work done in an adiabatic process a
Consider μ moles of an ideal gas going adiabatically from
its initial state (P1V1T1) to final state ( P2 V2 T2)

w =

/ pdr-0

PVV = -G
y
P
=
=
w =

k(d
w=
k(d
-
W=
/Yudn =
Jad
k
w = 2+1

d
=
W
= [vet-viley
,u] -
w =
+(kv -
kv

Pr = BVV = K

= -Pur
 - -Ye
= [peve p, u
+
w

w
= (PV
- P, V
]-
,

PV = nRT

P, V = DRTI

P2Vz =
nRT2
w
= ARTI-nRTI]-e
[T T] ⑯
=
-

W
= StirT]
Isochoric process const volume

Other mode and in the process in which volume remains constant is

called isochoric process

AQ = DU + AW

Da =
Du + DV =
0

AQ = DU
=
Hence in an isochoric process, the entire heat
given to the system is used to change its
internal energy.
Isobaric process out
preme

A process in which the pressure remains constant is called

isobaric process

AQ = AU + DW

AQ = Du + PAN

=
nearly
Quasi static process
The thermodynamic process in which the variables
changes so slowly and all the state through which the
system passes can be considered as equilibrium state.

#
-
Cyclic process
In a cyclic process the system returns to its initial
state after undergoing a series of operations

U = constant .
Da =
buy DW
AQ = AW
-
Reversible process
A thermodynamic process is said to be reversible, if the
process can be retraced in opposite direction such that
the system and surroundings returns to their original
state, with no other change anywhere in the universe.

If heat is absorbed by the system in the direct process,

the same quantity of heat will be given out by it in the
reverse process.
Irreversible process
A process which cannot be retraced in opposite
direction exactly is called an irreversible process.

rusting of iron other are some examples of irreversible

process.
Work done in thermodynamic process
P Isochan DW20
=>
M

Isobaric process W1

Isothermal process W2

Adiabatic process W3

Sy
W , ) C2) W3
Question
The increase in internal energy of the system is equal
to the work done on the system. Which process does
the system undergo?

DU = -AW ato
D-

Adabalie
-
Question
In a cyclic process, the internal energy of the gas

V = constit
Au = 0
-
Question
For a given process of an ideal gas dW = 0 , and dQ<0 , then
for the gas, temperature will ( Increase/ decreases/
-
remains constant)
we do =u + do

Temp ↓
=
Heat engine
A device which converts heat into mechanical energy is called
heat engine

& W

Q1 Q2
Cold
Hot Working
> Y Reservoir
Reservoir substance

T2
T1
Construction
Working substance
Working substance it performs mechanical work when heat is
supplied to it. A petrol engine uses a mixture of petrol and air as
working substance, steam is act as working substance in steam
engine.

The hot reservoir with high temperature T1 (Source)

The cold reservoir with low temperature T2 (Sink)

Working
The working substance absorbs a heat Q1 from the
source, converts a part of it into external work W and
reject the remaining heat Q2 to the sink. The series of
operation constitute a cycle and a working substance
comes back to original condition the cycle is repeated
and continuous work is obtained.
 engine
BED
Carnot4=1 -0¥ -
①

Carnot engine is an =ideal heat engine and such an engine

cannot be realised in practice.

"
Cylinder
Conducting

"I
Source Insulating
Stand , Sink
 BED
Cylin der
4=1 -0¥ -
①

The cylinder has perfectly

= conducting base insulating walls

and it is provided with a smooth frictionless piston. Cylinder

encloses an ideal gas as the working substance.

Source
It is a hot reservoir maintained at a constant temperature T1
Sink
BED 4=1 -0¥ -
①

It is a cold reservoir maintained at a low temperature T2

=

Insulating stand
It is a perfectly non conducting platform
 BED
Case 14=1 -0¥ -
①

mom
=

A,
Q1
Source Insulating
Stand ,,
"I
Sink

Isothermal expansion
 BED
Case 2 4=1 -0¥ -
①

mom
, ,
"T Source Insulating
Stand ,,
"I
Sink

Adiabatic expansion
 BED
Case 3 4=1 -0¥ -
①

mom Q2

,
"I
, ,,
"I
Source Insulating
Stand
Sink

Isothermal compression
 BED
Case 4 4=1 -0¥ -
①

mom
, ,
"T Source Insulating
Stand ,,
"I
Sink

Adiabatic compression
 BED 4=1
P V diagram -0¥ ①
D
-

=
f
100
 BED
Work done in -0¥
4=1 ①
isothermal expansion
-

W = nRT 2 303
log (f) D
-

, ,
.

Work done in adiabatic expansion

We
=R IT -

T2]
&
 BED 4=1 -0¥ -
①

Work done in isothermal compression

=

Wg =
- URT22 . 30
log (f)
Wa =
NRT 22 . 303
log() ③
-

Work done in adiabatic compression

WK = T2-T]
WK = ST-T2Y
-

⑪
 BED of Carnot
Efficiency4=1 -0¥ engine
-
①

=
-
Refrigerators and heat pump
Refrigerator is reverse of heat engine the device used to cool
a portion of space inside a chamber is refrigerator. the device
used to pump heat into a portion of space to warm up room is
called heat pump

Hot
Reservoir

T1
-
Q1
W

Working
substance
Q2
Cold
Reservoir

T2
 Second law of thermodynamics
~Kelvin - plank statement
No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption
of heat from a reservoir and complete conversion of
heat into work.

The efficiency would be 100% if Q2 =0, since Q2 cannot

be zero, second law denies the possibility of an engine
having 100% efficiency.
Clausius statement
No process whose sole result is the transfer of heat
from a colder object to hotter object.

This statement is based on the performance of the

refrigerator. Without external work one cannot transfer
heat from a cold object to a hot object
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