BIO 101

GENERAL REPRODUTION
Reproduction is a biological process by which an organism reproduces an offspring that is biologically similar to the
organism. Reproduction is one of the characteristics of all living organisms. Reproduction enables and ensures the
continuity of species, generation after generation. Reproduction is a process through which the cycle of life is
maintained. It is the main feature of life on Earth. This process is seen in all organisms- both plants and animals,
Types of Reproduction
There are two types of reproduction:
1. Asexual Reproduction
2. Sexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction refers to the type of reproduction in which only a single organism gives rise to a new
individual. Asexual reproduction does not involve the fusion of gametes, and therefore, the offspring produced are
genetically identical to the parent. The organisms produced by asexual reproduction are less diverse. This type of
reproduction is practiced widely by unicellular organisms.
The process involves rapid population growth and no mate is required for the process. However, a lack of genetic
diversity makes organisms more susceptible to diseases and nutrition deficiencies.
Features of Asexual Reproduction
• It involves a single parent
• There is no gamete formation or fertilization
• The whole process takes place in a short period
• Rapid multiplication and growth happens
• There is limited variation (genetically similar offspring)

1) Fission
Fission means division. During asexual reproduction, the parent cell divides into two or more cells. Unicellular
organisms show different patterns of cell division according to their cell structure. For example, an amoeba can divide
itself into two at any plane but the division in Euglena is longitudinal.
Fission can be of two types, namely, binary fission and multiple fission. In binary fission, the parent cell divides into two
halves called daughter cells. Daughter cells are identical to each other and to their parent cell. Organisms like the
amoeba, bacteria, euglena, etc., exhibit binary fission.
During multiple fission, organism divides itself into numerous daughter cells. Examples of multiple fission are
sporozoans and algae.
2) Fragmentation
Fragmentation is another mode of asexual reproduction. Multi-cellular organisms like planaria, spirogyra, etc. reproduce
by fragmentation. The parent body divides into two or more fragments. Later, each fragment develops into a new
individual.

3) Regeneration
When a lizard loses its tail, it grows a new one. This is known as regeneration. In many organisms, there are specialized
cells, which can differentiate and grow into a new organism. Organisms like hydra and planaria also show regeneration.
In these organisms, when the cell divides into numerous pieces, each piece proliferates and differentiates to regenerate
new organisms.

Regeneration in mushrooms
4) Budding
Some organisms develop buds on their body. A bud is an outgrowth or projection that results from cell division at one
particular site of the parent organism that develop into a new individual. This is known as budding. An example is a
hydra. From the parent hydra, a bud arises which eventually matures into a new hydra. Once it gets mature, it detaches
from the parent body.

) Vegetative Propagation
Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in which new plants are formed from vegetative parts of the
parent plant. Through this method, plants reproduce asexually through their vegetative parts such as leaves, roots, stem,
and buds. Others are onion bulbs, tubers of potato, runners/stolon, etc. Vegetative propagation is much faster than the
sexual reproduction in plants. This can be done artificially as well, which is widely employed in horticulture.

Sporogenesis is another type of asexual reproduction wherein sporulating organisms spores that eventually germinate
and develop into a new organism.

Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves the production of offspring by the fusion of male
and female gametes. In sexual reproduction, male and female gametes are formed to produce an offspring. This
process is usually slow and complex compared to asexual reproduction. The organisms so produced are genetically
diverse. Thus, they can evolve along with the changing climatic conditions. Examples of sexual reproduction are
found in mammals and flowering plants.

Reproduction in Plants
The flower is the reproductive structure of flowering plants. It contains the male and female sex organs which
enables them to exhibit sexual reproduction. Fertilization inside flowers often leads to the production of seeds which
are capable of germinating into new plants.

Sexual Reproduction in Plant

Sexual reproduction in plants happens in flowering plants who have both male and female in the same flower or in
separate flowers. Flowers that contain either male or female parts are called unisexual plants whereas those with
both male and female parts are called hermaphrodite plants. The female reproductive organs are called the
gynoecium consisting of stigma, style and ovaries. The style connects the stigma to the ovary. The ovaries contain
ovules which contain the female gametes.
The male reproductive organs are collectively known as the androecium which consists of filament, anther and
stamens. The pollen grains on the stamens contain the male gamete. Through different modes of pollination, pollen
grains are carried to the stigma of the same or a different flower. Once the pollen lands on the stigma, it is passed
through the style to reach the ovaries where fertilization occurs and the ovary becomes the fruit and the ovules
become the seeds. These seeds, on finding a favourable environment, give rise to a new plant.

PARTS OF A FLOWER SHOWING THE MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES

POLLINATION
Pollination is defined as the transfer of mature pollen grains from the anthers of a flower to the mature stigma of the
same flower or another flower of the same plant or closely related specie. Pollination is the first step which leads to
eventual coming together of the male and female gametes for the sake of fertilization.
Types of Pollination
There are two types of pollination. These are self- pollination and cross pollination.
Self - pollination is the transfer of mature pollen grain from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower
or to that of another flower of the same plant e.g., pea, cotton and tomato. For self - pollination only one parent is
involved.
Cross –pollination is the transfer of mature pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower of
another plant of the same or closely related specie, e.g. hibiscus, pride of Barbados etc. for cross pollination to
occur, two parent plants are involved.

Legend: A and B depict self-pollination whereas C highlights cross-pollination

Sexual Reproduction in Animals.

Humans and many multicellular organisms exhibit sexual mode of reproduction. In animals, in most cases, there are
separate sexes of the species that carry either the male or the female reproductive organs. Some organisms like the
earthworm are hermaphrodite as they contain both sexes in the same organism.
In humans, the reproductive system in males and females is very different. The male reproductive system is made up
of the testes, scrotum, urethra and the penis. The male gamete is known as the sperm. The female reproductive
system is made up of ovaries, fallopian tubes, and the vagina. The female gamete is known as the egg. When the
sperm fuses with the egg inside the female uterus, a zygote is formed. This zygote undergoes further development to
give rise to a fetus and a baby is born.
In mammals, who are not egg-laying animals, fertilization generally occurs inside the female and this type of
fertilization is known as internal fertilization. In lower species such as birds, reptiles etc, the female lays the eggs
from which a new organism arises. It is also the same in case of fishes and amphibians.
The Stages of Sexual Reproduction
Below, we will discuss the various stages of sexual reproduction.
1) Pre-fertilization
This stage involves the events prior to fertilization. Gamete formation (gametogenesis) and transfer of gamete are the
two processes that take place during this stage. Gametes are sex cells which are haploid (23 chromosomes) in nature and
are distinct in males and females. Recall that mitosis produces diploid cells (2n) while meiosis produces haploid cells (n).
Male gamete is called sperm whereas female gamete is called ovum or egg. In every organism, these gametes form
within special structures. Since female gamete is immobile, male gametes need to be transferred for fertilization. In
plants, this is pre-fertilization happens through pollination. Unisexual animals transfer gametes by sexual intercourse.
2) Fertilization
The process in which the haploid male and female gametes meet and fuse together to form a zygote is fertilization. This
can occur either outside the body known as External fertilization or inside the body known as Internal fertilization.

3) Post-fertilization
Fertilization results in diploid zygote formation. Eventually, the zygote divides mitotically and develops into an embryo.
This process is called embryogenesis. During embryogenesis, cells differentiate and modify accordingly. Zygote
development depends on the organism and its life cycle.
There are two types of fertilization in animals, external fertilization and internal fertilization.
• External fertilization: When fertilization takes place outside the animal’s body, it is external fertilization. Most
of the aquatic animals show external fertilization, e.g., fish and frog. A large number of eggs need to be fertilized
in this method because most of the fertilized eggs get washed away by water or are eaten by predators. A large
number of eggs ensures the survival of some of the offspring.
• Internal fertilization: When fertilization takes place inside the animal’s body, it is internal fertilization. Internal
fertilization happens in most of the terrestrial animals. Unlike external fertilization, there is no need to produce a
large number of eggs in internal fertilization.