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FLUID MECHANICS

VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH

Let pressure at L is P1 and pressure at M is P2
Then, P2A = P1 A + gA (y2 – y1)  P2 = P1 + g(y2 – y1)

PRESSURE IN CASE OF ACCELERATING FLUID

Liquid placed in elevator
When elevator accelerates upward with acceleration a0 then
pressure in the fluid, at depth 'h' may be given by, P  h  g  a0 

a0

Free surface of liquid in case of horizontal acceleration:

h1 
h2 a0
1 2

ma0 a
tan   = 0
mg g
If P1 and P2 are pressures at point 1 & 2 then P1–P2 = g (h1– h2) = gtan = a0

The pressure varies with the distance from the axis of rotation, but at a fixed radius, the pressure
varies hydrostatically in the vertical direction as shown in figure.

Fluid 1
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Eg. A cylindrical vessel containing a liq

liquid
uid is rotated about its axis so that the liquid rises at its sides
as shown in the figure. The radius of vessel is 5 cm and the angular speed of rotation is  rad s–1.
The difference in the height, h (in cm) of liquid at the centre of vessel and at the side
si will be:


10 cm

252 2 2 2 2 5 2
(1) (2) (3) (4)
2g 5g 25g 2g

Ans. (1)
Sol.

Applying pressure equation from A to B

R2
P0 + · ·R  gh  P0
2
R 22
= gh
2
R 22 2 25 2
h=  (5)2 
2g 2g 2 g

Fluid 2
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MEASUREMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Mercury Barometer
To measure the atmospheric pressure experimentally,
Torricelli invented a mercury barometer
pa =hg

Torricelli
vaccum
h
A
Mercury
Trough

FORCE ON SIDE WALL OF VESSEL

Force on the side wall of the vessel cannot be directly determined as a different depths pressures
are different. To find this we consider a strip of width dx at a depth x from the surface of the
liquid as shown in figure, and on this strip the force due to the liquid is given as : dF = x g ×
bdx

x
dx
dF
h

b
a
This force is acting in the direction normal to the side wall. Net
force can be evaluated by integrating equation

Fluid 3
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Eg. Two liquids of densities  and 2(2 = 2) are filled up behind a square wall of side 10 m as
shown in figure. Each liquid has a height of 5 m. The ratio of the forces due to these liquids
exerted on upper part MN to that at the lower part NO is (Assume that the liquids are not
mixing):

(1) 1/2 (2) 2/3 (3) 1/ 3 (4) 1/ 4

Ans. (4)
Sol. f1 = force on upper part
f2 = force on lower part 1
gh  A
f1 2 1
 
f2  2gh  4
 gh  A 2 = 21
 2 

h
gbh 2
F   dF   xgbdx F 
0
2

Fluid 4
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PASCAL's LAW
If the pressure in an enclosed fluid is changed at a particular point, the change is transmitted to
every point of the fluid and to the walls of the container without being diminished in
magnitude.

Eg. A hydraulic press can lift 100 kg when a mass 'm' is placed on the smaller piston. It can lift
_______kg when the diameter of the larger piston is increased by 4 times and that of the smaller
piston is decreased by 4 times keeping the same mass 'm' on the smaller piston.

Sol. Using Pascals law

100  g mg
 …..(1)
A2 A1
Let m mass can lift M0 in second case then
M 0g mg
 …..(2)
16A 2 A1 / 16

d 2
{Since A  }
4
From equation (1) and (2) we get
M0
= 16
16.100
 M0 = 25600 kg

Fluid 5
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BUOYANCY AND ARCHIMEDE'S PRINCIPLE

Archimede's Principle : It states that the buoyant force on a body that is partially or totally
immersed in a liquid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it.

Eg. A cubical block of side 0.5 m floats on water with 30% of its volume under water. What is the
maximum weight that can be put on the block without fully submerging it under water ?
[Take, density of water = 103 kg/m3]
(1) 87.5 kg (2) 46.3 kg (3) 30.1 kg (4) 65.4 kg

Ans. (1)
Sol. 0.35m
M = L [0.5 × 0.5 × 0.35]
= 103 [0.0875]
M = 87.5 kg

Fluid 6
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Eg. A air bubble of radius 1 cm in water has an upward acceleration 9.8 cm –2 The density of water is
1 gm cm–3 and water offers negligible drag force on the bubble. The mass of the bubble is (g =
980 cm/s2).
(1) 4.51 gm (2) 4.15 gm (3) 1.52 gm (4) 3.15 gm

Ans. (2)
4 3 4
Sol. Volume V = r  × (1)2 = 4.19cm3
3 3
a = 9.8 cm/s2
B – mg = ma

B
m=
ga

V g V
m= 
ga a
1
g
4.19  4.19
m=  = 4.15gm
9.8 1.01
1
980

Fluid 7
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FLUID DYNAMICS

EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

A1 v1 A2 v2

v2 t

v1 t
A1v1 = A2v2 Av = constant

Eg. An ideal fluid flows (laminar flow) through a pipe of non-uniform diameter. The maximum and
minimum diameters of the pipes are 6.4 cm and 4.8 cm, respectively. The ratio of the minimum
and the maximum velocities of fluid in this pipe is:
81 3 9 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
256 4 16 2

Ans. (3)
Sol. A1V1 = A2v2
Vmin A min

Vmax A max
2
Vmin  4.8 
 
Vmax  6.4 
Vmin 9

Vmax 16

Fluid 8
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BERNOULLI'S THEOREM
Theorem
According to Bernoulli's Theorem , in case of steady flow of incompressible and non–viscous
fluid through a tube of non–uniform cross–section, the sum of the pressure, the potential energy
per unit volume and the kinetic energy per unit volume is same at every point in the tube, i.e., P
1
+ gh  v 2  constant.
2

Eg. Water from a tap emerges vertically downwards with an initial speed of 1.0 ms –1. The cross-
sectional area of the tap is 10–4 m2. Assume that the pressure is constant throughout the stream of
water and that the flow is streamlined. The cross-sectional area of the stream, 0.15 m below the
tap would be : (Take g = 10 ms–2)
(1) 1 × 10–5 m2 (2) 5 × 10–5 m2 (3) 2 × 10–5 m2 (4) 5 × 10–4 m2

Ans. (2)

A1v1 = A2v2
10–4 × 1 = A2v2
A2v2 = 10–4 .......(1)
1
P  (v12  v 22 )  gh  P
2
v 22  v12  2gh

v2 = v1  2gh
2

= 1  2  10  0.15
104
A2 = 2
A2 = 5 × 10–5 m2

Fluid 9
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VENTURIMETER
It is a gauge put on a flow pipe to measure the speed of flow of a liquid
shown in figure.

v1 v2
A1 A2
P1 P2
A B

m

Where (P1 – P2) = mgh and h is the difference in heights of the liquid levels in the two tubes.
2m gh
v1 
 A  2 
  1   1
 A2  
The flow rate (R) i.e., the volume of the liquid flowing per second is given by R = v1A1.
Torricelli's Law of Efflux (F Fluid Outflow)
vB = 2gh
Equation is same as that of freely falling body after falling through h height and is known as
Torricelli's law.

Eg. Consider a water tank as shown in figure. Its cross sectional area is 0.4 m2. The tank has an
cross-sectional
cross-section area is 1 cm2. A load of 24kg is applied
opening B near the bottom whose cross appli on the
water at the top when the height of the water level is 40cm above the bottom, the velocity of
water coming out the opening B is v ms –1. The value of v, to the nearest integer, is ______. [Take
value of g to be 10 ms–2]

Fluid 10
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Sol.

m = 24 kg
A = 0.4 m2
a = 1 cm2
H = 40cm
Using Bernoulli's equation
 mg  1 2
  P0    gH  V1
 A  2
1 2
 P0  0  v .......(1)
2
 Neglecting v1
2mg
 v  2gH 
A

 v  8  1.2
 v  3.033m / s
 v  3m / s

Fluid 11
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Eg. A light cylindrical vessel is kept on a horizontal surface. Area of base is A. A hole of cross-
cross
sectional area 'a' is made just at its bottom side. The minimum coefficient of friction necessary to
prevent sliding the vessel due to the impact force of the emerging liquid is (a << A):
A)

A 2a a
(1) (2) None of these (3) (4)
2a A A

Sol. For no sliding

f av2
mg av2
Ahg a2gh
2a

A
Option (3)

Fluid 12
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VISCOSITY

NEWTON'S LAW OF VISCOSITY

v x
F = A where  is a constant called coefficient of viscosity of the liquid
y

N s
SI UNITS or deca poise
m2

STOKE'S LAW AND TERMINAL VELOCITY

Stoke showed that if a small sphere of radius r is moving with a velocity v through a
homogeneous medium (liquid or gas), coefficient of viscosity  then the viscous force acting on
the sphere is Fv = 6rv. It is called Stoke's Law.

2 r 2 (  )
vT = g
9 

4 3
Th= 3  r g

 Fv= 6 rvT

density= 

4 
W= 3  rg

Eg. A raindrop with radius R = 0.2 mm falls from a cloud at a height h = 2000 m above the ground.
Assume that the drop is spherical throughout its fall and the force of buoyancy may be neglected
then the terminal speed attained by the raindrop is : [Density of water  w  1000 kg m 3 and
density of air  a  1.2 kg m 3 , g  10 m / s 2 [Coefficient of viscosity of air  1.8  10 5 Nsm 2 ]

(1) 250.6 ms–1 (2) 43.56 ms–1 (3) 4.94 ms–1 (4)14.4 ms–1

Fluid 13
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Sol. At terminal speed

a =0
Fnet = 0
mg = Fv = 6  Rv
mg
v
6Rv
4 3
w Rg
v 3
6R

2w R 2g 400
  m/s
9 81
= 4.94 m/s

Critical Velocity and Reynolds Number

The flow will be steady or turbulent mainly depends on the density velocity and the coefficient
of velocity of the fluid as well as the diameter of the tube through which the fluid is flowing the
quantity

N= .


= .

Fluid 14
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Eg. What will be the nature of flow of water from a circular tap, when its flow rate increased from
0.18 L/min to 0.48 L/min ? The radius of the tap and viscosity of water are 0.5 cm and 10 –3Pa s,
respectively. (Density of water : 103kg/m3)
(1) Unsteady to steady flow (2) Remains steady flow
(3) Remains turbulent flow (4) Steady flow to unsteady flow

Sol. The nature of flow is determined by Reynolds Number.

ρvD
Re 
η

 ρ  density of fluid; η  coefficient of viscosity 

 v  velocity of flow 
 
 D  Diameter of pipe 

From NCERT
If R e  1000  flow is steady

1000  R e  2000  flow becomes unsteady

R e  2000  flow is turbulent

0.18 103 1102

R einitial  103    382.16
π   0.5  10   60
2 2 3
10

0.48 10 3 110 2

R e final  10 3

π   0.5  102   60 10
2 3

= 1019.09

Fluid 15
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SURFACE TENSION
DEPENDENCY OF SURFACE TENSION
1. On Cohesive Force
Those factors which increase the cohesive force between molecules increase the surface tension
and those which decrease the cohesive force between molecules decrease the surface tension.
2. On Impurities
If the impurity is completely soluble then on mixing it in the liquid, its surface tension increases.
e.g., on dissolving ionic salts in small quantities in a liquid, its surface tension increases. If the
impurity is partially soluble in a liquid then its surface tension decreases because adhesive force
between insoluble impurity molecules and liquid molecules decreases cohesive force effectively,
e.g.
(a) On mixing detergent in water its surface tension decreases.
(b) Surface tension of water is more than (alcohol + water) mixture.

3. On Temperature
On increasing temperature surface tension decreases. At critical temperature and boiling point it
becomes zero.
Note : Surface tension of water is maximum at 4°C

4. On Contamination
The dust particles or lubricating materials on the liquid surface decreases its surface tension.

DEFINITION OF SURFACE TENSION

The force acting per unit length of an imaginary line drawn on the free liquid surface at right
angles to the line and in the plane of liquid surface, is defined as surface tension.
F
T=
L

F
B

A F

Eg. A drop of liquid of density  is floating half immersed in a liquid of density  and surface
tension 7.5 × 10–4 Ncm–1. The radius of drop in cm will be : (Take : g = 10 m/s2)
15 15 3 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
2    2  20 2  

Fluid 16
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Ans. (1)

Sol.

Boy ant force + surface tension = mg

V
 g  2RT  Vg
2
 2    4 3 
. R g;  V  R 3 
4
2RT 
2 3  3 
3T 3  7.5  102 N  m 1
R3  R
 2     2    10
3 15
R= m cm
20  2    2  

SURFACE ENERGY
The surface tension T can also be defined as the work done in increasing the surface area by
unity. Further, since there is no change in kinetic energy, the work done by the external force is
stored as the potential energy of the new surface.
dU
T= [as dW = dU]
dA

Eg. Two small drops of mercury each of radius R coalesce to form a single large drop. The ratio of
total surface energy before and after the change is :
1 1
(1) 23 :1 (2) 1: 2 3 (3) 2:1 (4) 1: 2

Fluid 17
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Sol.

4 4 4
R 3   R 3  R  3
3 3 3
1
R  23 R
A i  2  4 R 2 

A f  4 R 2

Ui Ai 2R 2
  2/3 2  21/3
Uf Af 2 R

Excess pressure inside the drop

Excess
ss pressure inside soap bubble
Since the soap bubble has two surfaces. The excess pressure will get
doubled as compared to a drop P0
2T 22T 4T r Pi
Pi –P' = ,P' – P0 =  excess pressure = Pi–P0 = P’
r r r

Eg. Pressure inside two soap bubbles

bbles are 1.01 and 1.02 atmosphere, respectively. The ratio
rati of their
volumes is:
(1) 4 : 1 (2) 2 : 1 (3) 8 : 1 (4) 0.8 : 1

Fluid 18
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Ans. (3)
Sol. P1 = 0.01 = 4T/R1 ......(1)
P2 = 0.02 = 4T/R2 ......(2)
Equation (1) + (2)
1 R2

2 R1
R1 = 2R2
V1 R13 8R 32
  =8
V2 R 32 R 32

Eg. A soap bubble of radius 3 cm is formed inside the another soap bubble of radius 6 cm . The
radius of an equivalent soap bubble which has the sa same
me excess pressure as inside the smaller
bubble with respect to the atmospheric pressure is .... cm
cm.

Sol. excess pressure inside the smaller soap bubble

4S 4S
P   .....(i)
r1 r2
The excess pressure inside the equivalent soap bubble
4S
P  ....(ii)
R eq
From (i)& (ii)
4S 4S 4S
 
R eq r1 r2
1 1 1 1 1
   
R e q r1 r2 6 3
Req = 2 cm

Fluid 19
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ANGLE OF CONTACT (C)

The angle enclosed between the tangent plane at the liquid surface and the tangent plane at the
solid surface at the point of contact inside the liquid is defined as the angle of contact. The angle
of contact depends the nature of the solid and liquid in contact.
1. Effect of Temperature on angle of contact

On increasing temperature surface tension decreases, thus cos c increases  cos c   and
1
 T
cdecrease. So on increasing temperature, c decreases.
2. Effect of Impurities on angle of contact
(a) Solute impurities increase surface tension, so cosc decreases and angle of contact c
increases.
(b) Partially solute impurities decrease surface tension, so angle of contact cdecreases.
3. Effect of Water Proofing Agent
Angle of contact increases due to water proofing agent. It gets converted a cute to obtuse angle.

CAPILLARY TUBE AND CAPILLARITY

2𝑇cos𝜃
ℎ=
𝑟𝜌𝑔
Tube of Insufficient Length
Equation or gives the height raised in a capillary tube. If the tube is of a length less than h, the
liquid does not overflow. The angle made by the liquid surface with the tube changes in such a
way that the force 2rs cos equals the weight of the liquid raised

Eg. If ‘M’ is the mass of water that rises in a capillary tube of radius ‘r’, then mass of water which
will rise in a capillary tube od radius ‘2r’ is:
(1) M (2) 4M (3) 2M (4) M/2

Fluid 20
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Ans. (3)
2T cos C
Sol. Height of liquid rise in capillary tube h =
rg
1
 Height of liquid rise in capillary tube h
r
When radius becomes double height become half
h
 h'=
2
Now, M = r2h × 
and M' = (2r)2 (h/2) ×  = 2M

Eg. A capillary tube made of glass of radius 0.15 mm is dipped vertically in a beaker filled with
ethylene iodide (surface tension = 0.05 Nm–l, density = 667 kg m–3) which rises to height h in the
tube. It is observed that the two tangents drawn from liquid-glass interfaces (from opp. sides of
the capillary) make an angle of 60° with one another. Then h is dose to (g = 10 ms –2).
(1) 0.087 m (2) 0.137 m (3) 0.049 m (4) 0.172 m

Fluid 21
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Ans. (1)
Sol.

r  radius of capillary
R  Radius of meniscus.
r
From figure,  cos 30º
R
2r 2  0.15 103
R= 
3 3
0.3
= 103 m
3
Height of capillary
2T
h= 2 2T
gR
2  0.05
h=
 0.3  10 3 
667 10   
 3 
h = 0.087 m

Fluid 22