Q1: Explain what you understand by simulation and simulation package in computer

architecture
Ans:

Simulations allow architects and developers to study the design, functionality, and performance of
systems without requiring physical hardware. This method is cost-effective, reduces design risks,
and accelerates innovation. It can also be said as a process of using a computer program to model
and analyze the behavior of a computer system. Its cost-effective way to evaluate hardware
designs, access hardware that’s not available, and understand how changes to a system will impact
its performance. We can also use computer architecture in Evaluating hardware designs, Accessing
hardware, Understanding system behavior and so on. Example of simulators include: Shade,
SPIM, SMTSIM, Multi2Sim, and GPGPU-Sim.

A simulation package in computer architecture is a tool used for simulating and analyzing the
behavior of computer systems. These simulators help researchers and designers during the design
and development process by providing cost-effective, flexible, and efficient models for testing and
validation. Examples of simulation packages include Gem5, Simple Scalar and so on.
Q2: Explain how to use a simulator package to investigate how architecture is organized and
functions.
Ans:

To investigate computer architecture using a simulation package, follow these steps:

1. Choose a simulator package: Use a popular simulator package like GEM5, Simple Scalar,
MARSSx86, and Multi2Sim.
2. Understand the simulator’s features: learn the supported architectures and features, then
familiarize yourself with its modelling capabilities (e.g. Cache memory, pipeline stage)
3. Install and Set up the simulator: Download the simulator and install necessary dependencies
and configure the environment (e.g. Set path)
4. Define the architecture to model: Identify the key component to simulate the processors,
Memory, I/O subsystem. And use configuration files to set parameters in the simulators
5. Write or Load Benchmark Program: Use predefine benchmark to test program in C, C++ or
Assembly.
6. Run Simulation: Execute the simulation with the desired configuration and workload
7. Collect and Analyze Data: Extract the metrics such as (Performance, Power Efficiency,
Resource Utilization)
8. Iterate with Modification: Adjust architectural parameters based analysis.
9. Validate Results: Compare simulation outputs with theoretical expectation or real-world data
(if available).
Q3: Identify the speed of program execution on different computer systems
architecture.
Ans

1. Processor Architecture:
o Clock Speed: A faster clock speed usually results in quicker program execution.
o Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)
architectures like ARM may execute instructions faster but might require more
instructions compared to Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC) like x86.
o Pipeline Design: Deeper pipelines can execute more instructions in parallel,
improving speed.
2. Memory Hierarchy:
o Cache Size and Latency: Systems with larger, faster caches reduce the time spent
accessing memory.
o RAM Speed and Bandwidth: Faster RAM improves data transfer rates between
memory and the processor.
3. Parallelism:
o Cores and Threads: Multi-core and multi-threaded processors can execute
multiple operations simultaneously.
o Vector Processing: Some architectures have better support for SIMD (Single
Instruction, Multiple Data) operations, which speeds up data-parallel tasks.
4. System Optimizations:
o Compiler Efficiency: Modern compilers optimize code for specific architectures,
improving execution speed.
o Operating System and Drivers: System-level software optimizations can reduce
overhead and improve performance.
5. Instruction Scheduling:
o Different architectures have varying abilities to handle out-of-order execution,
branch prediction, and speculative execution.
6. I/O Subsystem:
o Performance also depends on the speed of input/output operations, particularly for
programs reliant on disk or network access.
7. Program Characteristics:
o Algorithms designed with parallelism or specific architectural features in mind will
perform better on some systems than others.

Measuring Program Speed

To compare execution speed on different architectures, you can:

 Benchmarking: Run standardized tests and measure execution time.

 Profiling Tools: Use tools like gprof, perf, or system-specific profilers to identify
bottlenecks.
 Real-World Workloads: Test the program using the intended data and tasks.
Q4: Write a C++ program to test, compare and print the largest among three different
numbers say A, B, C.
Ans:

Below is a simple C++ program that identifies the largest of three numbers:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
int A, B, C;
cout << "Enter three numbers: ";
cin >> A >> B >> C;

if (A >= B && A >= C) {

cout << "The largest number is: " << A << endl;
} else if (B >= A && B >= C) {
cout << "The largest number is: " << B << endl;
} else {
cout << "The largest number is: " << C << endl;
}

return 0;
}
Q5a. What do you understand by Instructions?

Ans:

In the context of computer science and computer architecture, instructions are fundamental
commands or operations that a computer's CPU (Central Processing Unit) executes to perform
tasks. Instructions form the building blocks of a program and are written in a language that the
CPU understands, typically machine code or an assembly language.

Key Components of an Instruction

1. Opcode (Operation Code):

o Specifies the operation to be performed (e.g., ADD, SUBTRACT, LOAD,
STORE).
2. Operands:
o Data or memory addresses used by the instruction. Operands can be:
 Immediate Values: Hardcoded numbers in the instruction.
 Registers: Small, fast storage locations in the CPU.
 Memory Addresses: Points to data stored in the computer's RAM.
3. Instruction Format:
o The structure or layout of the instruction, including the opcode and operand(s). The
format depends on the architecture, such as RISC (fixed-size instructions) or CISC
(variable-size instructions).

Execution of Instructions

The CPU executes instructions through the fetch-decode-execute cycle:

1. Fetch: The instruction is fetched from memory.

2. Decode: The CPU interprets the opcode and determines the operation.
3. Execute: The operation is carried out, and results are stored in registers or memory.

Instruction Sets

The Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) defines the set of instructions that a CPU can execute.
Common ISAs include:

 x86 (CISC): Used in most desktop and laptop processors.

 ARM (RISC): Common in mobile devices and embedded systems.
 MIPS (RISC): Used in academic settings and specialized hardware.
 RISC-V (RISC): An open-source instruction set.
Q5b. Design and implement different instructions using any simulating package.

Ans:

Designing and implementing instructions using a simulation package involves creating a virtual
environment that mimics a CPU's instruction set and execution process. Here's how you can
approach it:

Tools for Simulation

Several simulation tools and packages allow you to implement and test custom instructions.
Popular ones include:

1. Logisim: For designing and simulating digital circuits, including CPU architectures.
2. MARIE Simulator: A simple educational CPU simulator to understand instruction design.
3. SPIM/MARS: Simulates MIPS assembly instructions.
4. RARS: A RISC-V assembler and simulator.
5. QtSPIM: A graphical simulator for the MIPS architecture.
6. Custom Python Programs: Write a CPU simulator to process and execute instructions.

Steps to Design and Implement Instructions

1. Define Your Instruction Set Architecture (ISA):

o Decide on the format of instructions (e.g., opcode + operands).
o Example instruction set:
 ADD R1, R2, R3 → Adds values in R2 and R3, stores in R1.
 LOAD R1, 100 → Loads value from memory address 100 into R1.
 STORE R1, 200 → Stores value in R1 to memory address 200.
2. Create a Simulation Environment:
o Use a tool like Logisim or write code in Python to simulate the CPU.
o Implement components like registers, memory, ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit), and control
unit.
3. Implement the Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle:
o Simulate how the CPU fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and executes
them.
4. Define Custom Instructions:
o Choose operations to simulate. For example:
 Arithmetic: MUL, DIV
 Logical: AND, OR
 Control: JUMP, CALL
o Assign opcodes to each instruction.
5. Simulate Instruction Execution:
o Write code or design circuits to execute your defined instructions.
6. Test the Instructions:
o Write sample programs using your instruction set and execute them in the simulator.
Q6. What do you understand by bus in a computer system?
Ans:

In a computer system, a bus is a communication pathway that transfers data and signals between
different components of the system, such as the CPU, memory, and peripheral devices. It acts as a
shared medium, allowing the connected components to exchange information.

Characteristics of a Bus

1. Bus Width:
o Determines the amount of data or addressable memory.
o Example: A 32-bit data bus transfers 32 bits of data at a time.
2. Bus Speed:
o Defined by the bus clock frequency.
o Higher clock speed means faster data transfer.
3. Bus Arbitration:
o Determines how devices share the bus when multiple devices need access
simultaneously.
o Common methods: Daisy-chaining, polling, or priority arbitration.
4. Bus Protocol:
o Defines the rules for data transfer, including timing, synchronization, and error
handling.
Q6b: Recognize and distinguish different bus types in computer systems hardware
Ans:
Types of Buses in a Computer System

1. Data Bus:
o Carries the actual data being processed.
o The width of the data bus (e.g., 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, or 64-bit) determines how much
data can be transferred at once.
2. Address Bus:
o Carries the memory addresses or I/O device addresses.
o The width of the address bus determines the maximum addressable memory (e.g.,
a 32-bit address bus can address 2322^{32}232 locations).
3. Control Bus:
o Carries control signals, such as read/write signals, interrupt requests, and clock
signals.
o Synchronizes operations between components.

Bus Architecture

1. Single Bus Architecture:

o All components share a single bus.
o Simple and cost-effective, but can become a bottleneck when multiple devices need
the bus simultaneously.
2. Multiple Bus Architecture:
o Uses separate buses for different purposes (e.g., a dedicated bus for memory and
another for peripherals).
o Increases performance but is more complex and expensive.

Types of Computer Buses

1. System Bus:
o Connects the CPU, memory, and motherboard components.
o Typically includes the data bus, address bus, and control bus.
2. Expansion Bus:
o Connects the motherboard to peripheral devices, such as printers or storage drives.
o Examples: PCI, PCIe, USB.
3. Memory Bus:
o Connects the CPU and memory directly.
o Optimized for high-speed data transfer.
4. I/O Bus:
o Connects the CPU to input/output devices.
Q6c: CPUs with multiple cores have more power to run multiple programs at the same time.
State and draw the number of channels for the CPU with (i) 4 cores and (ii) 6 cores

CHANNELS
(i) CORE CORE

CORE CORE

4 CORES has 6 CHANNELS

(ii)

CORE

CORE CORE

CORE CORE

CORE

6 CORE has 15 CHANNELS

Q7a. Explain memory unit of a computer system

The memory unit of a computer system is a fundamental component responsible for storing data
and instructions required for processing. It plays a critical role in determining a system's
performance and efficiency by providing temporary or permanent data storage.

Memory Organization

1. Word Size:
o The number of bits the CPU processes at a time.
o Examples: 32-bit, 64-bit systems.
2. Addressing:
o Each memory location has a unique address, allowing the CPU to fetch data or
instructions.
3. Access Time:
o The time required to retrieve data from memory.
o Faster in primary memory (nanoseconds) compared to secondary memory
(milliseconds).
4. Memory Hierarchy:
o Memory is organized in a hierarchy to balance cost, speed, and capacity:
1. Registers (fastest, smallest, most expensive).
2. Cache Memory.
3. Main Memory (RAM).
4. Secondary Storage.
5. Offline Storage (e.g., USB drives, external hard drives).
Q7b.Recognize and distinguish different memory units of a computer system

1. Primary Memory (Main Memory):

o Directly accessible by the CPU.
o Fast but volatile, meaning data is lost when power is off.
o Examples:
 RAM (Random Access Memory): Temporary storage for programs and
data actively in use.
 DRAM (Dynamic RAM): Needs periodic refreshing to retain data.
 SRAM (Static RAM): Faster but more expensive than DRAM.
 ROM (Read-Only Memory): Non-volatile memory for storing permanent
data, like firmware.
 Types include PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.
2. Secondary Memory (Storage):
o Non-volatile storage for long-term data retention.
o Examples:
 Hard Disk Drives (HDDs).
 Solid State Drives (SSDs).
 Optical Discs (CD/DVD/Blu-ray).
3. Cache Memory:
o A small, high-speed memory located inside or close to the CPU.
o Stores frequently accessed data to reduce the time needed to fetch it from main
memory.
o Organized in levels:
 L1 (Level 1): Fastest but smallest, located inside the CPU.
 L2 (Level 2): Larger but slower than L1, may be inside or outside the CPU.
 L3 (Level 3): Larger than L2 but shared across CPU cores.
4. Virtual Memory:
o A section of the secondary storage (e.g., HDD/SSD) used as an extension of main
memory.
o Allows the system to handle larger programs than physical memory by swapping
data between RAM and storage.
5. Register Memory:
o Small, high-speed storage inside the CPU.
o Stores data and instructions currently being used by the CPU.
o Examples: Accumulators, program counters, and general-purpose registers.
Q7c: Explain the execution speed of a program with and without virtual memory.
Ans:
Execution Speed Without Virtual Memory

1. Direct Use of Physical Memory:

o Programs run directly in RAM (Random Access Memory), which has a much faster
access time compared to secondary storage.
o Execution is limited to the available physical memory. If the program size exceeds
the RAM, it will not execute.
2. Advantages:
o Fast Execution: All memory accesses occur in RAM, resulting in high
performance.
o No Disk Overhead: Since no data is swapped between RAM and the disk, there is
no delay from disk access.
3. Limitations:
o Program Size Restriction: If the combined size of programs and data exceeds the
physical RAM, execution may fail or require the termination of other programs to
free memory.
o Inefficient Memory Usage: Unused portions of a program may still occupy
physical memory, reducing efficiency.

Execution Speed With Virtual Memory

1. Use of Virtual Memory:

o When physical RAM is insufficient, the system uses a portion of secondary storage
(e.g., HDD or SSD) as virtual memory to extend memory capacity.
o Data not immediately needed is moved to the storage in blocks called pages.
o When the CPU needs this data, it retrieves it from the disk, a process called page
swapping.
2. Advantages:
o Larger Program Support: Programs larger than the available RAM can execute
by using disk space as an extension of memory.
o Multitasking: Virtual memory enables multiple programs to run simultaneously
by efficiently managing limited RAM.
3. Performance Impacts:
o Page Swapping Overhead: Accessing data from the disk is significantly slower
than accessing RAM.
o Disk Latency: Even with fast SSDs, disk access (in microseconds to milliseconds)
is much slower than RAM access (nanoseconds).
4. Thrashing:
o If the program frequently accesses data that resides on the disk, the system spends
more time swapping pages in and out of RAM than executing the program. This
situation, called thrashing, drastically reduces execution speed.
Q8. Evaluate processor performance using cache
Ans:

Role of Cache in Processor Performance

Cache is a small, high-speed memory located close to or within the processor. It stores frequently
accessed data and instructions, reducing the need to fetch them from RAM, which is slower. Cache
significantly improves performance by:

 Reducing Memory Access Latency:

o Accessing cache is much faster (nanoseconds) than accessing RAM or secondary storage.
 Minimizing CPU Stalls:
o Faster memory access allows the CPU to execute instructions without waiting for data
retrieval.

Factors Affecting Processor Performance Using Cache

1. Cache Size:
o Larger caches can store more data, reducing cache misses, but are more expensive and can
have longer access times.
2. Cache Levels:
o Multi-level caches (L1, L2, L3) balance speed and capacity.
 L1: Small and fastest.
 L2: Larger but slightly slower.
 L3: Largest and shared among cores, slower than L1 and L2.
3. Cache Hit and Miss Rates:
o Cache Hit: When requested data is found in the cache.
o Cache Miss: When requested data is not in the cache, requiring retrieval from RAM or
secondary memory.
4. Replacement Policies:
o Determines which data to replace in cache during a miss (e.g., LRU, FIFO, Random).
5. Cache Associativity:
o Determines how data is mapped to the cache (direct-mapped, set-associative, or fully
associative).
6. Access Patterns:
o Sequential access benefits more from caching than random access.

Methods to Evaluate Cache Performance

1. Simulation:
o Use tools like Cachegrind (a Valgrind tool) or gem5 to simulate cache behavior and
measure hit/miss rates and AMAT.
2. Profiling:
o Analyze cache performance using hardware performance counters (e.g., Intel VTune, Perf
in Linux).
o Metrics like cache-references and cache-misses can be obtained.
Q9a: Explain in detail what you understand by Memory management in Computer system

Ans:

Memory management in a computer system refers to the process of managing and optimizing the
use of a system's memory resources. It involves the allocation, tracking.

Q9b: Explain the different memory management techniques you know and their
operations
Ans:

1. Role of Cache in Processor Performance

Cache is a small, high-speed memory located close to or within the processor. It stores frequently
accessed data and instructions, reducing the need to fetch them from RAM, which is slower. Cache
significantly improves performance by:

 Reducing Memory Access Latency:

o Accessing cache is much faster (nanoseconds) than accessing RAM or secondary storage.
 Minimizing CPU Stalls:
o Faster memory access allows the CPU to execute instructions without waiting for data
retrieval.

2. Factors Affecting Processor Performance Using Cache

1. Cache Size:
o Larger caches can store more data, reducing cache misses, but are more expensive and
can have longer access times.
2. Cache Levels:
o Multi-level caches (L1, L2, L3) balance speed and capacity.
 L1: Small and fastest.
 L2: Larger but slightly slower.
 L3: Largest and shared among cores, slower than L1 and L2.
3. Cache Hit and Miss Rates:
o Cache Hit: When requested data is found in the cache.
o Cache Miss: When requested data is not in the cache, requiring retrieval from RAM or
secondary memory.
4. Replacement Policies:
o Determines which data to replace in cache during a miss (e.g., LRU, FIFO, Random).
5. Cache Associativity:
o Determines how data is mapped to the cache (direct-mapped, set-associative, or fully
associative).
6. Access Patterns:
o Sequential access benefits more from caching than random access.
Q9c: Run program in different computer systems and evaluate their performances.

Ans:

Running a program on different computer systems and evaluating their performance involves
testing how the program behaves across different hardware configurations, operating systems, or
system architectures. The goal is to measure the performance metrics of the system, such as
execution time, memory usage, CPU usage, and overall responsiveness.

Steps to Run a Program and Evaluate Performance

1. Prepare the Test Program

Select a program that can be tested on multiple systems. This program should be representative of
the type of tasks you want to evaluate (e.g., CPU-bound, memory-bound, I/O-bound, or mixed).
The program can be something as simple as a sorting algorithm or a more complex system
simulation.

Example in C++ (a sorting algorithm):

2. Run the Program on Different Systems

Test the program on different computer systems or configurations. For this, you would need:

 Different hardware architectures (e.g., x86 vs ARM).

 Different processor specifications (e.g., clock speed, number of cores).
 Different operating systems (e.g., Windows, Linux, macOS).
 Varying memory sizes (e.g., 4GB RAM vs 16GB RAM).
 Different storage types (e.g., HDD vs SSD).

3. Evaluate Performance Using Metrics

After running the program, evaluate the system's performance based on several key metrics:

1. Execution Time:
o Measure how long the program takes to execute using tools like std::chrono (as shown
in the code) or system performance monitors.
o The faster execution time typically indicates a more powerful or optimized system.
2. CPU Usage:
o Monitor the CPU usage during execution. Tools like Task Manager (Windows), htop
(Linux), or Activity Monitor (macOS) can help track CPU utilization.
o Higher CPU usage may indicate that the program is CPU-bound or the system is under
heavy load.
 3. Memory Usage:
o Check the memory consumption of the program during execution. This can be done using
system resource monitors like top (Linux) or Resource Monitor (Windows).
o A high memory usage could suggest inefficient memory management or large data
structures.
4. I/O Performance:
o If the program performs disk reads or writes (e.g., file operations), measure the I/O
performance using tools like iostat (Linux) or Resource Monitor (Windows).
o Disk speed (SSD vs HDD) can significantly affect performance, especially for I/O-bound
programs.
5. Cache Efficiency:
o If using techniques like caching or memory pooling, measure the effectiveness of the
cache by evaluating cache hit/miss ratios. This can be done with tools like Cachegrind (a
part of Valgrind) or hardware performance counters.
o Systems with faster caches and larger memory configurations tend to have better
performance.
6. Power Consumption:
o In some cases, you might want to track the power consumption of the system while
running the program. Tools like Intel Power Gadget (for Intel CPUs) can help measure
power usage.
7. Throughput:
o For programs that handle multiple requests or operations (e.g., web servers, network
programs), throughput can be measured as the number of operations or requests handled
per unit of time.

4. Analyze the Results

Once you have the data from the tests, you can compare the results based on the different systems.

For example, suppose you run the sorting program on three systems, and the output is as follows:

System Execution Time CPU Usage Memory Usage

Desktop (Intel i7, SSD) 1.2 seconds 50% 500MB

Laptop (Ryzen 5, HDD) 2.5 seconds 60% 400MB

VM (1 Core, 2GB RAM) 4.8 seconds 85% 350MB

5. Tools and Frameworks for Performance Evaluation

 Benchmarking Tools:
o Use tools like SPEC CPU or Geekbench for standard benchmarks across systems.
 Profiling Tools:
o Use gprof, Valgrind, or Intel VTune for in-depth analysis of how the program utilizes
memory, CPU, and I/O.