1) Casting:-

Casting is one of the oldest manufacturing processes in which a liquid material

(molten metal) is usually poured into a mould, which contains a hollow cavity of
desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as
casting (final desired product) which is ejected or broken out of the mould to
complete the process. Casting is, therefore, both a process and a product.
Principal of metal casting
Metal casting is a modern process with ancient roots. In the metal
casting process, metal shapes are formed by pouring molten metal into a mold cavity,
where it is cooled and later extracted from the mold.1
Steps in Casting:
1. Pattern and mould making.
2. Melting and pouring the metal.
3. Cooling and solidification.
4. Removal, cleaning, finishing and inspection.
Stages in casting:-

a) The mould is first preheated, through suitable means like torches, to a temperature
of about 400˚Celsius, followed by application of a refractory coating on the
surface of mould cavity, runner and riser etc.
b) After attaining the correct mould temperature, the first casting is poured. The
cores are removed as soon as the metal begins to solidify, otherwise it may shrink
on the surface of metal, cores to lock them within casting.
c) The mould is then cleaned by blowing, coated with refractory coating, cores
assembled in position and closed again for pouring.

Advantages of Casting:
 It is the cheapest and best manufacturing process. Since molten metal can flow
into any small section in the mould cavity and as such any intricate shape (internal
and external) can be made with casting process.
 Since it is possible to place required amount of material exactly, weight reduction
in design can be achieved.
 Since casting are cooled uniformly from all sides, they are expected to have no
direction properties
 It is possible to cast practically any material be it ferrous or non-ferrous. There are
certain materials and alloys which can only be processed by casting and not by
forging etc.
 Casting of any size and weight even up to 200 tons can be made. Since the
necessary tools required for casting process are very simple and in-expensive, for
trial production it is an ideal method
 It eliminates the necessity of joining process of two products
 Rate of production is higher

Disadvantages of Casting:
 Less dimensional accuracy and poor surface finish
 Too much labor is required (particularly in sand casting)
 It is difficult to remove defects arising out of the moisture present in sand casting
Application of Casting:
 In transportation industries
 In communication industries
 In construction industries
 In agriculture industries
 In railways industries
 In aircraft industries (jet engines and blades)
 Power generation industries (very large turbines, blades of turbines)
2) Important casting terms:-
1) Flask – Cope, Drag And Cheek (intermediate box)
2) Parting Line
3) Moulding Sand
4) Facing Sand
5) Core
6) Pouring Basin
7) Sprue
8) Runner
9) Gate
10) Chaplete
11) Rise
12) Vent

Fig. 2.1 Moulding box

Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mould is
formed. Depending upon the position of the flask in the moulding structure, it is
referred to by various names such as drag – lower moulding flask, cope – upper
moulding flask, cheek – intermediate moulding flask used in three piece moulding.
Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mould cavity is made
with the help of pattern.
Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up
the mould.
Core: A separate part of the mould, made of sand and generally baked, which is used
to create opening sand various shaped cavities in the castings.
Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the
molten metal is poured.
Sprue: The vertical passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin,
reaches the mould cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mould.
Runner: The horizontal channel through which the molten metal is carried from the
sprue to the gate.
Gate: The actual entry point through which the molten metal enters the mould cavity
Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mould cavity to take care
of its own weight and overcome the metal lostatic force
Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mould to feed the castings as it shrinks
and solidifies. Also known as “feed head”

3) Pattern Materials:-
Pattern: is a model or replica of the desired object to be casted which is use for
forming an impression called mould (Cavity) in damp sand.
Different materials are used for making patterns. The selection of pattern material
depends on the factors such as:
 Design of Casting
 Number of casting to be made.
 Quality of Casting required.
 Types of moulding process used.
 Chances of repeat orders
Requirements of pattern material:
To be suitable for use, pattern material should be:
 Easily worked, shaped and joined
 Light in weight
 Strong, hard & durable
 Resistant to wear and abrasion, to corrosion & to chemical reaction
 Dimensionally stable
 Availability at low cost
 Having ability to take a good surface finish.
Materials generally used for making patterns are:
(a) Wood
(b) Metals
(c) Cast Iron
(d) Brass
(e) Aluminium Alloys
(f) White metal
(g) Plaster
(h) Plastic
(i) Wax
(a) Wood: Wood is the most common material used for making patterns because it
satisfies many of the desired requirements. Wood is used for small number and
bigger size castings.
Required qualities of wood:
 Should be properly dried
 Straight grained
 Free from knots
 Free from excessive sap wood
Common wood used in pattern making are: Pine, Deodar, Mahogany, Sal,
Shisham, Kail, Teak.
Advantages:

3
  Cheap
 Easily workable
 Light in weight
 Easily available
 Easy to join
 Easy to obtain good surface finish
 Can be easily repaired
Disadvantages:
 Susceptible to moisture
 Tends to warp
 Wears put quickly due to sand abrasion
 Weaker than metallic pattern.
(b) Metals: Metallic patterns are used where repetitive production of casting is
required in large quantities.
Commonly used metals for pattern making are:
Cast Iron: Cast iron is used for highly specialized types of patterns.
Advantages:
 Cheap
 Easy to file and fit
 Strong
 Good resistance against sand abrasion
 Good surface finish
Disadvantages:
 Heavy
 Easily broken
 Rust
 Brittleness
Brass: Commonly used metal for small patterns.
Advantages:
 Strong/tough
 Does not rust
 Better surface finish than cast iron
 Very thin sections can be casted.
Disadvantages:
 Costly
 Heavier than cast iron
(c) Plaster: Its specific use is in making small pattern and core boxes involving
intricate shapes.
Advantages:
 Cheap and easily available
 Easily workable
 Good surface finish
 Light in weight
Disadvantages:
 Expands on solidification
 Strength is not much
Plastics: Plastics are gradually gaining favors as pattern materials. It finds application
for small size castings.
Advantages:

4
 Light in weight
 High strength
 High resistance to wear
 Fine surface finish
 High resistance to corrosion and moisture
 Low solid shrinkage
 Dimensionally stable
Disadvantages:
 Cannot withstand higher temperatures
 Fragile in nature
Wax: Wax patterns are commonly used in investment casting.
Commonly used waxes are:
 Paraffin wax
 Shellac wax
The use of waxes helps in imparting high degree of dimensional accuracy and surface
finish to the castings.
Wax patterns need not be drawn out solid from the mould. After the mould is ready,
the wax is poured out by heating the mould and keeping it upside down.
Disadvantage:- Each casting requires a separate mould (pattern).
Master Pattern: Master pattern is used for preparing the mould for metal castings
which are later used as patterns for further moulding work.
Master patterns are accurately finished wooden patterns which carry double the
shrinkage allowance and required machining allowance.

4) Types of Patterns:
The following types of patterns are commonly used:
1) Solid or Single piece pattern
2) Split or two-piece pattern
3) Multi-piece pattern
4) Match plate pattern
5) Gated pattern
6) Skeleton pattern
7) Sweep pattern
8) Pattern with loose pieces

1) Solid or Single piece pattern:

Patterns made without joints, partings or any loose pieces in its construction are called
a solid or single piece pattern. This is the simplest of all the patterns and depending
upon shape, it can be moulded into one or two boxes. This pattern is cheapest but its
used is limited to the extent of production only, since its moulding involves a large
number of manual operations like gate cutting, providing runners and risers etc. A few
examples of casting which are made by solid patterns are soil tamper, stuffing box
and gland of steam engine.

Fig 2.2: Single Piece Patter

5
2) Split or Two-piece pattern:
Sometimes pattern can’t be made in single piece because of the difficulties
encountered in moulding or difficulty in withdrawal from the mould. Because of
these, patterns are usually made in two pieces called split patterns. One part will
produce the lower half of the mould and the other part will produce the upper half of
the mould. These two pieces are held in their proper relative position by mean of
dowel pins fastened in one piece and fitting holes bored in other.

Fig 2.3: Two Pieces Patter

The surface which is formed at the line of separation of the two parts, usually at the
center line of pattern is called as parting line or parting surface. Spindles, cylinders,
steam valve bodies, water stop cocks and taps are few examples of split patterns.
3) Multi-piece Pattern:
Castings having a more complicated design require the pattern in more than two parts
in order to facilitate an easy moulding and withdrawalfrom the mould. Their patterns
many consist of 3,4 or more number of pats depending on their design

Fig. 2.4 Multi-piece Pattern Fig. 2.4 Match plate Pattern

4) Match Plate Pattern:

These patterns are used where a rapid production of small and accurate casting is
desired on a large scale. These patterns find a great favor in machine moulding and
minimum machining requirement. Their construction cost is quite high.In these split
patterns are mounted with one half on one side of plate (match plate) and other half
directly opposite to the other side of plate, called match plate.The plate may carry
only one pattern, or a group of patterns mounted in the same way on its two sides. The
plate may be of wood, steel, magnesium or aluminium. Gates and runners are also
attached to the plate along with pattern.

6
5) Gated Pattern:
They are also used in mass production of small casting. To produce good casting, it is
necessary to ensure that full supply of molten metal flows into every part of the
mould. Provision for easy passage of the flowing metal in the mould is called gating
and is provided in the gated patterns.

Fig. 2.5 Gated pattern

In gated patterns, a single sand mould carries a number of cavities. Patterns for these
cavities are connected to each other by means of gate formed in sand for feeding the
molten metal for these cavities. A single runner can be used for feeding all the
cavities.For small quantities, these patterns may be made of wood, but for large
production metallic pattern are preferred.
6) Skeleton pattern:
Skeleton pattern is used for castings which have simple size and shape. These castings
are usually large in size. The only disadvantages of skeleton types of patterns are – it
is applicable for small number of components and it is not cheap. Economically, it is
not the best pattern. Stickler is used to remove extra sand. These are nothing but
frames of wood that highlight the area which is to be cast.

Fig. 2.6 Skelton pattern

These patterns also help molder. They are widely used in process of pit or floor
welding.

7) Sweep Pattern:
Sweeps can be advantageously used for preparing moulds of large symmetrical
castings, particularly of circular cross-section. Sweep pattern is just a form made on a
wooden board which sweeps the shape of the casting into the sand all around the
circumference. The sweep pattern rotates about the post. Once the mould is ready,

7
sweep pattern and the post (spindle) can be removed. These are used for large pattern
of cast iron, ridges etc.

Fig. 2.7 Sweep pattern

8) Pattern with loose pieces:
Certain patterns cannot be withdrawn once they are embedded in the moulding sand.
Such patterns are usually made with one or more loose pieces for facilitating their
removal from the moulding box and are known as loose piece patterns. Loose parts or
pieces remain attached with the main body of pattern, with the help of dowel pins.
The main body of the pattern is withdrawn leaving the pieces in the sand, which are
later withdrawn separately through the cavity formed by the pattern. Loose piece
pattern involves more labor and more cost.

Fig. 2.8 Loose piece pattern

5) Pattern Allowances:-
A pattern is always made larger than the required size od the casting in order to allow
for various factors, such as shrinkage, machining, distortion and rapping etc.
The following allowances are provided in a pattern:-
a) Shrinkage allowance: As a metal solidifies and cools, it shrinks and contracts in
size. This contraction takes place in three forms viz. liquid contractions,
solidifying contractions and solid contraction. The first two are compensated by
gates and riser and at least one providing adequate allowance in the pattern. A
pattern is made larger than a finished casting by means of shrinkage or contraction
allowance. The total contraction is volumetric, but the shrinkage allowance is
added to the linear dimensions.

8
 (a) Product size (b) Pattern size
Fig. 2.9 Shrinkage allowance
b) Machining or Finish Allowance: For good surface finish, machining of casting is
required. For machining, extra metals are needed. This extra metal is called
machining or finish allowance. The amount of this allowance varies from 2 to 10
mm which depends upon the type of casting metal, size and shape of casting,
method of machining to be employed and degree of finish required. This
allowance is given in addition to shrinkage allowance.
c) Draft or Taper allowance: At the time of withdrawing the pattern from the
mould, the vertical faces of the pattern are in continual touch/contact with the
sand, which may damage the mould cavity. This danger is greatly decreased if the
vertical surface of a pattern is tapered inward slightly. The slight taper inward on
the vertical surface of a pattern is known as draft. It may be expressed in
millimeters per meter on a side or in degrees. The amount of taper varies from 1 to
3 degrees. The taper on inner surface must be greater than on the outside surface.

Fig. 2.10 Draft allowance

d) Distortion or Camber Allowance: The shape of the casting changes that is called
distortion of the casting. A casting will distort or warp, if
 It is of irregular shape
 All its parts don’t shrink uniformly
 It has long flat casting
 The arms possess unequal thickness

9
 Fig. 2.11 Distortion allowance

Distortion allowance applies to the castings of irregular shape that are distorted in the
process of cooling because of uneven cooling. Distortion occurs due to thermal
stresses developed during solidification. Distortion cab be practically eliminated by
providing an allowance and constructing the pattern initially distorted.
e) Rapping or Shake Allowance: When a pattern is rapped (shaped) in the mould
before it is withdrawn, the cavity in the mould is slightly increased. So, in order to
compensate this pattern is made slightly smaller than the actual. This is called
shaking or rapping allowance. The magnitude of shake allowance can be reduced
by increasing the taper.
All allowances except shake allowance are positive. Size of pattern may be calculated
for a required casting is as given below:
Pattern size = Size of casting + shrinkage allowance + machining allowance +
taper/draft allowance + distortion allowance – shake allowance

6) Moulding sand:
The common sources for collecting moulding sand are rivers, lakes, sea and
deserts. Moulding sand may be classified as:
1) Natural Sand (Green Sand): These sands are taken from riverbeds and are dug
from pits and are purely natural. They possess an appreciable amount of clay and
moisture. Due to their low cost and easy availability, these are used for most of
the ferrous and non-ferrous castings.
2) Synthetic Sand: It is an artificial sand obtained by mixing relatively clay free
sand, binder and other materials as required. Its properties can be easily controlled
by varying the mixture content and hence it is better moulding sand.
3) Special Sand: It contains the mixture of inorganic compounds. Cost of these
sands are more but they offer high temperature stability, better cast surface etc.
Special sand used are zircon, chamotte, chromite etc.
The moulding sand according to their use are further classified as below:

10
1) Green Sand: Sand in its natural and moist state. It is a mixture of silica sand with
18-30% clay, having total amount of water 6-8%. It is used for simple small and
medium size castings.
2) Dry Sand: Baked or dried green sand. Excessive moisture is evaporated by drying
the green sand in the suitable oven. It has more strength, rigidity and thermal
stability as compared to green sand. It is used for large and heavy castings.
3) Loam Sand: It contains much more clay as compared to ordinary moulding sand.
The clay content is of the order 50%. It is used for loam moulding of large grey
iron castings.
4) Facing Sand: It is used directly next to the surface of pattern and comes in
contact with the molten metal. It is fresh sand i.e., without the addition of used
sand. It possesses high strength and refractoriness. The layer of facing sand ranges
from 20 to 30 mm.
5) Baking Sand: It backs up the facing sand. It is the floor sand which is repeatedly
used. Its color is black due to addition of coal duct.
6) Parting Sand: It is clay free and consists of dried silica, sea sand or burnt sand. It
is used to keep the green sand from sticking to the pattern and also to allow the
sand on parting surface of cope and drag to separate without clinging.
7) Core Sand: It is used for preparation of cores. It is also called oil sand. It is silica
sand mixed with linseed oil or any other oil as binder.
Main constituents of moulding sand are:
1) Silica Sand:It is the major portion of moulding sand (80-85%). It contains 80-
90% silicon di oxide and is characterized by a high softening temperature and
thermal stability. Silica sand grains imparts refractoriness, chemical resistivity and
permeability to sand.
2) Binder: It imparts the sufficient strength and cohesive to the moulding sand but
reduces its permeability. The common binder used are:
a. Organic Binder: Find their use in core making. Examples are Dextrin, Linseed
oil, molasses, pitch, cereal binders and resins like phenol and formaldehyde.
b. Inorganic Binder: Are clay, sodium silicate and Portland cement. Clay is one
of the most commonly used binder.
3) Additives: Additives are added to moulding sand to improve the existing
propertied of sand. Commonly used additives are:
a. Sea Coal: It is added to moulding sand for casting cast iron to improve the
stripping and surface appearance of cast iron. It is finely powdered bituminous
coal, and its amount varies from 1% - 10 %. It restricts the mould wall
movement but reduces the permeability and hot strength of the mould.
b. Pitch & Asphalt: Pitch is distilled from soft coal at about 600˚ F and asphalt is
a byproduct of petroleum distillation. It improves hot strength and surface
finish on ferrous castings. Its amount varies from 0.2-2%.
c. Silica Flour: It is pulverized silica which may be added up to 35%. It improves
hot strength, surface finish, resists metal penetration and minimizes sand
expansion defects.

11
 d. Graphite: It may be natural or synthetic. It improves surface finish and
moldability of sand and may be added from 0.2 to 2%.
e. Wood Flour: It may be added from 0.5-25. It minimizes sand expansion
defects, improve flowability, collapsibility.
f. Corn Flour: It may be added from 0.25-2%. It improves collapsibility,
increase green and dry strength of the moulding sand. Also, it lowers the
flowability and permeability.
4) Water: Quantity of water varies from 2-8%. A suitable quantity of water gives
required strength to the sand. It helps in improving the plasticity, but excess water
decreases the strength and flowability.

7) Properties of Moulding Sand:

1. Porosity of Permeability: It is the ability of moulding sand to allow gases to
escape. Moulding sand should have this property so as to provide a path for
free escape of the gases which remain dissolves in molten metal and are
evolved during solidification.
2. Flowability: It is the ability of the moulding sand to get compacted to a
uniform density. Moulding sand should have the property of flowability so
that it may retain its shape when the pressure is removed.
3. Refractoriness: It is the ability of the moulding sand to withstand high
temperature of molten metal without cracking, fusion or buckling.
4. Adhesiveness: It is the property of sand due to which it adheres or cling to the
sides of moulding box. Moulding sand should be adhesive so that it can be
successfully held in a moulding box and does not fall out of the box when it is
tilted.
5. Cohesiveness: It is the ability of sand particles to stick together. Moulding
sand should be cohesive so that the mould being prepared is strong.
6. Collapsibility: It is the property due to which the sand mould breaks
(collapse) automatically (or with very less force) after the solidification of the
casting occur. Moulding sand should be collapsible because if the mould or
core does not collapse easily, it may restrict free contraction of the solidifying
metal and cause the casting to tear or crack.
7. Durability: Moulding sand should possess the capacity to withstand repeated
cycles of heating and cooling during casting operations. This ability of sand is
known as durability.
8. Moulding sand should be chemically neutral.
9. Moulding sand should be reusable, cheap and easily available.

8) Types of Moulds:-
The various types of moulds are as follows:
1. Green Sand Mould: The word ‘green’ indicated the condition of sand i.e., mould
is in wet condition (without baking or drying). A green sand mould possesses

12
 lower strength and lower permeability. These moulds contain moisture, therefore
certain defects like blow holes may occur in castings. These are suitable for
producing small and medium sized castings.
2. Dry Sand Mould: These are prepared from fine grained sand mixed with suitable
binder and baking in an over (at temp 300˚ -650˚ F) before the molten metal is
poured in them. These evolve less stream and gas thus requiring less permeability
but are more expensive and consume more time in making as compared to green
sand mould.
3. Skin Dried Mould: These are made with the moulding sand in the green
(moisture) condition and then skin of mould cavity is dried with the help of gas
torches or heat lamps. These are dried up to a depth varying from 8mm to 25mm.
A skin dried mould is poured immediately after drying otherwise the moisture
from green backing sand penetrate the dried skin and makes the skin dried sand
ineffective.
4. Loam Mould: These are used for extremely large castings. They are first built up
with bricks and often reinforces with iron plated. A loam mortar is prepared and
plastered on the backing made from bricks and iron then they are finished by
sweeps or stickles, given a refractory coating and finally baked. Construction of
these moulds reduce the pattern cost.
5. Plaster Mould: These are used for non-ferrous castings. These are made from the
slurry of the mixture of gypsum or plaster of paris and additives such as talc, silica
flour, asbestos fiber etc. with water. Thes
6. e moulds impart good surface finish and dimensional accuracy to the casting but
possess poor permeability which causes several defects.
7. CO2 Mould: These are made from a mixture of clean and dry silica sand and
sodium silicate base binder, in which binder varies from 3-7%. CO 2 gas is used as
mould hardener. After preparing the mould from above mixture in the usual
manner, the gas is passed through it to obtain the desired hardness. This carbon
dioxide gas reacts with the sodium silicate and forms a silica gel which is the real
hardening agent. In this mould sodium silicate is used as a binder.
Na2SiO3 + CO2 Na2Co3 + SiO2

Fig. 2.12 CO2 Mould

13
8. Shell Mould: These are prepared with the help of heated iron or steel patterns. A
mixture of fine sand and phenolic resin is used to produce shells. These moulds
are used in special moulding processes called shell moulding or corning. These
moulds are prepared by heating mixture of sand and resin over the surface of a
metallic pattern. This produces a thin and rigid layer of uniform thickness which,
when separated from the pattern, forms a shell. Two such parts are joined together
to form the shell mould. Shells are assembled to form the mould in which liquid
metal is poured.

Fig. 2.13 Shell moulding

9. Metallic Mould: These are also known as permanent moulds and are generally
made up of cast iron or steel. These are employed in permanent mould castings,
pressure die casting and centrifugal casting.

9) Classification of Moulding Process:

1. According to the method used:
a. Floor Moulding
b. Bench Moulding
c. Pit Moulding
d. Machine Moulding
2. According to the mould material:
a. Sand Moulding
i. Green Sand Moulding
ii. Dry Sand Moulding
iii. Core Sand Moulding
iv. Skin Dried Moulding
v. Loam Moulding
vi. CO2 Moulding
b. Plaster Moulding
c. Metallic Moulding
Methods of Moulding:
(1) Bench Moulding: Moulding is carried out on a bench, so it is suitable for small
and light moulds. Both green and dry sand moulds can be used in bench
moulding. Moulds both for ferrous and especially non-ferrous casting are made on
bench moulds. Bench moulding is divided into three methods:

14
 a. Two box moulding: It uses two moulding boxes. The upper part is called
cope and lower is called drag. Two moulding boxes are located and clamped
by proper fastening devices.
b. Three box moulding: It uses three moulding boxes. This is done to facilitate
easy removal of the pattern from mould when pattern is of flanged type. Upper
part is called cope, middle part is called cheek & lower part is called drag.
c. Stack moulding: In this method different boxes are stacked one above the
other. There is a common passage for the molten metal running through the
stack of the intermediate boxes. A number of parts can be cast in a single
pouring operation.
(2) Floor Moulding: It is done on the foundry floor. The floor itself acts as a drag
and it may be covered with a cope or the mould may be cast open. It is used for all
medium and large castings.
(3) Pit Moulding: It is done in a pit instead of a flask. It is used for extremely large
castings. The mould has its drag part in the pit and a separate cope is rammed and
used above the pit. Sides of the pit are lined with bricks and on the bottom, there
is a thick layer of binders with connecting vent pipes to the floor level. Gates,
runner, pouring basin, sprue etc. are made in the cope.
(4) Machine Moulding: The moulding done by machine is called machine moulding.
The ramming of sand, rolling over the mould, forming the gate and drawing out of
a pattern is done by machine much better and more efficiently than by hand. This
method is preferred for mass production because mostly work is done by
machines. Moreover, it can produce identical and consistent castings.

10. Cores:-
A core can be defined as a body of sand, generally prepared separately in a core box,
which is used to form a cavity of desired shape and size in a casting.
The main characteristics required in a good core are following:
 High permeability to allow an easy escape of gases formed
 High refractoriness to withstand high temperature of molten metal
 Smooth Surface
 High collapsibility i.e., it should be able to disintegrate quickly after the
solidification of the metal is complete.
 Sufficient strength to support itself.

Types of Cores:
According to shapes and position of cores in the prepared moulds, the cores are
classified as:
a. Horizontal Core
b. Vertical Core
c. Balanced Core
d. Hanging or Cover Core
e. Drop Core or Stop off Core
f. Ram up Core

15
a) Horizontal Core: It is places horizontally at the parting line of the mould such
that one half remains in the cope and other half in the drag.

Fig. 2.15 Horizontal core

b) Vertical Core: A vertical core is places in a vertical position both in cope and
drag halves of the mould. Amount of taper at the tope is greater than that at the
bottom.

Fig. 2.16 Vertical core

c) Balanced Core: It is one which is supported and balanced from its one end only.
It is used when the casting does not need a thorough hole or cavity.

Fig. 2.17 Balanced core

d) Hanging or Cover Core: It hangs from the cope and does not have any support at
the bottom of drag. Cover core covers the mould and rests on a seat made in the
drag.

Fig. 2.18 Cover core

16
e) Drop Core, stop off or Wing Core: This is used when a hole, recess or cavity
required in a casting is not in line with the parting surface i.e., it’s above or below
the parting line of the casting. These are also known as tail core, saddle core or
chair. Core depending upon its shape and position in the mould.

Fig. 2.19 Wing core

f) Ram up Core: It is places with the pattern before the mould is rammed up. These
are used when the core detail (cavity) is located in inaccessible position. These are
used to produce interior and exterior portions of a casting.

Fig. 2.20 Ram up core

11. Gating System and its Elements

The term gating system involves all the passages through which the molten metal
enters the mould cavity i.e., it includes the pouring basin, runner, gate and riser etc.
An ideal gating system is expected to meet the following requirements:
 The velocity of molten metal should be as low as possible so that there is no
erosion of mould
 Gating system should ensure the proper filling of mould cavity
 Gating system should prevent the molten metal from absorbing air or other gases
while flowing through it
 It should prevent the formation of oxides
 It should prevent the entry of oxides, slag, dross etc.
 It should assist in directional solidification of casting
 Its design should be practical and economical

17
Elements of Gating System:
The various elements connected with gating system are:
1. Pouring Basin or pouring cup
2. Sprue
3. Sprue base well
4. Runner
5. Runner extension
6. Ingate
7. Riser

a) Pouring Basin: Molten metal is poured into a pouring basin which acts as a
reservoir from which it moves smoothly into the sprue. The pouring basin is also
able to stop slag from entering the mould cavity by means of a skimmer.
b) Sprue:It is the channel through which the molten metal is brought into the parting
plane where it enters the runners and gates. Sprues ae conical in shape because
 Molten metal when moving from top of the cope to the parting plane gains in
velocity so requires a smaller area of cross-section for the same amount of
metal to flow at the bottom
 Liquid tries to attain the minimum area at the bottom so there is an air gap
between the liquid jet and sprue wall so air inspiration will be there which
causes problem
c) Runner: It is generally located in the horizontal plane (parting plane) which
connects the sprue to its ingates. It is provided to trap the slag in molten metal.
d) Gates: These are openings through which the molten metal enters the mould
cavity. A channel through which the molten metal enters the mould cavity. There
are various types of gates as:-

18
 Parting Gate:- This gate is situated at the parting line of the cope and drag. Half
part of the gate remains in the cope and the other half remains in the drag. This is
the most common type of gate which is generally used because it is economical
to make. However, it is not suitable foe deep moulds as the stream may cause the
erosion of the sand from the mould cavity.

(a) Parting gate

 Bottom gate: This type of the gate is situated at the bottom of the mould
cavity. This eliminates the mould erosion problem in deep moulds and causes
varying temperature gradients.

(b) Bottom gate

 Top gate:- This is situated at the top of the cope and the metal enters from the
top. In this type of gate mould is filled quickly and it maintains a uniform
temperature gradient. However, the erosion of the sand from the bottom of the
cavity may be as the liquid may strike with a high velocity .The chances of air
entrapment are also there.

(C ) Top gate
 Step gate: In this mould cavity is filled by multi gates at different levels. This is
more suitable when the size of the casting is very large and deep casting is
desired.

19
 (d) Side Gate
e) Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal from which the molten metal can flow into
the casting during volumetric shrinkage.
Functions of a Riser:
 Primary function of a riser is to compensate for the shrinkage during
solidification of casting
 It permits the escape of air and mould gases as the mould cavity is being filled
with molten metal
 It indicated (when full of molten metal) that the cavity has been completely
filled with molten metal
 Riser promotes directional solidification.

20