POWER QUALITY AND FACTS UNIT-1

Q1. What is power quality, and what are the parameters that define the quality of electrical
power? Additionally, explain the term “Good Power Quality”.
Ans Power quality: refers to the set of electrical boundaries that allows a piece of
equipment to function in its intended manner without significant
loss of performance or life expectancy. Essentially, it is the
measure of how well the voltage, frequency, and waveform of a
power supply conform to the established standards and
specifications. High power quality ensures the efficient and
reliable operation of electrical systems and devices.

Parameters Defining the Quality of Electrical Power

Several parameters define the quality of electrical power. These include:

Voltage Sags (Dips): Short-term drops in voltage levels.

Voltage Swells: Short-term increases in voltage levels.
1. Voltage Quality: Overvoltage: Sustained voltage levels above the nominal value.
Undervoltage: Sustained voltage levels below the nominal value.
Voltage Fluctuations: Rapid and repeated variations in voltage.

The consistency of the power system's frequency. Deviations from

2. Frequency Quality: the nominal frequency (e.g., 50 Hz or 60 Hz) can affect the
operation of frequency-sensitive devices.

Distortions in the voltage or current waveform, often caused by

non-linear loads like variable frequency drives, power electronic
3. Harmonics:
devices, and fluorescent lighting. Harmonics can lead to
overheating, equipment malfunction, and increased losses.

Frequencies that are not integer multiples of the fundamental

4. Interharmonics: frequency, caused by certain types of electronic equipment and
power converters.

Brief but intense surges in voltage or current, typically caused by

5. Transients: lightning strikes, switching operations, or equipment faults.
Transients can damage sensitive electronic equipment.

A measure of how effectively electrical power is being used. A low

6. Power Factor: power factor indicates poor efficiency, leading to higher losses and
increased demand charges from utilities.

Rapid, repetitive changes in voltage that can cause lighting to

7. Flicker:
flicker and affect sensitive equipment.

Good Power Quality: “Good Power Quality” is achieved when electrical power is
supplied within the specified voltage, frequency, and waveform
tolerances, ensuring the reliable and efficient operation of
connected equipment.

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The following characteristics define good power quality:

Voltage levels are maintained within specified limits, avoiding sags,

1. Stable Voltage:
swells, overvoltage, and undervoltage conditions.

Consistent Frequency is maintained within a narrow range around the nominal

2.
Frequency: value, ensuring the proper functioning of frequency-sensitive devices.

Low Harmonic Harmonic levels are kept within acceptable limits to prevent overheating
3.
Distortion: and malfunctioning of equipment.

Minimal Transients are controlled and mitigated to protect sensitive equipment

4.
Transients: from damage.

High Power Power factor is close to unity, indicating efficient use of electrical power
5.
Factor: and minimizing losses.

Voltage fluctuations causing flicker are minimized to avoid nuisance

6. Reduced Flicker:
effects on lighting and sensitive equipment.

Q2. What is the impact of poor power quality on system efficiency, reliability, and operation?
Ans Poor power quality can significantly affect system efficiency, reliability, and operation in
various ways:

Impact on System Efficiency:

Harmonics and other power quality issues lead to higher resistive losses
Increased Energy
1. in electrical systems, resulting in wasted energy and reduced overall
Losses:
efficiency.

A low power factor due to reactive power can increase the apparent
Poor Power
2. power drawn from the supply, causing additional losses and higher
Factor:
energy bills.

Equipment Harmonics and voltage imbalances cause excessive heating in

3.
Overheating: transformers, motors, and cables, reducing their efficiency and lifespan.

Impact on Reliability:

Frequent Voltage sags, swells, and transients can cause frequent trips, failures, and
1. Equipment malfunctions of sensitive equipment like computers, control systems, and
Failures: medical devices.

Reduced Continuous exposure to poor power quality stresses electrical

2. Equipment components, leading to premature aging and a higher failure rate.
Lifespan:

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Poor power quality can result in unexpected equipment shutdowns,

Unplanned
3. leading to unplanned production stoppages and increased maintenance
Downtime:
costs.

Impact on Operation:

Voltage dips, sags, and interruptions can cause process control systems
Process
1. to malfunction, disrupting manufacturing processes and leading to
Interruptions:
product defects and wastage.

Transients and voltage fluctuations can cause data errors, loss, and
Data Loss and
2. corruption in computer systems and data centres, affecting operations
Corruption:
and decision-making.

Poor power quality necessitates more frequent maintenance and repairs

Increased
3. of electrical systems, increasing operational costs and reducing overall
Maintenance:
productivity.

Q3. What is transient disturbance? How many types are present? Discuss each type by giving
suitable examples.
Ans A transient disturbance is a short-duration surge or spike in the electrical power system,
typically lasting from a few microseconds to a few milliseconds. These disturbances can be
caused by various events, such as lightning strikes, switching operations, or sudden changes in
load. Transients can significantly affect the performance and longevity of electrical equipment,
leading to malfunctions, data loss, or even permanent damage.

Types of Transient Disturbances

There are generally two main types of transient disturbances:
a) Impulsive Transients
b) Oscillatory Transients

1. Impulsive Impulsive transients are sudden, non-repeating events characterized by a

Transients: rapid rise and fall in voltage or current. They can be either unidirectional
(positive or negative) and often result from external events or equipment
switching.

a) Lightning Strikes: A direct or nearby lightning strike can induce

a high-voltage spike in the power system, causing impulsive
transients that can damage sensitive electronic equipment.
b) Electrostatic Discharge (ESD): When static electricity builds
Examples: up and is suddenly released, it can create an impulsive transient,
potentially damaging microelectronic components.
c) Switching of Inductive Loads: Turning off an inductive load,
such as a motor or transformer, can generate an impulsive
transient due to the sudden interruption of current flow.

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2. Oscillatory Oscillatory transients are characterized by a sudden change in voltage or

Transients: current followed by a damped oscillation at a specific frequency. These
transients are often caused by resonant conditions in the power system or
switching operations.

a) Capacitor Switching: When capacitors are switched on or off,

it can cause oscillatory transients due to the interaction between
the inductance and capacitance in the power system. These
transients can affect other equipment connected to the same
system.
b) Transformer Energization: Energizing or de-energizing a
Examples:
transformer can produce oscillatory transients as the magnetic
fields stabilize, causing voltage and current oscillations.
c) Cable Switching: Switching long cables can generate
oscillatory transients due to the resonant frequencies of the cable
system, impacting connected loads and causing potential
damage.

Q4. Notes on CBEMA curves and IEEE519.

Ans CBEMA Curves: The CBEMA (Computer Business Equipment Manufacturers
Association) curve, also known as the ITIC (Information Technology
Industry Council) curve, is a graphical representation used to describe
the tolerance of computer equipment to voltage sags (dips), swells, and
transients. It helps in understanding and designing power quality

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solutions by showing how equipment reacts to different types and

durations of voltage deviations.

Key Features of the CBEMA Curve:

o The curve defines an envelope within which the equipment is

Voltage
expected to operate without interruption.
1. Tolerance
o Outside this envelope, equipment may malfunction, shut down, or
Envelope:
get damaged.

Horizontal Axis o Represents the duration of the voltage disturbance.

2.
(Time Duration): o Typically ranges from microseconds to several seconds.

Vertical Axis o Represents the magnitude of the voltage disturbance.

3. (Voltage o Usually expressed as a percentage of the nominal voltage (100%).
Deviation):

Regions of the CBEMA Curve:

Acceptable This area indicates where the voltage deviations are within acceptable
1.
Region: limits, and the equipment is expected to operate normally.

No-Damage Within this region, the equipment might experience a disruption in

2.
Region: operation but should not suffer any permanent damage.

Voltage deviations outside this region can cause damage to the

3. Damage Region:
equipment.

Immediate High Voltage (Left Side of the Curve):

Equipment can tolerate very short high-voltage transients (up to 200% of nominal voltage).

Short-Term Voltage Sags and Swells:

The middle part of the curve shows that equipment can handle moderate voltage sags (down
to 50% of nominal voltage) and swells (up to 120% of nominal voltage) for short durations
(milliseconds to seconds).

Longer Duration Voltage Deviations:

As the duration of the voltage deviation increases, the acceptable voltage range narrows. For
longer durations, the equipment can only tolerate deviations closer to the nominal voltage (90-
110%).

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Applications:

Design and Used by designers and manufacturers to test equipment against power
1.
Testing: disturbances.

Helps engineers identify if a power quality issue might be causing

2. Troubleshooting:
equipment malfunctions.

Power Quality Guides the implementation of power conditioning and protection devices
3.
Improvement: to maintain power quality within acceptable limits.

IEEE519: IEEE 519, formally known as the "IEEE Recommended Practices and
Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems," is a
standard established by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE). This standard provides guidelines for the control and
limitation of harmonic distortions in electrical power systems to ensure
high power quality.

Key Aspects of IEEE 519:

Voltage Harmonics: IEEE 519 sets permissible limits for voltage

harmonic distortion at different voltage levels. For instance, the total
harmonic distortion (THD) for voltage should typically not exceed 5% at
Harmonic Limits
the point of common coupling (PCC) for systems below 69 kV.
1. for Voltage and
Current Harmonics: The standard also specifies limits for current
Current:
harmonic distortion based on the ratio of the load current to the maximum
demand load current (ISC/IL ratio) at the PCC. The limits are stricter for
higher ratios, reflecting the impact on power system components.

The PCC is a crucial concept in IEEE 519, defined as the point where the
Point of Common utility's responsibility ends and the consumer's responsibility begins.
2.
Coupling (PCC): Harmonic limits are typically enforced at this point to ensure that
harmonics do not adversely affect the utility grid or other consumers.

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Harmonics can cause various issues such as overheating of transformers,

Impact of motors, and capacitors; interference with communication systems; and
3.
Harmonics: malfunctioning of sensitive electronic equipment. IEEE 519 provides
guidelines to mitigate these effects by controlling harmonic levels.

Both utilities and consumers have roles in maintaining harmonic levels.

Responsibilities
Utilities are responsible for providing power with acceptable harmonic
4. of Utilities and
levels, while consumers must ensure that their equipment does not
Consumers:
introduce excessive harmonics into the system.

Examples of Harmonic Limits in IEEE 519:

Voltage For systems below 69 kV: THD ≤ 5%

1. Harmonic For systems between 69 kV and 161 kV: THD ≤ 2.5%
Limits: For systems above 161 kV: THD ≤ 1.5%

Current For an ISC/IL ratio of < 20: THD ≤ 20%

2. Harmonic For an ISC/IL ratio of 20 to 50: THD ≤ 12%
Limits: For an ISC/IL ratio of 50 to 100: THD ≤ 8%

Q5. Explain long duration voltage variation with suitable example.

Ans Long-duration voltage variations are sustained changes in the voltage level of an electrical
system that last for a significant period, typically from one minute to several hours. These
variations can affect the performance and reliability of electrical equipment. Long-duration
voltage variations can be classified into two main categories: voltage sags (dips) and voltage
swells.

A voltage sag is a short-duration decrease in voltage level, usually lasting

Voltage Sags
1. from a few seconds to several minutes. A voltage sag occurs when the
(Dips):
voltage drops to a value below the nominal voltage for a defined period.

a) Sudden increases in load demand (e.g., starting large motors).

Causes: b) Faults in the power system, such as short circuits.
c) Switching operations on the utility network.

Imagine a manufacturing facility that operates multiple heavy machinery,

including induction motors. When one of these motors starts up, it draws
a significant amount of current (inrush current). This sudden demand can
cause a temporary drop in voltage at the facility, resulting in a voltage
sag. If the sag lasts for several seconds, sensitive equipment like
computers and control systems might experience operational issues,
Example: leading to disruptions in production processes.

The voltage drop (ΔV) can be approximated using Ohm's Law for motor
starting :
ΔV=I⋅Z
where I is the inrush current and Z is the impedance of the circuit. The
higher the inrush current and the impedance, the larger the voltage drop.

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A voltage swell is a sustained increase in voltage level above the nominal

2. Voltage swell:
voltage, usually lasting from a few seconds to several minutes.

a) Sudden decreases in load (e.g., disconnecting large loads).

b) Capacitor switching on the power system.
Causes:
c) Faults that temporarily reduce the impedance of the supply
circuit.

Consider a situation in a commercial building where a large HVAC unit

is suddenly shut off. The sudden drop in load can cause a voltage swell
in the electrical system. If the swell persists for a few minutes, it may
Example:
lead to overvoltage conditions, potentially damaging sensitive electronic
equipment, such as computers, printers, and other office machinery, by
exposing them to higher-than-expected voltage levels.

Impact of Long Duration Voltage Variations:

a) Equipment Stress and Damage: Both voltage sags and swells can stress electrical
equipment. Motors may overheat or become damaged due to prolonged exposure to
abnormal voltage levels.
b) Operational Disruptions: Sensitive equipment may malfunction or shut down,
causing interruptions in production or service.
c) Increased Maintenance Costs: Continuous exposure to voltage variations can lead to
increased wear and tear on equipment, resulting in higher maintenance and repair
costs.

Q6. What is interruption? What are the causes of interruption? What is the importance of
interruption?
Ans An interruption refers to a temporary loss of electrical power supply to a specific system or
load. It occurs when the voltage at the point of delivery falls below a specified level for a
duration long enough to affect the operation of equipment and systems. Interruptions can vary
in duration, from a few milliseconds to several hours, and can significantly impact both
industrial and commercial operations.

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Causes of Interruption:

a) Transformer Failures: Malfunctioning transformers can lead to

Equipment outages in the distribution network.
1.
Failures: b) Circuit Breaker Tripping: Circuit breakers may trip due to
overloads or short circuits, cutting off power to connected loads.

a) Short Circuits: A fault in the system can cause a sudden surge

in current, leading to protective devices activating and
Faults in the interrupting the power supply.
2.
Power System: b) Ground Faults: When there is an unintended connection
between the electrical system and the ground, it can lead to an
interruption.

a) Severe Weather: Lightning, heavy winds, snow, or ice storms

can damage power lines and equipment, causing interruptions.
3. Natural Events:
b) Earthquakes: Natural disasters can disrupt power distribution
networks and damage substations.

a) Accidental Damage: Construction work, vehicle collisions with

utility poles, or digging can inadvertently damage power lines
Human and cause interruptions.
4.
Activities: b) Scheduled Maintenance: Utilities may need to interrupt power
to perform routine maintenance, upgrades, or repairs on the
electrical infrastructure.

a) Sudden Load Increases: A significant and rapid increase in load

demand can cause protective devices to trip, leading to
interruptions.
5. Load Changes:
b) Disconnecting Large Loads: The sudden disconnection of large
electrical loads can cause voltage spikes or swells that may result
in interruptions.

Importance of Understanding Interruptions:

Interruptions can cause significant disruptions to industrial processes,

Impact on leading to production losses, equipment damage, and potential safety
1.
Operations: hazards. For commercial operations, it can affect customer service and
lead to financial losses.

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Frequent interruptions can undermine the reliability of the electrical

Reliability of supply, affecting customer trust and satisfaction. Utilities must monitor
2.
Supply: and improve service reliability to maintain their reputation and meet
regulatory standards.

Identifying the causes of interruptions allows utilities and facility

Mitigation managers to develop effective strategies to mitigate them. This includes
3.
Strategies: investing in redundancy, backup systems, and advanced monitoring
technologies to enhance the resilience of the electrical supply.

Understanding interruptions informs the design and planning of power

System Design systems. Engineers can implement robust protective measures,
4.
and Planning: redundancy, and maintenance practices to minimize the likelihood and
impact of future interruptions.

Utilities are often required to adhere to specific reliability standards set

Regulatory
5. by regulatory bodies. Monitoring interruptions and implementing
Compliance:
improvement measures helps ensure compliance with these regulations.

Q7. With a typical ferro-resonant circuit diagram, discuss, how a ferro-resonant

transformers handles voltages sag conditions.
Ans A ferro-resonant transformer, also known as a constant voltage transformer (CVT), is designed
to maintain a stable output voltage despite fluctuations in input voltage. It utilizes the nonlinear
characteristics of magnetic materials (ferromagnetic) and resonance principles to achieve
voltage regulation. This makes it particularly effective in handling voltage sags and
maintaining a consistent supply to sensitive equipment.

Typical Ferro-Resonant Circuit Diagram:

Components of the Ferro-Resonant Circuit:

a) Primary Winding: Connected to the input power source, this winding receives the
fluctuating input voltage.
b) Core: Made of a ferromagnetic material, the core stores magnetic energy and helps in
controlling the voltage.
c) Secondary Winding: Provides the output voltage, which remains relatively stable
regardless of variations in the input voltage.
d) Capacitor: In many designs, a capacitor is connected in parallel with the secondary
winding to create resonance with the inductance of the transformer. This configuration
helps regulate the output voltage.

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Handling Voltage Sag Conditions:

Ferro-resonant transformers are particularly effective in handling voltage sag conditions due
to their unique operational characteristics:

When a voltage sag occurs, the primary winding experiences a drop in

voltage. However, the core's magnetic properties allow it to remain
Magnetic
1. magnetically saturated, which helps maintain a relatively stable output
Saturation:
voltage. The non-linear characteristics of the core mean that even with
lower input voltages, the transformer can still provide a constant output.

In addition to handling voltage sags, ferro-resonant transformers also

Transient help suppress transients and spikes. The resonance created in the circuit
2.
Suppression: helps filter out sudden voltage changes, ensuring that sensitive
equipment receives stable power.

Ferro-resonant transformers can automatically adjust the output voltage

based on changes in the input voltage. For example, if the input voltage
Voltage
3. drops significantly (a voltage sag), the transformer can use its stored
Regulation:
magnetic energy and the resonant characteristics to provide a regulated
output voltage that remains close to the nominal value.

The combination of the transformer inductance and the connected

capacitor forms a resonant circuit. At the resonant frequency, the circuit
can absorb and compensate for variations in the input voltage, helping to
4. Resonance:
stabilize the output. During a voltage sag, the energy stored in the
capacitor is utilized to support the output voltage, effectively "buffering"
the sag.

Q8. Distinguish between voltage sag and under voltage. Briefly discuss the techniques used
for sag or dip mitigation.
Ans Parameter Voltage Sag Under Voltage
A temporary reduction in voltage. A sustained drop in voltage
Definition
below the nominal value.

Duration 0.5 cycle to 30 cycles. more than 1 minute.

Typically caused by sudden increases in Caused by chronic issues

load (e.g., motor starting), short circuits, or such as excessive loading,
Cause system faults. inadequate supply capacity,
or malfunctioning voltage
regulation.

Voltage Level 0.1 pu to 0.9 pu. 0.8 pu to 0.9 pu.

Can cause temporary malfunction of Can lead to overheating of

sensitive equipment but usually recovers equipment, inefficient
Impact
automatically. operation, or damage due to
prolonged exposure.

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Techniques for Voltage Sag or Dip Mitigation:

Mitigating voltage sags or dips is essential for protecting sensitive equipment and maintaining
the reliability of power systems. Here are some common techniques:

Improving the power factor of the system can reduce the overall demand
Power Factor
1. on the electrical network and help mitigate voltage sags caused by heavy
Correction:
loads.

Ferro-resonant transformers can provide voltage regulation and stability,

Ferro-resonant
2. particularly during sag conditions, by utilizing their magnetic properties
Transformers:
to maintain a consistent output voltage.

Synchronous These rotating machines can adjust the reactive power in the system,
3.
Condensers: helping to maintain voltage stability during sudden changes in load.

Installing capacitor banks can help stabilize voltage levels by providing

4. Capacitor Banks: reactive power support, especially in industrial applications where large
inductive loads cause voltage sags.

Soft Starters and These devices gradually ramp up the voltage and current when starting
Variable motors, significantly reducing the inrush current and, consequently, the
5.
Frequency Drives magnitude of voltage sags during motor start.
(VFDs):

Uninterruptible A UPS provides backup power and regulates voltage. It can supply power
6. Power Supplies during sags and ensure that sensitive equipment continues to operate
(UPS): normally.

A DVR is a custom power device that injects voltage into the system
Dynamic Voltage during a sag. It detects voltage sags and compensates by supplying the
7.
Restorer (DVR): required voltage from an energy storage device (such as batteries) or a
capacitor bank.

Use of Voltage These devices automatically adjust the voltage to maintain a constant
Regulators: output, compensating for voltage sags by boosting the voltage when it
8.
Automatic Voltage drops below a certain threshold.
Regulators (AVR):

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Q9. What is voltage imbalance?

Ans Voltage imbalance refers to a condition in a three-phase electrical system where the voltage
levels across the three phases are not equal. This imbalance can manifest in various forms,
including differences in voltage magnitudes and phase angles. Voltage imbalance can
significantly affect the performance and lifespan of electrical equipment, particularly motors
and transformers.

Voltage Imbalance

Characteristics of Voltage Imbalance:

In a balanced three-phase system, the voltages across all three phases

Magnitude (Phase A, Phase B, and Phase C) should be equal. A voltage imbalance
1.
Differences: occurs when these magnitudes differ. For example, if the voltages are 230
V, 225 V, and 240 V, there is a voltage imbalance.

Besides magnitude differences, imbalances can also arise from phase

Phase Angle
angle discrepancies. In a balanced system, the phase voltages are spaced
2. Differences:
120 degrees apart. If this spacing is distorted, it contributes to voltage
imbalance.

Total Harmonic Voltage imbalances can be exacerbated by harmonic distortions in the

3. Distortion system. Nonlinear loads can introduce harmonics that affect the voltage
(THD): levels, further complicating the balance between phases.

Causes of Voltage Imbalance:

When loads are unevenly distributed across the three phases, it can lead
Unequal Load
1. to varying current draw in each phase, causing voltage drops that create
Distribution:
imbalance.

Poor Power Issues such as voltage flicker, harmonics, and transients can contribute
2.
Quality: to voltage imbalances.

Short circuits, ground faults, or other fault conditions can cause

3. Fault Conditions:
temporary voltage imbalances in the system.

Transformer Improperly configured transformer connections (e.g., delta-wye or wye-

4.
Connections: delta) can introduce imbalances if not correctly balanced across phases.

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The presence of single-phase loads connected to a three-phase system

Single-Phase can lead to imbalances. For example, if a significant single-phase load is
5.
Loads: connected to one phase, it can draw more current than the other two
phases.

Effects of Voltage Imbalance:

Motor Induction motors are particularly sensitive to voltage imbalances. Even

1. Performance a small imbalance (typically over 2-3%) can lead to reduced efficiency,
Issues: overheating, increased vibration, and premature failure.

Voltage Voltage regulation can be compromised in an imbalanced system, leading

2. Regulation to voltage fluctuations and affecting the performance of sensitive
Issues: equipment.

Reduced Continuous operation under imbalanced conditions can shorten the

3.
Lifespan: lifespan of motors and other rotating machinery.

Equipment Prolonged exposure to voltage imbalances can damage electrical

4.
Damage: equipment and lead to costly repairs or replacements.

Imbalances can result in higher losses in transformers and motors due to

5. Increased Losses:
increased current draw and heat generation.

Mitigation Techniques:

Redistributing loads evenly across the three phases can help reduce
1. Load Balancing:
voltage imbalances.

Regular Continuous monitoring of voltage levels and phase currents can help
2.
Monitoring: detect imbalances early and allow for corrective measures.

Harmonic Installing harmonic filters can reduce the effects of harmonics and
3.
Filters: improve voltage quality.

Static Var SVCs can provide reactive power compensation to help stabilize voltage
4. Compensators levels across phases.
(SVC):

Phase Shift Utilizing phase shift transformers can help balance the load between
5.
Transformers: phases and mitigate imbalances.

Q10. Notes on DC-Offset, Interharmonic, Sub-harmonic, Noise, and Notching.

Ans DC offset refers to the presence of a direct current (DC) component in
DC-Offset: an otherwise alternating current (AC) waveform. It shifts the entire AC
waveform away from zero volts.

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a) Non-linear Loads: Devices like rectifiers and inverters can

introduce a DC offset.
Causes:
b) Transformer Saturation: Saturated transformers can also
contribute to DC offset in the system.

a) Heating in Equipment: Motors and transformers can overheat

due to the additional heating effects caused by the DC
component.
b) Reduced Efficiency: DC offset can lead to inefficient operation
Effects:
and increased energy losses in electrical equipment.
c) Protection Device Malfunction: Protective devices may
misinterpret the DC component as a fault, leading to
unnecessary tripping.

Interharmonics are frequencies that are not whole multiples of the

fundamental frequency but fall between the harmonics of the
Interharmonic:
fundamental frequency. For example, in a 50 Hz system, interharmonic
frequencies could be 60 Hz or 70 Hz.

a) Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs): Equipment that operates

with variable speeds can introduce interharmonic frequencies.
Causes:
b) Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): Techniques used in
electronic controls can generate interharmonics.

a) Equipment Malfunction: Interharmonics can cause

Effects: malfunctions in sensitive electronic devices, leading to
performance issues.

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b) Increased Losses: They can contribute to additional losses in

transformers and motors.

Sub-harmonics are frequencies that are fractions of the fundamental

Sub-harmonic: frequency. For example, in a 60 Hz system, sub-harmonic frequencies
could be 30 Hz (1/2 of 60 Hz), 20 Hz (1/3), or 15 Hz (1/4).

a) Non-linear Loads: Similar to interharmonics, non-linear loads

can generate sub-harmonics.
Causes:
b) Mechanical Systems: Systems with resonant frequencies may
introduce sub-harmonic components.

a) Resonance Issues: Sub-harmonics can lead to resonance

conditions that may amplify voltages or currents, causing
Effects: potential damage.
b) Equipment Stress: Motors and generators may experience
additional stresses, affecting their lifespan.

Noise in electrical systems refers to any unwanted electrical signal that

can distort the desired signal. It can be of different types, including
Noise:
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference
(RFI).

a) Electrical Equipment: Devices like switches, relays, and

motors can generate electrical noise.
Causes:
b) External Sources: Lightning, radio transmissions, or nearby
electrical equipment can introduce noise into the system.

a) Signal Distortion: Noise can distort sensitive signals in

Effects:
communication systems and control circuits.

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b) Operational Errors: It may cause errors in electronic controls

and measurement systems.

Notching refers to a sudden drop or dip in voltage that occurs at specific

Notching: intervals within an AC waveform, typically due to the switching action
of devices like power converters and solid-state devices.

Normal. Notching

a) Thyristor Switching: When thyristors or similar devices switch

on or off, they can create notches in the waveform.
Causes:
b) Pulse Width Modulation: Techniques used in motor drives can
also result in notching.

a) Equipment Stress: Notches can create additional stresses in

electrical equipment, especially transformers and motors.
Effects:
b) Harmonic Distortion: Notching can contribute to overall
harmonic distortion in the system.

Q11. What types of instruments are used for monitoring power quality? Describe the
applications of oscilloscope and spectrum analyser for power quality monitoring.
Ans Monitoring power quality is essential for ensuring the reliability and efficiency of electrical
systems. Various instruments are used for this purpose, each with specific capabilities.

Types of Instruments for Monitoring Power Quality:

These instruments are designed specifically to measure various power

Power Quality quality parameters, including voltage, current, frequency, harmonics,
1.
Analyzers: and transients. They can record data over time and provide detailed
reports.

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Oscilloscopes are versatile tools used to visualize and analyze

2. Oscilloscopes: electrical waveforms. They are essential for capturing transient events
and assessing the waveform characteristics of voltage and current.

These devices measure the frequency spectrum of electrical signals.

Spectrum
3. They are useful for identifying harmonics, interharmonics, and noise
Analyzers:
components within the power system.

Digital multimeters can measure voltage, current, resistance, and

4. Multimeters: frequency. Some advanced models can also measure harmonics and
other power quality parameters.

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Clamp meters are used to measure current without disconnecting the

5. Clamp Meters: circuit. Some models also provide power quality measurements, such
as voltage and harmonics.

These instruments capture and record electrical disturbances, such as

Disturbance
6. voltage sags, swells, and interruptions. They often feature long-term
Recorders:
data logging capabilities.

Phasor PMUs provide real-time monitoring of electrical waveforms and

7. Measurement Units phasor angles, allowing for analysis of system stability and dynamic
(PMUs): performance.

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Applications of Oscilloscope for Power Quality Monitoring:

Oscilloscopes are highly effective for analyzing transient events, such

1. Transient Analysis: as voltage spikes and surges, which can occur due to switching actions,
lightning strikes, or equipment failures.

They allow engineers to visualize voltage and current waveforms,

Waveform
2. making it easier to detect distortion, clipping, or other abnormalities
Visualization:
that may indicate power quality issues.

By using a mathematical function, oscilloscopes can help in analyzing

3. Harmonic Analysis: harmonic content within the waveforms, allowing for the
identification of harmonic distortion levels.

Oscilloscopes can be used to capture and analyze the waveform during

4. Fault Detection: fault conditions, aiding in the diagnosis and troubleshooting of power
quality problems.

They provide real-time data visualization, which is crucial for

Real-Time
5. observing how voltage and current characteristics change during
Monitoring:
different operating conditions.

Q12. What are the main reasons of voltage flicker and voltage fluctuations? Distinguish
between voltage flicker and voltage fluctuations.
Ans Large, Fluctuating Loads:
The operation of heavy equipment like arc furnaces, welding machines,
and large motors can cause significant load changes that lead to flicker.

Starting and Stopping of Motors:

The starting and stopping of large motors can create sudden increases
and decreases in load, causing rapid voltage changes.
Main Causes of
Voltage Flicker:
Non-linear Loads:
Equipment that draws non-linear loads, such as rectifiers and electronic
ballasts, can introduce flicker by varying their current draw.

Short-Circuit Events:
Temporary faults in the system can lead to brief voltage drops, causing
flicker in connected loads.

Load Variability:
Changes in load demand over time, such as those from HVAC systems
Main Causes of or industrial processes, can lead to gradual voltage variations.
Voltage
Fluctuations: Grid Stability:
Variations in the electrical grid, such as fluctuations in generation and
transmission capacity, can cause voltage levels to fluctuate.

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Power Quality Issues:

Issues such as harmonics, phase imbalance, and DC offset can contribute
to overall voltage fluctuations in the system.

Weather-Related Events:
External factors such as storms or high winds can affect the stability of
transmission lines and lead to voltage fluctuations.

Parameters Voltage Flicker Voltage Fluctuations

Voltage flicker refers to rapid, short- Voltage fluctuations are longer-
term changes in voltage levels that term variations in voltage that
Definition occur due to transient loads, often occur over time, often with a
perceived as visible light flickering in more gradual change in level.
lighting systems.

Typically lasts from a few seconds to Can last for minutes, hours, or
Duration a few minutes and often occurs in even longer, showing a more
short bursts. stable pattern of variation.

Flicker can occur at higher Fluctuations occur at lower

frequencies (typically associated with frequencies and can be more
Frequency load changes occurring at rates that periodic, such as variations in
cause visible effects). voltage levels over longer
periods.

Often noticeable in lighting systems, Less likely to be perceived

leading to visible flickering. directly, but can affect the
Perception
performance of sensitive
equipment.

Measured using flicker meters, which Measured by voltage recording

Measurement assess the impact of rapid changes on devices that track the RMS
human perception. values and variations over time.

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