POWER QUALITY AND FACTS UNIT-5

1. What do you mean by harmonics? What are the causes and effects of harmonics?
Ans Harmonics in electrical systems are voltage or current waveforms that are sinusoidal in shape
and have frequencies that are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. The fundamental
frequency is the main frequency of the system, typically 50 Hz or 60 Hz in most power
systems. Harmonics can be described as follows:
• Fundamental Frequency (1st Harmonic): The original signal frequency (e.g., 50
Hz).
• 2nd Harmonic: Frequency that is twice the fundamental frequency (e.g., 100 Hz).
• 3rd Harmonic: Frequency that is three times the fundamental frequency (e.g., 150
Hz).
• nth Harmonic: Frequency that is n times the fundamental frequency (e.g., 200 Hz for
the 4th harmonic).

Causes of Harmonics:
Harmonics in electrical systems are typically caused by non-linear loads or devices that draw
current in a non-sinusoidal manner. These non-linear loads cause distortions in the current and
voltage waveforms. Some common causes include:

Electronic Devices • Switching Power Supplies: Used in computers, servers, and

and Equipment: various electronics, they convert AC to DC and can create
harmonic currents.
• LED Lighting: Energy-efficient lighting often uses
electronic drivers that can introduce harmonics.
• Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs): Used in motor speed
control, VFDs can generate harmonics due to their switching
operations.

Industrial • Arc Furnaces: Used in steel production, arc furnaces

Equipment: generate significant harmonics due to their non-linear
operation.
• Welding Machines: Similar to arc furnaces, welding
machines can introduce harmonic distortions in the power
system.

Renewable Energy • Inverters: Used in solar PV systems and wind turbines to

Systems: convert DC to AC, inverters can generate harmonics due to
their switching operations.

Household • Televisions and Entertainment Systems: Modern

Appliances: electronic devices can contribute to harmonic generation.
• Refrigerators and Air Conditioners: Motor-driven
appliances with electronic controls can introduce harmonics.

Effects: • Overheating of Equipment: Transformers, motors, and

cables can overheat due to increased losses.
• Reduced Efficiency: Harmonics can cause energy losses and
reduce the overall efficiency of the power system.

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• Mis-operation of Protective Devices: Relays and circuit

breakers may not operate correctly in the presence of
harmonics.
• Interference with Communication Lines: Harmonics can
cause electromagnetic interference, affecting communication
systems.
• Degradation of Power Quality: Voltage and current
waveform distortions can affect the performance of sensitive
electronic equipment.

2. Notes on odd and even harmonics?

Ans Odd Harmonics:
Odd harmonics are those harmonics whose frequencies are odd multiples of the fundamental
frequency. In mathematical terms, if the fundamental frequency is f, then the odd harmonics
are 3f,5f,7f, and so on. These harmonics occur at frequencies (2n−1)f, where n is an integer.

Examples of Odd Harmonics:

• 3rd Harmonic: 3 times the fundamental frequency (e.g., 150 Hz if the fundamental
is 50 Hz).
• 5th Harmonic: 5 times the fundamental frequency (e.g., 250 Hz if the fundamental
is 50 Hz).
• 7th Harmonic: 7 times the fundamental frequency (e.g., 350 Hz if the fundamental
is 50 Hz).

Characteristics a) Odd harmonics are typically more prevalent in electrical systems

of Odd than even harmonics.
Harmonics: b) They can cause a variety of issues such as heating, interference,
and reduced efficiency in electrical systems.
c) Odd harmonics can lead to waveform distortions such as flat-
topping or peaking in the voltage and current waveforms.

Effects of Odd • Heating: Increased losses in transformers, motors, and cables

Harmonics: due to odd harmonics can lead to overheating.
• Interference: Odd harmonics can cause electromagnetic
interference, affecting communication and control systems.
• Efficiency Reduction: The presence of odd harmonics can
reduce the overall efficiency of electrical systems.

Even Harmonics:
Even harmonics are those harmonics whose frequencies are even multiples of the fundamental
frequency. In mathematical terms, if the fundamental frequency is f, then the even harmonics
are 2f,4f,6f, and so on. These harmonics occur at frequencies 2nf, where n is an integer.

Examples of Even Harmonics:

• 2nd Harmonic: 2 times the fundamental frequency (e.g., 100 Hz if the fundamental
is 50 Hz).
• 4th Harmonic: 4 times the fundamental frequency (e.g., 200 Hz if the fundamental
is 50 Hz).

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• 6th Harmonic: 6 times the fundamental frequency (e.g., 300 Hz if the fundamental
is 50 Hz).

Characteristics a) Even harmonics are generally less common in electrical systems

of Even compared to odd harmonics.
Harmonics: b) They are often a sign of asymmetrical loads or faults in the
system.
c) Even harmonics can contribute to waveform distortions but
usually to a lesser extent than odd harmonics.

Effects of Even • Waveform Distortion: Even harmonics contribute to the

Harmonics: distortion of voltage and current waveforms.
• Interference: Similar to odd harmonics, even harmonics can
cause interference with sensitive electronic equipment.
• System Imbalance: Even harmonics can indicate system
imbalances or issues with load symmetry.

3. What do you mean by linear and non-linear loads?

Ans a) Linear Loads:
A linear load is an electrical load that draws current in direct proportion to the voltage applied,
maintaining a consistent and predictable relationship between voltage and current. The current
waveform is a sinusoidal shape that matches the voltage waveform, meaning there is no
distortion introduced into the system.

Characteristics • Proportionality: The current drawn is proportional to the

of Linear Loads: voltage applied.
• Waveform: Both voltage and current waveforms remain
sinusoidal and are in phase or have a constant phase difference.
• Power Factor: Power factor is generally closer to unity (1)
unless there’s a phase shift due to inductance or capacitance.

Examples of • Resistive Loads: Incandescent light bulbs, electric heaters,

Linear Loads: toasters.
• Inductive Loads: Traditional AC motors, transformers (without
significant magnetic saturation).
Capacitive Loads: Certain types of capacitors used in power
factor correction.

Effects of Linear • Predictability: Linear loads are predictable and easier to

Loads: analyze.
• Power Quality: They do not generate harmonics, thus
maintaining power quality.

b) Non-Linear Loads:
A non-linear load is an electrical load that draws current in a non-sinusoidal manner, meaning
the relationship between the voltage and current is not proportional. These loads introduce

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distortions in the current waveform, causing it to deviate from the sinusoidal shape of the
voltage waveform.

Characteristics • Non-Proportionality: The current does not have a linear

of Non-Linear relationship with the voltage.
Loads: • Waveform Distortion: The current waveform is distorted,
leading to the generation of harmonics.
• Harmonics: Non-linear loads introduce harmonics into the
power system, which are integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency.

Examples of • Electronic Devices: Computers, printers, and televisions.

Non-Linear • Switching Power Supplies: Used in many modern electronic
Loads: devices, these supplies convert AC to DC and often introduce
harmonics.
• Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs): Used for motor speed
control in industrial applications, generating harmonics due to
their switching operations.
• LED Lighting: Modern LED lights use electronic drivers that
can cause harmonic distortion.
• Arc Furnaces: Used in industrial settings, arc furnaces generate
significant harmonic currents.

Effects of Non- • Harmonic Distortion: Introduces harmonics into the system,

Linear Loads: affecting power quality.
• Heating: Increased losses in transformers, motors, and cables
due to harmonic currents can lead to overheating.
• Interference: Harmonics can cause electromagnetic
interference, affecting sensitive electronic and communication
equipment.
• Reduced Efficiency: The presence of harmonics can reduce the
overall efficiency of the electrical system.

4. Notes on Harmonic Indices.

Ans Harmonics in electrical systems refer to the presence of voltages or currents at frequencies
that are multiples of the fundamental frequency (e.g., 50 Hz or 60 Hz). These non-
fundamental frequencies can cause a range of issues in power systems, including increased
losses, overheating of equipment, and interference with communication lines.

Harmonic Harmonic distortion is a measure of how much the harmonics deviate

Distortion: from the fundamental frequency. It's typically quantified using various
indices. The two main types of harmonic distortion are:
1. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
2. Individual Harmonic Distortion (IHD)
3. Total Demand Distortion (TDD)

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Total Harmonic THD is a measure of the aggregate effect of all harmonic components of
Distortion (THD) a voltage or current waveform relative to the fundamental component. It
is expressed as a percentage:

Where, Vn is the RMS voltage of the nth harmonic component, V1 is the

RMS voltage of the fundamental frequency.

Individual IHD measures the distortion caused by each harmonic component

Harmonic individually. It is also expressed as a percentage relative to the
Distortion (IHD) fundamental component:

Where, Vn is the RMS voltage of the nth harmonic component, V1 is the

RMS voltage of the fundamental frequency.

Total Demand It is a measure of the harmonic content in an electrical system, expressed

Distortion (TDD) as a percentage of the maximum demand load current. Unlike Total
Harmonic Distortion (THD), which is calculated based on the
fundamental frequency component, TDD normalizes the harmonic
distortion against the system's maximum demand load, providing a more
accurate representation of harmonic impact under varying load
conditions.
The formula for calculating TDD is:

Where, In is the RMS current of the nth harmonic, IL is the maximum

demand load current (typically the average of the maximum demand over
a 15 or 30-minute period).

Standards and Limits

International standards, such as IEEE 519 and IEC 61000, provide guidelines on acceptable
levels of harmonic distortion. These standards help ensure the reliability and efficiency of
power systems by limiting the amount of allowable harmonic distortion.

Mitigation of Harmonics
To mitigate the adverse effects of harmonics, several methods can be employed:

• Passive Filters: Designed to block specific harmonic frequencies.

• Active Filters: Dynamically cancel harmonic frequencies.
• Harmonic Mitigating Transformers: Reduce harmonics by altering the phase
relationship of harmonic currents.
• Proper System Design: Includes proper sizing of equipment and avoidance of
resonance conditions.

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Key Differences Between TDD and THD

• Normalization Base: THD is normalized to the fundamental frequency current, while

TDD is normalized to the maximum demand load current.
• Relevance to Load Conditions: TDD provides a more accurate reflection of
harmonic distortion under real operating conditions, especially in systems where the
load can vary significantly.
• Applicability: TDD is particularly useful in industrial and commercial settings where
equipment operates at varying loads, ensuring harmonic distortion is kept in check
relative to the system's capacity.

5. Notes on impact of harmonic distortion:

a) Capacitors
b) Transformer
c) Motors
Ans Harmonic distortion in electrical systems can have significant impacts on various components,
including capacitors, transformers, and motors. Here's a detailed look at how harmonic
distortion affects each of these components:
a) Capacitors

Impact:
1. Overheating: Harmonics can cause capacitors to overheat due to increased losses.
This is particularly problematic with higher-order harmonics.
2. Resonance: Capacitors can create resonant conditions with the inductive components
of the system at harmonic frequencies, leading to amplified voltage and current
distortion.
3. Reduced Lifespan: The excessive heating and stress from harmonic currents can
degrade the dielectric material in capacitors, shortening their operational lifespan.
4. Increased Reactive Power: Harmonics can increase the reactive power demand,
potentially leading to overloading of capacitor banks designed to correct power factor.

Mitigation:
• Use of harmonic filters to mitigate harmonic currents.
• De-rating capacitors to handle higher harmonic loads.
• Installation of tuned harmonic filters or reactors in series with capacitors to block
specific harmonic frequencies.

b) Transformer

Impact:
1. Additional Losses: Harmonics cause additional eddy current and hysteresis losses in
the transformer core, leading to overheating.
2. Increased Temperature: The additional losses result in increased temperature,
which can reduce the efficiency and lifespan of the transformer.
3. Insulation Stress: Harmonic currents can cause increased dielectric stress on the
insulation, potentially leading to insulation breakdown.
4. Noise and Vibration: Harmonics can cause transformers to emit noise and vibrate,
which can be a sign of internal stress and potential damage.

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Mitigation:
• Designing transformers with reduced harmonic impact (K-factor transformers).
• Implementing harmonic filters in the system.
• Proper maintenance and monitoring of temperature and insulation condition.

c) Motors

Impact:
1. Overheating: Harmonics increase losses in motor windings and the core, causing
excessive heating.
2. Torque Pulsations: Harmonic currents can create pulsating torques that lead to
mechanical vibrations and noise, reducing motor efficiency and increasing wear and
tear.
3. Reduced Efficiency: Harmonics reduce the overall efficiency of motors by causing
additional losses.
4. Insulation Damage: Prolonged exposure to harmonics can degrade the motor
insulation, leading to premature failure.
5. Bearing Currents: Harmonics can induce currents in motor bearings, leading to
electrical discharge machining (EDM) and premature bearing failure.

Mitigation:
• Using motors designed to handle higher harmonic loads (NEMA MG1 Part 31
compliant motors).
• Installing harmonic filters to reduce harmonic currents.
• Regular maintenance and monitoring of motor temperature and vibration levels.

6. Notes on harmonic mitigation techniques:

Ans Harmonic distortion can cause significant issues in electrical systems, affecting efficiency,
reliability, and lifespan of equipment. To address these problems, various harmonic mitigation
techniques can be employed. Here are some common methods:

Passive • Function: Designed to block or filter out specific harmonic

Harmonic frequencies.
Filters: • Components: Typically consist of inductors, capacitors, and
sometimes resistors configured to create low-impedance paths
for specific harmonic frequencies.

Types:
• Single-tuned Filters: Target a specific harmonic frequency.
• High-pass Filters: Attenuate higher-order harmonics.
• Band-pass Filters: Designed to filter a band of harmonic
frequencies.

Advantages:
• Simple and reliable.
• No external power supply needed.
• Cost-effective for filtering specific harmonics.

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Disadvantages:
• Fixed tuning; less effective for variable loads.
• Can create resonant conditions if not properly designed.

Active Harmonic • Function: Dynamically injects counteracting harmonic currents

Filters: to cancel out harmonics in the system.
• Components: Power electronics, control system, and sensors to
detect harmonic levels and inject compensating currents.

Advantages:
• Can adapt to changing load conditions.
• Effective across a wide range of harmonic frequencies.
• Can provide power factor correction and load balancing.

Disadvantages:
• More complex and expensive than passive filters.
• Requires an external power supply and regular maintenance.

Hybrid Filters: • Function: Combine passive and active filtering techniques to

provide effective harmonic mitigation.
• Components: A combination of passive filter elements
(inductors, capacitors) and active filter components (power
electronics).

Advantages:
• Provides the benefits of both passive and active filters.
• Can handle a broader range of harmonic frequencies and varying
load conditions.

Disadvantages:
• More complex and costly than either passive or active filters
alone.
• Requires careful design and maintenance.

Harmonic • Function: Designed to reduce harmonics by altering the phase

Mitigating relationship of harmonic currents.
Transformers: • Types: K-factor transformers, phase-shifting transformers.

Advantages:
• Reduces harmonic distortion at the source.
• Can improve overall system efficiency.

Disadvantages:
• More expensive than standard transformers.
• Effectiveness depends on the specific application and load
characteristics.

Phase Shifting • Function: Uses phase-shifting transformers or devices to shift

the phase of harmonic currents, cancelling them out.

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• Components: Transformers configured to provide specific

phase shifts (e.g., 30 degrees, 60 degrees).

Advantages:
• Reduces harmonics generated by multiple rectifiers or inverters.
• Can be used in conjunction with other harmonic mitigation
techniques.

Disadvantages:
• Requires careful design and engineering.
• May not be effective for all types of harmonic sources.

Power Factor • Function: Improve power factor and reduce harmonic distortion
Correction by adding capacitors or inductors to the system.
(PFC) Devices: • Components: Capacitors, inductors, and sometimes electronic
controls.

Advantages:
• Improves system efficiency and reduces losses.
• Can reduce harmonic currents as a side benefit.

Disadvantages:
• PFC devices themselves can sometimes introduce harmonics.
• Requires proper design to avoid resonance issues.

Line Reactors • Function: Increase the impedance of the power system,

and Chokes: reducing the amplitude of harmonic currents.
• Components: Inductors (reactors) installed in series with the
load or power supply.

Advantages:
• Simple and cost-effective.
• Can reduce voltage distortion and improve power quality.

Disadvantages:
• Can cause voltage drop in the system.
• Less effective for higher-order harmonics.

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