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COMPACTION
 A simple ground improvement technique, where the
soil is densified through external compactive effort.
 Compaction of a soil is the pressing of the soil close
CHAPTER 3 to each other by Mechanical means.
 During compaction air is expelled from the void
spaces. Thus compaction results in an increase in the
SOIL COMPACTION density of the soil.

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… Compaction Uses of soils as fill

 Compaction improves the engineering properties of
soils. It increases the shear strength of the soil & In the following cases, soil is used as fill:
consequently the bearing capacity. It also reduces Backfill of excavation i.e. foundation
the compressibility & permeability of soil. To develop made up soils for the building.
As sub grade, sub base, for roads railways and
 There is no substantial change in the volume of airfields.
water in soil during compaction. As an earthen dam.
To develop site in a difficult terrain, where
substantial cutting and filling is required.

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Objectives of Compaction Comparison between Compaction & Consolidation

 Increase the shear strength. Compaction
 Increased bearing capacity for foundation support.
 is increasing density of a soil by mechanically forcing the soil
 Reduce compressibility and settlement of buildings and lesser
particles closer together, expelling air in the void spaces of the
deformation of earth structures.
soil.
 Reduce permeability, leading to less seepage of water.
 Can be accomplished in a few hours.
 Improve stability and lower damage due to frost action.
 To reduce the degree of shrinkage and formation of cracks on  Is applicable for all types of unsaturated soils
drying. Consolidation
 Increasing density of cohesive soils resulting from the
expulsion of water from the void spaces in the soil.
 May take as long as months, or years.
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Compaction Consolidation
COMPACTION IN THE LAB
GL GL
To obtain the moisture content – dry density relationship for
a soil and hence to determine the optimum moisture
unsaturated clay saturated clay
content and maximum dry density.
1. Standard Proctor Test
2. Modified Proctor Test

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Laboratory Compaction Test Laboratory Compaction Test

-to obtain the compaction curve and define the Standard Proctor: hammer Modified Proctor:
optimum water content and maximum dry density
for a specific compactive effort. • 5 layers
• 3 layers
• 25 blows per layer
• 25 blows per layer
• 4.5 kg hammer
• 2.5 kg hammer
Standard Proctor: hammer Modified Proctor: • 457 mm drop
• 305 mm drop
• 3 layers • 5 layers
The energy imparted by the hammer is
• 25 blows per layer • 25 blows per layer • 2695 kJ/m3,
• 4.5 times the energy of
• 2.5 kg hammer • 4.5 kg hammer
the standard Proctor test
• 305 mm drop • 457 mm drop

1000 ml compaction mould

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COMPACTION IN THE LAB FIGURE Compaction apparatus

Test Details Standard Modified
Diameter of Mold 4" or 102 mm 4" or 102 mm
5" cut to 4.59" 5" cut to 4.59"
Height of Sample
127 mm cut to 117 mm 127 mm cut to 117 mm
Number of Layers 3 5
Blows per Layer 25 25
5.5 lb 10 lb
Weight of Hammer
2.5 kg 4.5 kg
2" 2"
Diameter of Hammer
51 mm 51 mm
12" 18"
Height of Hammer Drop
305 mm 457 mm

Volume of Sample 1/30 ft3 1/30 ft3

0.94 l 0.94 l
3
12,400 ft-lb/ft 56,200 ft-lb/ft3
Compactive Effort
592 kJ/m3 2,693 kJ/m3

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Compaction curve

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Compaction Curve Compaction Curve

Dry density (d)

What happens to the relative quantities of the three phases

with addition of water?
air
Soil grains densely packed

Dry density (d)

water

- good strength and stiffness soil

difficult to expel all air
gd, max - low permeability

lowest void ratio and

highest dry density at
optimum w

optimum Water content

19 water content Water content
Water content

Zero Air Void Curve Effect of Compactive Effort

Dry density (d)

Dry density (d)

- corresponds to 100% saturation

Increasing compactive
Zero air void curve (S=100%)
effort results in:
Gs  w  Lower optimum water content
Eq :  d 
1  wGs  Higher maximum dry density
S<100% E2 (>E1)
S>100% (impossible)

All compaction points should lie

to the left of ZAV curve E1

21 Water content 22 Water content

Compaction and Clay Fabric

Line of Optimum
Dry density (d)
Dry density (d)

Higher water content or higher

Compaction curves
more dispersed fabric

compactive effort gives more

for different efforts
dispersed fabric.

more dispersed fabric Line of optimum

23 Water content 24 Water content

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Zero Air Voids Line

 The “Zero Air Voids” line represents the Maximum Soil Density at
which all of the air voids have been eliminated
 Air voids are filled with water
 It is the maximum possible soil density for that soil at any specified
moisture content.
 To plot zero air void line
Gγ w
γd 
Where 1  (wG/S)
G =specific gravity of the soil
γw =unit weight of water 9.81 kN/m3 (or density 1.0 g/cm3)
S =degree of saturation
For zero-air-voids or 100% saturation, S = 1.

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Maximum Density Optimum Moisture Content

 To determine the maximum density of a soil using  Optimum Moisture Content of the soil is the moisture
content at which dry density is achieved under a specific
the Proctor test procedure, compaction tests are
compactive effort
performed over a range of soil moisture contents.  The optimum moisture content will decrease as the
 The results are then plotted as dry density versus compactive effort is increased.
 Proctor Test: ASTM & AASHTO
moisture contents.
 Standard Proctor Test
 The peak of each curve represents the maximum  ASTM D 698, AASHTO T-99
density obtained under the compactive effort  Modified Proctor Test
supplied by the test.  ASTM D 1557, AASHTO T-180

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Moisture Content and Compaction .

Modified Proctor Test Results for Various Soils

The degree of compaction of soil is measured by

its unit weight, gd, and optimum moisture
content, wc.

By reducing the air voids, more soil can be added

to the block. When moisture is added to the
block (water content, wc, is increasing) the soil
particles will slip more on each other causing
more reduction in the total volume, which will
result in adding more soil and, hence, the dry
density will increase, accordingly.

Increasing Wc will increase gd to certain limit

called Optimum moister Content, (OMC)
After this limit Increasing Wc will decrease gd
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Compaction Specifications Factors affecting compaction

 From 90 to 95% of the maximum density as 1. Physical & chemical properties

determined by either the Standard or Modified 2. Moisture content
Proctor Test. 3. Method of compaction
4. Amount of compactive effort
 For Example: 5. Thickness of layer or “lift” being compacted
 95% of Standard Proctor for Embankments, Dams, and
Backfills.
 90% of Modified Proctor for floor slabs on-grade.
 95% (to 100%) for pavements with high wheel loads.

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Field compaction Filed Compaction

 Tamping Foot Rollers
Different types of rollers (clockwise
 Grid/Mesh Rollers from right):
 Vibratory Compactors  Smooth-wheel roller
 Steel Wheel/Smooth Drum Rollers  Vibratory roller
 Pneumatic rubber tired roller
 Rubber Tired/Pneumatic Rollers

 Segmented Pad Rollers  Sheepsfoot roller

 Rammers/Tampers

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Vibratory Smooth & Padded Rollers

Compactors

Hand-
Operated
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Pneumatic/Tired Compactor Vibratory

 .

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. Type compactor . Maximum effect Density gained Maximum weight,

in loose lift, in. in lift tons

Water Trucks
Sheep’s foot Clay, silty clay, gravel with clay 7 to 12 Nearly uniform 20
binder

Steel tandem two- Sandy silts, most granular material

axle with some clay binder 4 to 8 Average* 16

Steel tandem three- Same as above

4 to 8 Average* 20
axle

Steel three-wheel Granular or granular-plastic Average* to

4 to 8 20
material uniform

Pneumatic, small-tire Sandy silts, Sandy clays, gravely

sand and clays with few fines Average* to
4 to 8 12
uniform

Pneumatic, large-tire All types

? to 24 Uniform 50

Vibratory Sand, silty sands, silty gravels

3 to 6 Uniform 30

Combinations All 3 to 6 Uniform 20

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Relative compaction Control of Compaction

This is the ratio of the dry density achieved in the field to the maximum  During compaction in the field, it is necessary to check the dry density and
dry density obtained from the standard proctor test. the water content in order to get proper results. Compaction can be
controlled by measuring the dry density and the water content of the
i e relative compaction = dry in the field X 100
compacted soil.
pdry (max) in laboratory
- About 95% relative compaction can be attained by sheep toot refers or  The sample of the compacted soil should be taken and the dry density is determined.
pneumatic tyred rollers. For the same sample the water content is also determined. If the water content is
- For cohesion less soils, relative compaction of about 100 % can be less than the optimum moisture content (OMC) some more water is added and
achieved using pneumatic typed rollers & vibratory rollers. compacted again

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INTERPRETATION OF PROCTOR TEST RESULTS Fig: Illustration of compaction specification of soils in the field.

 Knowledge of the optimum water content and the

maximum dry unit weight of soils is very important for
construction specifications of soil improvement by
compaction.
 Specifications for earth structures (embankments,
footings, … ) usually call for a minimum of 95% of Proctor
maximum dry unit weight.
 This level of compaction can be attained at two water
contents:
i. before the attainment of the maximum dry unit weight, or
dry of optimum,
ii. after attainment of the maximum dry unit weight, or wet of
optimum (See figure).

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… Interpretation Of Proctor Test Results EXAMPLE

 Normal practice is to compact the soil dry of optimum. 1. Calculating Dry Unit Weight from Proctor Test Data
 Compact the soil wet of optimum for swelling (expansive) The wet mass of one of the standard Proctor test samples is
soils, soil liners for solid waste landfills, and projects where 1806 grams at a water content of 8%. The volume of the
soil volume changes from changes in moisture conditions standard Proctor test sample is 9.44 x 10-4 m3. Determine
are intolerable the bulk and dry unit weights.
Hint: From the wet mass and its volume, you can calculate the bulk unit
weight. Divide the bulk unit weight by 1 plus the water content to fi nd
the dry unit weight.

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EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
2. Interpreting Compaction Data (1)
2. Interpreting Compaction Data (1)
a) Determine the maximum dry unit weight and optimum
The results of a standard compaction test are shown in the table below.
water content
23.0

22.0
a) Determine the maximum dry unit weight and optimum
water content 21.0
Dry Unit Weight (kN/m3)

b) What is the dry unit weight and water content at 95% 20.0

standard compaction, dry of optimum? 19.0

c) Determine the degree of saturation at the maximum dry 18.0

density. 17.0
d) Plot the zero air voids line. 16.0
Strategy Compute gd and then plot the results of gd versus w (%). 15.0
Extract the required information. 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Moisture Content (%)

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EXAMPLE
2. Interpreting Compaction Data (1)
c) Determine the degree of saturation at the maximum dry
density.

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