RADAR- AND ANTENNA SYSTEMS

Dozent: Dr. Dennis Vollbracht

University of Wuppertal, Chair of Electromagnetic Theory,

School of Electrical, Information and Media Engineering
Rainer-Gruenter-Str. 21, D-42119 Wuppertal, Germany

1
Lectures
1. Radar Systems 1
2. Radar Systems 2/3
3. Automotive Radar and MIMO Systems
4. Dual- Polarimetric Weather Radar Systems
5. Fundamentals in Antennas and Wave Propagation
6. Antenna Architectures 1 - Microstrip Patch Antennas and EBG Structures
7. Antenna Architectures 2 - Substrate Integrated Waveguide Antenna Arrays
8. Antenna Architectures 3 – Leaky Wave Antennas
9. Antenna Architectures 4 - Horn and Reflector Antennas
10. Fundamentals in Radar Cross Section

CST MWS and Antenna Design Tutorials

1. CST Overview (Function, Capabilities)
2. CST Hands-On Part 1 (3D Modelling, Mesh, Solvers)
3. CST Hands-On Part 2 (Macros, Post Processing)
4. Automotive Radar Experiment in Lab
5. Design Process for SIW Stand-alone Slot at X- Band
6. Design Process for Slot Array at X- Band
7. Design Process for Dual Pol and Circular Pol Patch-Element at X- Band with AF Calculator
8. RCS Simulations on Targets and Surfaces
9. Antenna Array Isolation using EBG Structures
10. Reflector design in Ku-Band

2
Radar Systems 1

3
 History

• Radar was first patented and demonstrated in

1904 by the German engineer Christian
Hülsmeyer in a detecting device designed to
avoid collisions in marine navigation.
• Watson Watt wrote a paper entitled "The
Detection of Aircraft by Radio Methods“ and is
generally credited with initiating what would
later be called radar.

Christian Hülsmeyer Robert Watson Watt Radar Stations

Granger Historical Picture Archive Wikipedia Radar in WW II

4
Applications

Modern Radar Systems are very diverse

• Military Radars
• Imaging Radars
• Automotive Radars
• Air Traffic Control (ATC) TanDEM-X OHB’s EDRS-C

• Civil Aviation Radars

• Weather Radars
• Ground Penetrating Radars POLDIRAD The Q-53 Radar System

• Ship Safety
• Space

Air Traffic Surveillance Aptiv ADAS Radar System

5
Basic Principle

Radar is an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging

An object detection system that transmits electromagnetic (EM) waves and
analyses the echoes coming from the objects.
Why use radar for example in Automotive?
 Radar can operate in any weather conditions (e.g. darkness, fog, rain)
 Radar can perform its function at long and short ranges
 Radar can provide measurements in high accuracy.

Long Range Radar

The Robot Report_radar could let autonomous vehicles Automotive radars – Challenges and opportunities
see in bad weather

6
Basic Principle

What it does?
• It measures objects/target’s:
 Range
 Velocity/Doppler
 Angle (Azimuth and/or Elevation)
 Size or shape (target imaging)

Target
Waveform
Transmitter
Generator

Radar Display
Dish Antenna
Receiver

General Blocks of a Radar System

7
Simplified Block Diagram

The basic subsystems found in a radar are:

 Transmit subsystem
 Antenna subsystem
 Receive subsystem

Transmitter Antenna

Waveform Power
Duplexer
Generator Amplifier

Receiver
Low-Noise
Amplifier

Signal Matched IF Local

Display Mixer
Processor Filter Amplifier Oscillator

8
Simplified Block Diagram

Transmitter:
• Waveform Generator: The radar signal is produced at low power by waveform
generator. It play a major role in determining the sensitivity and range resolution of
radar.
• Power Amplifier: The low power signal is amplified in order to be transmitted for
larger distances by power amplifier.
Transmitter Antenna

Waveform Power
Duplexer
Generator Amplifier

Receiver
Low-Noise
Amplifier

Signal Matched IF Local

Display Mixer
Processor Filter Amplifier Oscillator

9
Simplified Block Diagram

Duplexer:
• It act as switching device and allows a single antenna to be used on a time-shared
basis for both transmitting and receiving. When the high-power signal flows to the
antenna it provides short circuit at the input to the receiver and on reception, the
duplexer directs the echo signal to the receiver and not to the transmitter.

Transmitter Antenna

Waveform Power
Duplexer
Generator Amplifier

Receiver
Low-Noise
Amplifier

Signal Matched IF Local

Display Mixer
Processor Filter Amplifier Oscillator

10
Simplified Block Diagram

Antenna:
• It is a device that allows the transmitted signal/energy to be propagated into space
and then collects the echo signal/energy on receive.

Transmitter Antenna

Waveform Power
Duplexer
Generator Amplifier

Receiver
Low-Noise
Amplifier

Signal Matched IF Local

Display Mixer
Processor Filter Amplifier Oscillator

11
Simplified Block Diagram

Receiver:
• Low Noise Amplifier: It is used to amplify extremely weak signals, usually from an
antenna where signals are barely recognizable and should be amplified without adding
significant noise, otherwise important information might be lost.

Transmitter Antenna

Waveform Power
Duplexer
Generator Amplifier

Receiver
Low-Noise
Amplifier

Signal Matched IF Local

Display Mixer
Processor Filter Amplifier Oscillator

12
Simplified Block Diagram

Receiver:
• The mixer with local oscillator convert the RF signal to an intermediate frequency
(IF) signal where it is amplified by an IF amplifier. The IF amplifier is designed as a
Matched Filter, It maximizes the delectability of weak echo signals and attenuates
unwanted signals (SNR).

Transmitter Antenna

Waveform Power
Duplexer
Generator Amplifier

Receiver
Low-Noise
Amplifier

Signal Matched IF Local

Display Mixer
Processor Filter Amplifier Oscillator

13
Simplified Block Diagram

Receiver:
• Signal Processor: The baseband signal is sent to the signal processor, which
performs some or variety of functions such as decompression, matched filtering,
Doppler filtering, integration, and motion compensation. The output of the signal
processor takes various forms, depending on the radar purpose and is sent to the
system display the radar image.
Transmitter Antenna

Waveform Power
Duplexer
Generator Amplifier

Receiver
Low-Noise
Amplifier

Signal Matched IF Local

Display Mixer
Processor Filter Amplifier Oscillator

14
Radar Terminologies

Range:
The distance between radar and the target is called Range (𝑅). Radar transmits the
signal to the target and receive back the echo signal from the target at a time, 𝑇 with the
speed of light, 𝑐. Therefore, the range (𝑅) is calculated from the time it takes a signal to
travel to a target and back to radar, 𝑇 = 𝟐𝑹/𝑐.

Pulse Repetition Frequency:

In a pulsed wave radar, the time interval between the successive clock pulses is called
pulse repetition time, 𝑃𝑅𝑇. The reciprocal of pulse repetition time is called pulse repetition
frequency, 𝑃𝑅𝐹.

PRF determines the maximum target range (𝑅 ) and maximum Doppler velocity (𝑉 ) that can be accurately
determined by the radar.

15
Radar Terminologies

Minimum Range:
It is the range to the target, when the time 𝑇 required for the echo signal to be received at
radar is set to pulse width 𝝉. It is also called as the shortest range of the target and is
given by:

𝒎𝒊𝒏

Maximum Unambiguous Range:

If the time between the pulses 𝑇 is too short, an echo signal from long range target may
arrive after the transmission of next pulse and be mistakenly associated with that pulse
rather than actual pulse transmitter earlier. This can result in an incorrect or ambiguous
measurement of range. Echoes that occur after the transmission of next pulse are called
second-time around echoes. The range beyond which targets appear as a second-time
around echoes is the maximum unambiguous range and is given as:

𝒄 𝑷𝑹𝑻 𝒄
Maximum Unambiguous Range
𝟐 𝟐×𝑷𝑹𝑭

16
Radar Terminologies

Range Resolution:
It is the ability of the radar to discriminate two targets that are closely spaced in range.
For example, a range resolution of 50 cm means that two targets that are on the same
azimuth and 50 cm apart in range can be resolved. and is given by:

𝒓𝒆𝒔

Bandwidth:
The term bandwidth is the frequency difference between upper frequency and lower
frequency on EM spectrum radiation.

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR):

The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or S/N) is the ratio of the average signal power to the
power of the average noise level.

𝑺𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
S
𝑵𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

17
Radar Terminologies

a) Pulsed radar
transmit-receive
cycle;
b) Line spectrum for
the explanation of
unambiguous
Doppler velocity;
c) Graphical
description of the
range resolution;
d) Graphical
description of the
unambiguous range

18
Radar Terminologies

Duty Cycle:
Duty cycle (or duty factor) is a measure of the fraction of the time a radar is transmitting.
It is important because it relates to peak and average power in the determination of total
energy output.
Or
The ratio of the average power to the peak pulse power is the duty cycle and represents
the percentage of time the power is present.

𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈 𝝉
𝑷𝒑 𝑻

𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑷𝒑

𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈

T 𝝉 = 𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉

19
Exercises

Example 1:

A low PRF radar with a pulse repetition frequency of 10 kHz radiates 10 kW of

peak power. The duty cycle is 20%.

a. Calculate the average transmitted power, pulse repetition time, width of the
pulse, and the pulse energy.

Solution:

𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝐃𝐮𝐭𝐲 𝐂𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞 × 𝐏𝐩

𝟏
PRT=
𝐏𝐑𝐅
𝛕 = 𝐃𝐮𝐭𝐲 𝐂𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞 × 𝐏𝐑𝐓
𝐄𝐏 = 𝐏𝐭 × 𝛕

20
Exercises

Example 1:

A low PRF radar with a pulse repetition frequency of 10 kHz radiates 10 kW of

peak power. The duty cycle is 20%.

b. What is the maximum unambiguous range?

c. Calculate the corresponding range resolution and the required bandwidth.

Solution:
𝐜 𝐏𝐑𝐓
Maximum Unambiguous Range =
𝟐
(𝟑×𝟏𝟎𝟖 ) (𝟏𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟎 𝟔 )
=
𝟐
= 15 km
𝟏 𝟏
𝐁𝐖 = = = 𝟓𝟎 𝐤𝐇𝐳
𝛕 𝟐𝟎×𝟏𝟎 𝟔

𝐜 𝟑×𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝐑 𝐫𝐞𝐬 = = = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐦
𝟐 𝐁𝐖 𝟐 ×(𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟑 )

21
Exercises

Example 1:

A low PRF radar with a pulse repetition frequency of 10 kHz radiates 10 kW of

peak power. The duty cycle is 20%.

d. What would you all propose to improve the radar performance?

Solution:

22
Radar Range Equation

The radar range equation is useful to determine the maximum distance of the
target from the radar and describes the mathematical relationship between
various parameters of the radar system. It can also serve both as a tool for
understanding radar operation and as a basis for radar system analysis and
design as it connects:
 Target Properties - e.g. Target Reflectivity (radar cross section)
 Radar Characteristics - e.g. Transmitter Power, Antenna Aperture
 Distance between Target and Radar - e.g. Range
 Properties of the Medium - e.g. Atmospheric Attenuation.

𝟒 𝟐 𝟐
𝒕
= 𝟑
𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒔 𝒏

23
Radar Range Equation

Power density from uniformly radiating (Isotropic) antenna transmitting spherical wave:

Radiation
R Intensity

Where, 𝑷𝒕 = Peak transmitter power

𝑹 = Distance from Radar

Radiated Power density from directive antenna:

𝟐
(𝑾/𝒎 )
𝒕

Where, 𝐺𝒕 = Transmit Gain

Gain is the radiation intensity of the antenna in a given direction over

𝟒𝝅𝑨
that of an isotropic (uniformly radiating) source (G = 𝟐 )
𝝀

24
 Radar Range Equation

Radar Cross Section (RCS or ):

The amount of energy scattered by the target is the function of many unknown
parameters such as target size, orientation, physical shape, and material, which are all
lumped together in one target-specific parameter known as RCS, denoted by σ which
measures the energy that a radar target intercepts and scatters back toward the radar.

Power of the transmitted signal to target:

𝟐
( )

Power density of reflected signal

after the reflection at the target:

𝟐
(𝑾/𝒎 )

Power density of reflected signal falls off as (1/ 𝑹𝟐 )

25
Radar Range Equation
Power of the reflected signal from target and received by Radar:

Where,
𝑷 = Received Power
= 𝟐
(𝑾/𝒎 ) ( ) 𝑨𝒆 = (𝑮𝒓 𝝀𝟐 ) Ú 𝟒𝝅 Effective area of receiving antenna

The received power  The power density at Radar times the area of the receiving
antenna.

𝒓 = (𝑾)

For a monostatic radar, the same antenna is used for both transmission and reception.
Assuming 𝑨𝒕 = 𝑨𝒓 = 𝑨𝒆 and 𝑮𝒕 = 𝑮𝒓 = 𝑮 for the sake of simplicity we get:

26
Radar Range Equation

Sources of Noise Received by Radar:

The total effect of these noise sources is represented by a single noise source
at the antenna output terminal.
The Noise Power at the receiver:

Where, 𝒌 = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 x 10−23 joules / deg K

𝑻𝒔 = Radar Noise Temperature = 𝑇 × 𝐹
𝑩𝒏 = Noise bandwidth of receiver

Or

The Noise Power at the receiver:

Where, 𝑻 = Effective Noise Temperature
F𝒏 = Noise Factor
= 𝝉 = Pulse Duration

Noise from many sources competes with the Target Echo.

27
 Exercises
Example Noise in dBm/Hz:

a) Please calculate the noise power in dBm/Hz at 290 K

b) Please calculate the noise power for a pulsed radar with 1 µs non-
modulated pulse.

Solution:

28
Radar Range Equation

System Noise Temperature:

The System Noise Temperature ( ) , is divided into 3 components:

T =T +T +L T

Where, 𝑻𝒂  the contribution from the antenna

- Apparent temperature of sky (from graph)
- Loss within antenna
𝑻  the contribution from the RF components
between the antenna and the receiver
- Temperature of RF components
𝑳𝒓  the loss of input RF components
𝑻  the temperature of the receiver Sky-Noise Temperature for Clear Air
- Noise factor of receiver

Given the effective noise temperature T, System Noise Temperature is

29
Radar Range Equation

Signal Power reflected from target and received by Radar:

𝟐 𝟐
𝒕
𝒓 = 𝟑 𝟒
(𝑾)

Average Noise Power: = 𝒔 𝒏

Assuming, 𝑳 = Total System Losses

𝑻𝒐 = 290 °𝐾
Signal to Noise Ratio = 𝒓

Signal to Noise Ration (SNR or S/R) is the standard measure of a radar‘s ability to detect
a given Target at a given range from the Radar.

30
Radar Range Equation

There is a minimum SNR (𝑺𝑵𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏 ) that is required for detecting a target.

Choice of 𝑺𝑵𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏 is trade-off between probability of missed detections and probability of

false alarms. Typical numbers are in the 15dB-20dB range.

Given an 𝑺𝑵𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏 , the maximum Range that can be seen by the radar can be computed
as:

𝟒
=

31
Exercises

Example 1:

A spaceship in lunar orbit (orbit distance is m) employs an S-band

radar to transmits an average power of 3 MW isotopically with an antenna
operating at 3000 MHz.

a. Find the power density at the surface of the earth.

b. Find the time it takes for the signal to travel from the spaceship to the
earth.
c. Find the power received by a receiver on the earth’s surface with a 50-
inch diameter dish antenna. Assume a lossless transmission

32
Exercises

Solution 1:

× 𝟏𝟐 𝟐
a. P
( . × )

. ×
b. The time from spaceship to the earth ×

c. The power received by the receiver is obtained as follows:

×
×

× . × .
.
=( )( )( ) = 3.35 𝟗 watts
𝒓

33
Exercises

Example 2:

A low PRF C-band radar operating at 6 GHz and having a dish antenna with a
6.2 ft diameter transmits a pulse train with a peak power of 1 MW, the pulse
width of 2 μs, and the PRF of 250 Hz. Assuming the equivalent noise
temperature of 600 K, the total signal losses of 15 dB, and the target RCS of 10
.

a. Calculate the maximum unambiguous range.

b. Calculate the range at unity S / N.
c. Calculate the S / N of the target at half the maximum unambiguous
range

34
Exercises

Solution 2:

×
×
a. Maximum Unambiguous Range 𝒖𝒏𝒂𝒎𝒃 ×

b. The range at unity SNR

.
.
( ) . × . ( )
𝒎𝒂𝒙 = ( )( . × )( )( . × )( )
𝑺 . ×
𝑵 ( × / )

35
Exercises

Example 3:

A multimode high PRF airborne radar operating at transmits a peak

power of to detect a target with RCS of at a distance of .
The radar has the following specifications: pulse width of modulated pulse is
, PRF , antenna gain , system losses
, noise figure The pulse modulation increases the
bandwidth with factor 5.
a) Calculate the average transmitted power .
b) Calculate the operating bandwidth .
c) Calculate the of the single pulse.

36
Exercises

Solution 3:

a. Average transmitted power 𝒂𝒗𝒈

𝟑 watts
b. Bandwidth (B) with increasing factor 5 = . ×

( × ) . . ( )
c. S/N
× ( . × )( . )( . × )( )

37
Radar Losses

Loss Terms for Radar Equation:

Typical transmit and receive losses in radar are:

Transmit Losses Receive Losses

Radome Radome Weighting
Waveguide Feed Waveguide Feed Non-Ideal Filter
Waveguide Waveguide Range Straddling
Circulator Combiner Doppler Straddling
Low Pass Filters Rotary Joints Adaptive thresholding
(CFAR) Losses
Rotary Joints Receiver Protector/ Switch Integration loss
Antenna Efficiency Antenna Efficiency
Beam Shape Beam Shape
Scanning Scanning
Quantization Quantization
Atmospheric Atmospheric
Field Degradation Field Degradation

38
Radar Losses

Examples of Losses in Radar Equation:

Beam Shape Loss:

Radar return from target with scanning radar is modulated by shape of antenna
beam as it scans across target. Can be 2 to 4 dB
Scanning Antenna Loss:
For phased array antenna, gain of beam off boresight less than that on
boresight
Plumbing Losses:
Transmit waveguide losses, Rotary joints, circulator, duplexer
Signal Processing Loss:
A /D Quantization Losses, Adaptive thresholding (CFAR) Loss, Range
straddling Loss, Range and Doppler Weighting

39
Radar Losses

Examples of Losses in Radar Equation:

Atmospheric Attenuation Loss:

Radar beam attenuates as it travels through atmosphere ( which occur as 2
way loss) 0.016 dB/km for S-Band, 0.019 dB/km for C-Band and 0.024 dB/km
for X-Band frequencies.

Integration Loss:
Non coherent integration of pulses not as efficient as coherent integration

Margin (Field Degradation) Loss:

Characteristics of radar deteriorates over time
(3 dB not unreasonable)
- Water in transmission lines
- Deterioration in receiver noise figure
- Weak or poorly tuned transmitter tubes

40