PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

MODULE II
NATURE COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF CROP PLANTS

TOPIC 1. NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF CROP PLANTS

Introduction

A plant is a living organism that, as distinguished from members of the animal

kingdom, has typically rigid cell walls promoting indefinite growth by the synthesis of organic
food materials from inorganic materials obtained from soil, water, air or from other
organisms.
It is the primary food producer on earth by converting light energy into chemical
energy in the process of photosynthesis.

A. Plant Cell
➢ Basic structural and physiological unit of plants in which most of the reactions
characteristics of plant life occurs. Particularly, the vitally important functions
include:
✓ Manufacture, transport and storage of food
✓ Uptake and transport of water
✓ Provision of structural strength
✓ Suppression of water loss
✓ Division to attain new forms
➢ This cells with specialized form and functions develop from a pool of fairly simple
embryonic cells through the process of cell differentiation, forming tissues that
make up the organ and the entire plant.

Types of Plant Cells Based on Structure

1. Prokaryotic Cells – have no separate subcellular units (nuclear material is not
enclosed in a membrane); these cells are found in bacteria and blue-green algae.
2. Eukaryotic Cells – cell made up of compartments bounded by membranes with
specialized structures and functions. Plant cells are eukaryotic cells.

Plant Cell Parts and Functions

1. Cell Wall - the non-living portion of the cell; made up of cellulose, pectic
substances, and lignins. It protects the protoplast, provides external structure in
some tissues (e.g. bark and wood) may act as strong support to the plants.
2. Protoplasm – the living portion of a cell. It contains the following:
2.1. Nucleus – the cell governor. Within the nucleus are the chromosomes, long
length of DNA and associated proteins, which contain DNA information
coding for cell function, differentiation of the organisms and for reproduction.
During cell division, a set of chromosomes is passed on to each daughter
cell assuring continuity of genetic information.
2.2. Cytoplasm – the liquid matrix of the cell with the following organelles:
2.2.1. Mitochondrion – produce the energy-rich compound ATP.
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2.2.2. Ribosomes – granular structures responsible for protein synthesis

2.2.3. Endoplasmic reticulum – further processes proteins then transport
them to their destination
2.2.4. Golgi bodies or dictyosomes – multi-layered complexes important in
secretory activities
2.2.5. Lysosomes – contain hydrolytic or digestive enzymes
2.2.6. Plastids such as;
2.2.6.1. Chloroplast – the green plastid responsible for
photosynthesis. It contains also other pigments, lipids and starch.
Within the chloroplast light energy is captured.
2.2.6.2. Chromoplast – contains the various plant pigments
including chlorophyll.
2.2.6.3. Leucoplast – colorless storage plastid that stores oil,
starch and proteins.
2.2.7. Microtubules – elongated tubular structures associated with
movement.
3. Vacuoles – serves as the storage reserve for water-soluble pigments, anthocyanin
(blue and red pigment) inorganic salts, alkaloids and other toxic products.

Cell Size
Typical vascular plants consists of hundred of billions of cells. An average apple leaf
for example is made up of approximately 50 million cells range from 10 to 100 micrometer in
diameter. Thus, they can be examined only with a microscope.

Cell Processes
1. Cell Division
Cell division and growth in plants are active in the following plant parts; the root
tips, the stem tips, the cambium in dicotyledons, and the intercalary meristem in
monocotyledons.
2. Cell Enlargement and Differentiation
Some cells do not achieve full size immediately following cell division, In the
young apple fruit for example, cell division takes place about 6 weeks after fertilization,
producing most of the cells that will be found in the mature fruit. For many weeks
thereafter, the fruit continues to grow, not by cell division but by expansion of the
small cells already formed. The same situation occurs in many leaves; a very young
leaf at the stem tip contains most of the cells it will have at maturity.
The ultimate appearance and function of each cell depend on the changes it
undergoes during differentiation. As a result, certain cells of a plant may have thin
walls and function in food production or storage. Other cells may become specialized
as conducting components; still others may develop thick cell walls that collectively
furnish strength and rigidity to the plant. Many of the cells in a mature plant are dead
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but still are functional, e.g., the hollow water-conducting components (the xylem) of
leaves, stems, and roots.
Although the differentiation of cells is usually irreversible, living cells sometimes
change their function. For example, the apical cells of a stem may initiate leaf
primordia for a time, after which they may assume the function of floral precursors that
give rise to the various parts of a flower. The cells of the cortex or the phloem may
become cork cambium, which, by division, produces the cork of woody plants.
Furthermore, the parenchyma cells around a wound often become meristematic and
divide to form wound tissue.

B. THE PLANT TISSUE

A tissue is an organized group of cells with common origin and functions.

Classification of Tissues

1. Meristematic tissue – composed of cells whose main function is dividing. These

cell factories occur in developing embryos in the tips of roots and stems and in the
leaves and floral primordia. They are found in three regions of the plant:
1.1. Apical meristem – located at the tip of roots and stems, produces cells
resulting to longitudinal or primary growth of the plant.
1.2. Lateral meristem – located in the cambium region and is responsible for the
annual increase in plant diameter.
1.3. Intercalary meristem – found at the base of the grass leaf and internode,
and is important for regrowth after defoliation as in grazing or ratooning of
rice.

2. Permanent tissue – tissue composed of cells in which growth and differentiation

has been completed. These permanent tissues constitute the conducting tissue
(tracheids, vessels, sieve and companion cells), the ground tissue (pith and cortex),
and the dermal tissue (epidermis and bark). They are further classified, based on
number of types of cells making up the permanent tissue, into:

2.1. Simple tissue – tissue that contains only one type of cell; examples are:
2.1.1. parenchyma – occurs in all parts of the plant and perform a variety
of metabolic functions. Important in wound healing and
regeneration of roots in cuttings. ex. nectaries in flower, latex ,
cortex of carrots , pith of sugarcane.
2.1.2. collenchyma – a special type of parenchyma cells.
2.1.3. sclerenchyma – with thick lignified walls and their function is for
conduction, mechanical support and protection.

2.2. Complex tissue – consists of two or more types of cells. Examples of this
are the xylem tissue and the phloem tissue, which both contain
parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma cells.

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2.2.1. xylem tissue – specialized cells in plants that transport water and
minerals from the soil through the plant.
2.2.2. phloem tissue – specialized cells in plants through which
carbohydrates and other nutritive substances are translocated

2.3. Tissue system – consists of two or more tissues working together in a single
function

2.3.1. Dermal tissue system – the epidermis and bark

2.3.2. Ground tissue system – pith and cortex
2.3.3. Vascular tissue /conducting tissue - composed of the phloem and
xylem tissues.
2.3.4. Secretory tissues of plants

2.3.4.1. Those found outside the plant.

2.3.4.1.1 Nectaries - Occur on various parts of the plant. In

flowers, they are called floral nectarines and they
secrete nectar that attracts insects for pollination.
2.3.4.1.2 Hydathodes - Secrete pure water. Droplets of water
may form along leaf margins of certain plants due to
secretory activities.
2.3.4.1.3 Salt glands - Found in plants that grow in desert or
brackish areas.
2.3.4.1.4 Osmophores - Secrete fragrance in flowers. The
repulsive odor of aroids is attributed to the amines
ammonia secreted by osmophores.
2.3.4.1.5 Digestive glands - Found in insect-eating
(insectivorous) plants, e.g., pitcher plant
2.3.4.1.6 Adhesive cells - Secrete materials that aid
attachment between host and parasite.

2.3.4.2. Those found inside the plant.

2.3.4.2.1. Resin ducts - Found commonly in woodyspecies.

They secrete sticky resin.
2.3.4.2.2. Mucilage cells - Slimy secretions found the growing
tip of roots and believed to aid the passage of roots
through the soil.
2.3.4.2.3. Oil chambers - Secrete aromatic oils.
2.3.4.2.4. Gum ducts - Cell wall modification results in the
production of gums in certain trees.

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2.3.4.2.5. Laticifers - Latex-secreting glands.

2.3.4.2.6. Myrosin cells - Secrete an enzyme called
myrosinase, which when mixed with its substrate,
thioglucosides, produces a toxic oil called
isothiocyanate. This occurs when cells are ruptured
by insects or animals during chewing.

Table 5. Major tissue and cell types of flowering plants

Tissue Common Cell

Tissue Description Function
System Types
Dermal Epidermis Epidermal cells, Small living cells; Protection of
guard cells, secrete cuticle; flank internal cells;
hair cells stomata; discourage prevents water
predators loss; preserve
sterility

Ground Parenchyma Parenchyma Small living cells; Photosynthesis

cells usually thin cell walls and storage

Collenchyma Elongated living cells; Support

Collenchyma thick cell walls
cells
Sclerenchyma Usually extremely Protection,
Sclerenchyma elongated cells; thick, support, rigidity,
fibers and reinforced cell walls; hardness
sclereids usually dead at
maturity

Vascular Xylem Tracheids and Hollow, thick walls of Xylem tubes

vessel elements dead cells conduct water and
minerals

Phloem Sieve tube Elongated living cells Phloem tubes

elements lacking nuclei; thick conduct sugars
cell walls; sieve and other
plates with pores nutrients
connect successive
cells to form sieve
tube
Companion cells Involved in
Small elongated transport by
living cells with phloem’s sieve
nuclei; adjacent to tube elements
sieve tube elements
in phloem

C. THE PLANT ORGAN

The plant organ is next higher level of organization above the plant tissue. It is made
up of different types of tissue. The plant organs are the leaf, stem, root, flower, seed and
fruit.

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1. The Leaf
The leaf is a vital agricultural structure, producing plant foods on which growth and
development depend. There are 5 types of leaves; foliage leaves, budscales, floral bracts,
sepals, and cotyledons. Foliage leaves are the most prominent.
Functions Of Leaves:
• Food synthesis. Leaves manufacture food by the process of photosynthesis.
Foliage leaves do this function.
• Protection. This role is performed by non-foliage leaves (bud scales, floral
bracts, and sepals) through protection of vegetative and floral buds.
• Storage. Cotyledons or seed leaves store food that is used by seeds during
germination.

Modified Leaves – these leaves perform functions other than photosynthesis or these
leaves carry on photosynthesis under unusual environments. Leaf modifications are
the following:

• Glands. For secretion.

• Spines or thorns. For protections against herbivores.
• Storage tissue. For food storage, as in bulbs (e.g., onions).
• Thickened leaf surface. To reduce moisture loss under xeric (dry) conditions.
• Thin cuticle and gas chamber. For survival under submerged conditions.
• Tendrils. String-like structures for additional support. The terminal leaflet of
the trifoliate leaf of pea may be modified into a tendril.

Internal Structure Of The Leaf And Functions Of Parts

• Cuticle - a layer of wax-like material called “cutin”. It protects the leaf and
prevents evaporative loss through the epidermis.
• Epidermis - a layer of cells that form the outer protective layer of the leaf.
• Mesophyll - a layer of cell beneath the epidermis.
• Vascular bundle - Comprised of the conducting tissues, xylem and phloem.
• Bundle sheath - A ring of cells around the vascular bundles of leaves of
certain species. May be involved in storage of photosynthates. Involved in
photosynthesis of C4 plants.
• Stomata - Pores in the epidermal layer defined by two special cells called
guard cells. The closing and opening of the guard cells regulate the rate of
movement of carbon dioxide and water between the leaf and the atmosphere.

2. The Stem
The stem is the central axis of the shoot of plants. The initial stem develops from the
embryonic bud or plumule. The stem may be herbaceous or woody.
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Functions Of The Stem:

• Provision of mechanical support to hold branches, leaves, and reproductive
structures. It is important that the leaves are well displayed to maximize light
interception for photosynthesis.
• Conduct water and minerals up to leaves, and assimilates from leaves to
other parts of the plant. This function occurs through the vascular system.
• Useful as material for crop propagation (e.g., in taro and Irish potato,
cassava, sugarcane and some forage grasses).
• Modified stems for food storage that are of economic value in crops (e.g.,
Irish potato and taro).

Types Of Stem:
• Trunk – main axis of the stem system.
• Branch – lateral portion of the tree and originates from the trunk or from
another branch.
• Shoot – composed of stem and leaves developed from the bud.
• Twig – shoot that attained one year of growth and the leaves have fallen.
• Terminal bud – special meristem that become inactive.
• Spurs – short stems that bear leaves or fruits and leaves.

Modified Stems:
• Rhizome – An unusually thickened and horizontally growing underground
stem. example: ginger
• Stolon – An unusually slender and prostrate above-ground stem as in
Bermuda grass
• Runner. example: strawberry
• Tuber– example: Irish potato
• Bulb - a stem modified as bulb example: onion, tulip
• Crown – modified stem with very short internodes (ex. Pineapple, most
forage grasses
• Tendril – slender stem above the ground use for climbing

Internal Structure of the Stem and its Function

• Epidermis: Outer protective layer of the stem. It is usually one-cell thick and
often bears trichomes.
• Vascular bundles: Comprised of the conducting tissues, xylem and phloem.
• Ground tissue: Mostly parenchyma tissue that occurs in two regions in dicots:
• Cortex: Ground tissue that occurs between the epidermis and the ring of
vascular tissue.

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• Pith: Ground tissue in the center of the stem. It is specialized for storage.
Not readily discernable in monocots.

3. The Root
The root is the underground vegetative organ of plants.

Functions Of The Root:

• Roots anchor plants in the soil, holding stems upright and preventing toppling
by wind.
• Roots absorb the nutrients and water used by plants in photosynthesis and
other physiological functions.
• Modified roots have storage roles, as occurs in sweet potato where they are
the economic part of the plant. Aerial roots occur in certain species, where
they provide additional support for the plant through attachment to physical
support.

Modified Roots:
• aerial roots – orchids
• prop roots – corn
• storage roots – sweet potato

Two Basic Root Systems:

• Taproot System. In this root system, there is a primary root consisting of a

large central axis and several lateral roots. The taproot is usually deeply
penetrating and is found in dicots and gymnosperms. Sometimes, it is
swollen and is harvested as the economic part (e.g., carrot and sugar beet).
• Fibrous Root System. Fibrous roots occur in the grass family. This root
system lacks a dominant central axis and is shallowly penetrating. Fibrous
roots have more soil-binding effect and are used in erosion control in soil
conservation practices.

Types Of Roots According To Origin:

• Seminal roots – derived from the seeds of grasses.
• Adventitious roots – derived from other parts of the plant such as stems and
leaves.

Parts of the root:

• Root cap – found at the root tip for protection.
• Root hairs – tiny extensions of root epidermal cells that absorb water and
minerals from the soil.
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4. The Flower
Flowers are modified or specialized leaves that enclose the reproductive organs of
seed plants. Flowers exhibit great diversity within the seed plants, which make them of
great aesthetic and taxonomic value. Of greater significance, however, is their role in sexual
reproduction and the development of seeds and fruits, which are essential for human and
animal nutrition and the perpetuation of cultivated and native plants.

Kinds of flowers:
• Regular - all the petals are of the same size and shape
• Irregular - the petals are not alike in size and shape
• Complete - contains all the floral parts
• Incomplete - missing one or more of the floral parts
• Perfect - contains both stamen and pistil
• Imperfect - missing either stamen or pistil. Flowers with the stamen only are
called staminate, and those with pistil only are called pistillate. Plants with
both staminate and pistillate flowers on the same plant, such as corn, are said
to be monoecious, and those with them in different plants, such as papaya,
strawberry and date palm, are said to be dioecious.

There are many different flower structures, but all flowers have certain structures
in common. A flower is carried on a stalk called a pedicel, the apex of which is
enlarged to produce a receptacle.
The receptacle carries four types of structures: Flowers having these parts are
commonly found in dicot plants

1. Sepal- collectively called calyx

2. Petals- collectively called corolla; the calyx and the corolla are collectively
called perianth.
3. Stamens- collectively called androecium; contains the anther and filament
4. Pistil - collectively called gynoecium; contains the stigma, style and ovary

Cereals and grasses lack both petals and sepals. In the grass flower (called a
floret), these structures are replaced by two bracts, the lemma and palea. The
spikelets are grouped together to form the inflorescence.

Functions Of The Flower

• The botanical functions of the flower include attracting pollinators (e.g.,
insects, bats) by their color or the scents they exude.
• The floral parts also develop into the fruit and seeds.
• In ornamentals like cutflower, the flower is the economically useful part.
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• The flower is the most useful part in crop improvement

5. The Seed
The seed is a propagational unit of a flowering species and the economic part in grain
crops. Even though seeds of different species vary greatly in size and structure, they all
consist of embryo with associated reserves encased in a protective seedcoat.

General parts of the seed:

• The seedcoat/testa - covers the seed
• The embryo - the young plant, including the cotyledon
• The endosperm - a nutritive substance which provide the embryo with energy
and raw materials for its development

Classes of seed based on its viability:

• Orthodox seeds - these are the seeds that can be kept for long periods
provided they are properly dried and stored.
• Recalcitrant - these seeds cannot be kept viable for long time. They can not
withstand drying and should not be permited to dry out before planting.

6. The Fruit
The fruit of a plant is its mature ovary, to which is attached a variety of associated
parts which are the residues of the floral parts.

Function Of The Fruit:

The fruit protects the seed and aids in its dissemination. For example, the pits of
fruits such as plums will germinate and grow after an animal or a human being has
eaten the fruit and discarded the pit.

Classification of fruits:
a. Based on the origin
1. Multiple fruit - is a fruit resulting from the development of separate
flowers in a compact inflorescence. Examples: jackfruit (langka),
pineapple, durian, ficus
2. Aggregate fruit - arises from the development of separate pistils in one
flower. Examples: atis, guyabano, strawberry, ilang-ilang
3. Simple fruit - arises from a single ovary. Examples: chico, papaya

b. Based on the pericarp texture

1. Fleshy fruits – pericarp fleshy and poor texture

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1.1. Berry – the ovary wall is fleshy, has one or more carpels and
many seeds; examples; pepper, tomato, eggplant, banana, star
apple, chico.
1.1.1. Pepo - is a berry with hard rind; example, squash,
cucumber, upo, papaya.
1.1.2. Hesperidium- is a berry with leathery rind; example,
oranges, calamansi, dalandan, suha, santol.

1.2. Drupe or stone fruit - derived from a single carpel, endocarp

hard and one-seeded; example, pili nut, coconut, mango,
avocado, olive, sineguelas.
1.3. Pome – derived from several carpels, receptacle fleshy, outer
portion of pericarp fleshy, inner portion papery; example, apple,
pear.
2. Dry fruits – pericarp dry and hard
2.1. Dehiscent fruits - fruits that split open when ripe
2.1.1. Legume or true pod – carpel one, splitting along two
sutures; example, beans, peanut, ipil-ipil, acacia,
tamarind.
2.1.2. Follicle – opens along one suture (ventral); example,
pandacaqui,
2.1.3. Capsule – carpels two or more, dehiscing in one or four
different ways; example, achuete, cotton, tobacco, okra.
2.1.4. Silique – carpels four; two outer ones, sterile and two
inner ones, fertile; example, Tecoma stans, garlic vine,
pechay and radish.
2.2. Indehiscent fruits – fruits that do not split when ripe:
2.2.1. Achene – one-seeded, seed attached to the seed coat at
one point only; example, cosmos, sunflower.
2.2.2. Caryopsis – one-seeded, pericarp firmly united all
around the testa; example, rice, corn.
2.2.3. Samara – one or two-seeded, pericarp bearing a wing-
like outgrowth; example, narra, apitong, lauan, Chinese
parasol.
2.2.4. Schizocarp – carpels two or more, united spitting a apart
at maturity; example, castor oil fruit, para-rubber, celery.
2.2.5. Nut – a hard, one seeded fruit, generally produced from
an inferior compound ovary, and with an involucre;
example, acorn of oak, kasoy, hazelnut, castaña and
pestachio.
2.2.6.

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References:

ACQUAAH, G. 2002. Principles of Crop Production: Theory, Techniques, and Technology.

Pearson Education Inc., New Jersey, U.S.A.

BARDEN, JOHN A., ,R GORDON HALFACRE, and DAVID J. PARISH. 1987. Plant
Science. Mc Graw-Hill Book Company.

HARTMANN, H. T. , ANTON M. KOFRANEK, VINCENT E. RUBATZKY, WILLIAM J.

FLOCKER. 1988. Plant Science. Growth, Development and Utilization of Cultivated
Plants. 2nd edition. Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

HOPSON, J. and N. WESSELS 1990. Essentials of Biology. McGraw-Hill, Inc., U.S.A.

WALTON, PETER D. 1988. Principles and Practices of Plant Science. Prentice Hall.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey

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Name:________________________________ Date:________________
Year & Section:_________________________ Score:_______________

ACTIVITY NO. 2

ANATOMY AND MORPHOLOGY OF MONOCOT AND DICOTS

Introduction

Monocots and dicots represent a large number of flowering plants. These two plant
families constitute the most of the basic needs of man and his domestic animals.
A knowledge of plant morphology is a key in the identification of plants. Also, plant
response to the environment are often expressed through its morphological features. Certain
cultural practices are also influenced by plant morphology and its certain anatomical
features.

Objectives
After the laboratory exercise, the students will be able to;
1. Know the monocot and dicot crops;
2. State importance or functions of the different parts of plant cell; and
3. Compare/contrast morphological characteristics of monocots and dicots

Procedures
1. The student are required to bring different crop plants and observe to what group they
belong. Place a cross (X) mark on the column.

Table 1. Identify the crop whether monocot or dicot

Crops Monocots Dicots
Example: Rice X
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

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2. The students will bring a monocot and dicot leaves, stems, roots, flowers and seeds.
The different parts will be characterized using the table below.
Table 2. The comparison of dicots and monocots:
Characteristics Monocots Dicots
1. Leaf Venation
2. Seed (number of cotyledon)
3. Root System
4. Arrangement of Vascular
bundle
5. Flower type

3. The student will be required to draw (in the box) and memorize different parts of a
plant cell. Below the plant cell, indicate the importance or functions of different parts.

Parts and Functions:

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Question to Answer

a. Why grasses grow after grazing/trimming? Explain.

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________.

b. Why a woody dicot can be propagated by marcotting while a grass plant can’t?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________________________.

c. What is seed embryo? How it differs from germ?

__________________________________________________________________
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TOPIC 2 CLASSIFICATION OF CROP PLANTS

The number and diversity of crop plants is enormous. Because of this, there is a need
to classify them. Classification is putting individuals into groups, the members of a group
having one or more characteristics in common. Classification reduces the big and diverse
group of crop plants to smaller groups and allows convenience in identifying them and
relating them to one another. Classifying crops into groups facilitates their use by
researchers, cropsmen, students, and others.

There are many ways to classify crop plants, and the system to be used depends on
the purpose of the user. However, the two main classification systems, and the most useful
in Crop Science are the botanical system and the functional system.

THE BOTANICAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

Systematics or taxonomy
➢ is an organized system for descriptive classification of plants while nomenclature is
a system of assigning names to plants. The science of plant taxonomy is
coordinated by the International Board of Plant Nomenclature. They made the
rules in accordance with the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).

There are seven general taxonomic groups in botanical classification or scientific

classification of plants (Table 6) but the more important to cropsmen’s interest starts only in
the class category. Kingdom is the most inclusive, species is the least inclusive. Each group
is called a taxon (plural is taxa).

Carolus Linneaus (1707-1778), a Swedish physician was credited for his work by
giving two-part scientific names to organisms, which taxonomist still do today. His system of
naming organisms is called the binomial system of nomenclature. It means that each plant
has a two-word name, Genus and Species. The first or genus name is followed by a
descriptive or species name, this combination is known as scientific name, which is used as
the universal name of a given plant. Usually a third name is placed after the species to give
the authority who named the plant. Modern plant classification is based on this system.

The Latin language is used in naming plants. Sometimes, the names given reflect
specific plant attributes or use of the plant. For example, some specific epithets indicate
color e.g., alba (white), variegata (variegated), rubra (red), others are vulgaris (common),
esculentus (edible), sativus (cultivated).

Linneaus’s method of classification was based on the flowers and/or reproductive

parts of a plant because flowers are the plant parts least influenced by environmental
changes. At present, classification is mainly based on phylogeny or evolutionary
relationships.

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In the Table 6 below, rice and soybean are botanically classified using Arthur
Cronquist’s system, which is the most accepted of the more recently developed
classification systems of Angiosperms or seed plants.

Table 6. Examples of scientific classification of crop plants (rice and soybean)

Plantae Kingdom Plantae
Magnoliophyta* Division Magnoliophyta*
Liliopsida (monocots) Class Magnoliopsida (dicots)
Cyperales Order Fabales
Poaceae Family Fabaceae
Oryza Genus Glycine
sativa Species max
NSIC-Ri-2 Variety CLSoy-1
*Group of flowering plants that bear true seeds (seeds within the fruits). It is the
most important division in terms of crop production, because practically all the economically
important plants used for food, feed, and fibers belong to this group.

THE FUNCTIONAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

The functional system of classification is the method of classifying crops most

commonly used in Crop Science. Under this system, crops are classified into agronomic
crops (or field crops) and horticultural crops.

Agronomic crops
➢ are annual herbaceous plants grown in cultivated fields under a more or less
extensive (or large-scale) system of culture (Kipps, et al, 1976).
Horticultural crops
➢ are crops that are grown under a system of intensive culture in relatively small
areas (Kipps, et al, 1976). They are plants of high enough value to warrant a large
input of capital, labor and technology per unit area of land (Janick, 1972).

As shown by the definitions above, the classification of crops into agronomic crops
and horticultural crops was traditionally based on size of area planted to the crops and
intensity of culture or management.
Advances in technology (e.g. mechanization) and the discovery of more uses of crops
have made the above distinction obsolete. At present, the following criteria are used as
basis in determining whether a crop is a field crop or a horticultural crop:
a. purpose for which the crop is grown
b. type of culture
c. general custom of the country (Bautista et al, 1994).

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The “boundary” between agronomic crops and horticultural crops has becomes less
clear. Thus, a crop plant may be an agronomic crop under one situation, and a horticultural
crop under another situation.
This classification system is the basis for the division of Crop Science into two
branches, namely Agronomy and Horticulture.

A. Classification of Agronomic Crops

1. Agronomic Classification
Agronomic crops are grouped or classified based on the manner by which they
are utilized. As such, an agronomic crop with multiple uses can be a member of
several groups in this classification system. The groups are:

1.1. Cereal or Grain crops are grasses (i.e., members of the family Graminae or
Poaceae) that are grown for their mature edible seeds. They are usually
used as staples. The word “cereal” is derived from the name of the most
important grain deity, the Roman goddess Ceres.

There are eight cereals in the world: rice, corn, wheat, sorghum, barley,
oat, rye, and millets. The first four are grown in the country.

1.2. Grain legumes or Pulses are members of the family Leguminosae or

Fabaceae, which are consumed in the dry seed form. The legumes are rich
sources of protein. Many of the plants possess the ability to fix nitrogen
from the air in symbiotic association with Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium
bacteria. The major legume crops in the Philippines are mungbean, peanut,
and soybeans.

1.3. Fiber crops are annual crop plants from which fiber can be obtained. The
important commercial fiber crops in the Philippines are: cotton, ramie, jute
and kenaf.

1.4. Root and tuber crops are crops grown for their roots or stems that are
modified for food storage. They are rich sources of carbohydrates.
Cassava, sweet potato and yams (ubi and tugui) are root crops, while potato
is a tuber crop.

1.5. Forage crops are crops used as animal feed, such as legumes and grasses
for animal fodder. The important grass species are: napier or elephant
grass, Guinea grass, para grass, pangola grass, and Alabang X. Among the
important legume forages are: centro, ipil-ipil, Townsville stylo, siratro.

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1.6. Oil crops are annual crops grown for the oil that can be extracted from them.
Examples are sunflower, sesame, corn, peanut, and soybean.

1.7. Sugar crops are annual crops grown for their sugar content. Examples are
sugarcane, sugar beet, corn, and sweet sorghum.

1.8. Alcohol crops are crops that are rich in starch or sugar, which can be
fermented to produce alcohol. For example, cassava and sugarcane.

1.9. Stimulant and drug crops are crops that contain substances that serve as
stimulants or medicine. An example of stimulant crop is tobacco.

Fiber crops, oil crops, sugar crops, alcohol crops, and stimulant and
drug crops are sometimes placed in a group called annual industrial crops.

2. Special-purpose Classification

2.1. Green-manure crops are crops grown and then turned under for soil
improvement, such as increasing soil fertility and organic matter
content.These are mainly legumes that are fast-growing and produce
high biomass.
2.2. Cover crops are crops grown to cover the soil and protect it from erosion.
They can also reduce leaching of certain nutrients such as potassium.
When turned under, they become green-manure crops.
2.3. Catch crops or Emergency crops are substitute crops planted when it is
too late to plant the regular crop or when the regular crop has failed.
They are usually early maturing.
2.4. Soilage crops or Soiling crops are forage crops that are cut green and fed
green to animals in the practice called zero grazing.
2.5. Silage crops are forage crops that are cut and preserved in a succulent
condition by partial fermentation.
2.6. Trap crops are crops planted to attract certain insect pests. When okra is
planted between upland cotton, it is preferred by cotton boll weevil, thus
reducing damage to the cotton. Okra in this example is a trap crop.

B. Classification of Horticultural Crops

1. Horticultural Classification

As in the case of agronomic classification, crops are grouped under horticultural

classification based on use. There are four main groups, namely, fruit crops, vegetable
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crops ornamental crops, and plantation crops. The four main groups are further
classified into sub-groups.

1.1. Pomological or Fruit Crops. A fruit is a plant from which a more or

less succulent fruit or a closely related structure is obtained and which
is eaten as a dessert or snack (Janick, 1972). It is an edible, more or
less fleshy botanical fruit of a perennial plant usually used in fresh
form (Bautista et al, 1994).For convenience fruit crops are classified
into a) tree fruits b) nut fruits, and c) small fruits, depending mainly on
the habit of the plant on which they are borne.

1.1.1. Tree Fruits. Fruits borne on trees. Majority of the crops

belong to this category, such as mango , lanzones, durian,
orange, etc
1.1.2. Nut Fruits. Fruits borne on trees but which are enclosed by a
stony structure, such as talisay, cashew, and pili.
1.1.3. Small Fruits. Fruits borne not on trees but on herbaceous
plants, such as pineapple, strawberry, and vine plants such
as grapes.

1.2. Vegetable crops. A vegetable is an herbaceous plant of which some

portion is eaten, either cooked or raw, during the principal part of the
meal (Janick, 1972). It is a succulent plant or plant part usually eaten
as a supplementary food in cooked or raw form, and is neither a
sweet fruit nor a mature grain; muskmelon and watermelon are,
however, considered vegetables mainly because the members of the
family (Cucurbitaceae) to which they belong are classified as
vegetables, and their methods of culture are similar (Bautista et al,
1994).

Vegetable crops are classified based on similarities in the

method of culture. In general, crops belonging to one group have the same
cultural requirements and problems.

1.1.1. Leafy Vegetables. Crops grown mainly for their leaves, such
as malungay, pechay, kangkong, and saluyot.
1.1.2. Cole Crops or Crucifers. Crops that belong to the crucifer
family specifically cabbage, cauliflower and Chinese
cabbage.

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PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

1.1.3. Root, Tuber, and Bulb Crops. Crops with swollen underground
stems or roots, such as sweet potato, onion, radish, and
potato.
1.1.4. Legumes. Crops belonging to the legume family, such as sitao,
cowpea, lima bean, pigeon pea, chick pea,, and winged bean.
1.1.5. Solanaceous Crops. Crops belonging to the solanaceous or
nightshade family (Solanaceae) whose economically useful
parts are the fruits, such as tomato, eggplant, and sweet
pepper.
1.1.6. Cucurbits. Crops belonging to the cucurbit family
(Cucurbitaceae) such as cucumber, muskmelon, squash,
watermelon, ampalaya, and chayote.
1.1.7. Sweet corn
1.1.8. Okra
1.1.9. Tree Vegetables. Examples are malungay, katuray,
himbabao.

1.3. Ornamentals. Ornamentals are plants used for their aesthetic or

decorative value (Bautista et al, 1994). Ornamentals can be
classified according to their special uses. This classification is based
on the specific plant part aesthetically valued and on form in which
the plants are maintained or marketed.

1.3.1.Cut Flower or Florist Crops. Plants grown for their flowers,

such as daisies, roses, gladiolus, carnations, chrysanthemum,
anthurium, sampaguita, orchids, birds of paradise.
1.3.2. Cut Foliage or Florist Greens. Plants whose foliage provide
background in floral arrangements. Ferns and asparagus are
important in this category. Some species of asparagus like
asparagus fern are sometimes used for corsages, bouquets,
and wreaths.
1.3.3. Flowering Pot Plants. Plants grown in containers for their
beautiful flowers, usually for display purposes.
(Chrysanthemum, poinsettia, santan, bougainvillea.

1.3.4. Landscape Plants. Almost all ornamentals fall under this

category. They are used for landscaping purposes.
1.3.5. Foliage Plants. Plants grown for their attractive foliage. Many
of these plants can tolerate low light intensities since they
have no demanding inflorescences to support. They are

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PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

used as indoor plants by which they are sometimes called.

Examples: begonia, philodendron.
1.3.6. Turf. Turf grasses are used for lawns or greens (grass for golf
courses). They rightfully fall under landscape plants but have
grown in importance to be in a class by themselves. Example:
Manila grass.

1.4. Plantation Crops. Plantation crops is loosely defined as crops, usually

perennial in growth, and that requires minor changes in the structure
of the product (in primary processing) before use. They are also
classified according to their useful components. Those in the same
group may have different cultural practices but their principal products
can be substituted for one another.

1.4.1.Oil Crops. These are perennial crops grown for their oil
content, such as coconut, African oil palm, lumbang, and
castor bean.
1.4.2. Fiber Crops. These are perennial crops grown for their fibers,
which are used for textiles, corsage, pulp, paper twines, sacks,
bags, mats, etc. For example: abaca, buri, maguey, kapok,
cabo negro.
1.4.3.Beverage Crops. Crops that are used for brewing non-
alcoholic drinks, such as cacao, tea, and coffee.
1.4.4.Spice-producing Crops. black pepper (Piper nigrum), vanilla
(Vanilla planifolia).
1.4.5.Aromatic or essential-oil-producing Crops: lemon grass or
“tanglad”(Cymbopogon citratus); citronella or “salay” ( C.
winterianus); patchouli (Pogostemon cablin);vetiver grass
(Vetiveria zizanoides); “ilang- ilang” (Cananga odorata).
1.4.6..Latexes and Resins. These crops where products of the sap
(latex) are tapped or obtained from the bark such as rubber.

Resins are organic substances from plants. They are solid or

semisolid natural organic substances secreted in the sap of some
plants and trees that have transparent or translucent quality and a
yellow or brown color. They are used in varnishes, paints, adhesives,
inks, and medicines.
1.4.7. Medicinal and Biocidal Crops. Sources of pharmaceutical and
insecticidal compounds. Examples of native species which
have been clinically tested to have medicinal properties are

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lagundi (Vitex negundo), yerba buena (Mentha cordiflora) ,

sambong (Blumea balsamifera

OTHER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

A. Based on Growth Duration

1. Annuals. These plants complete their life cycle, usually from seed to seed, in one
growing season and then die. Examples: rice, tomato, squash, corn.
2. Biennials. These plants complete their life cycle in two growing seasons and then
die. The first season is devoted to vegetative growth and food storage. The second
is devoted to reproductive growth, that is, the plant produces flowers and seeds.
For example, sugar beet grows vegetatively in the first season. In winter, it
becomes vernalized and starts reproductive growth in spring. Another example is
bulb onion.
3. Perennials. Perennials are plants that have the ability to repeat their life cycle
indefinitely by circumventing the death stage. They may be herbaceous, as in
species with underground vegetative structures called rhizomes (e.g. Indian grass),
or aboveground structures called stolons (e.g. buffalo grass). They may also be
woody, as in shrubs, lianas (grape), and trees (orange).

B. Based on Stem Type

1. Herbaceous - crop plants that have soft succulent non-woody stem. They have no
secondary tissue or the secondary tissue is not well developed. Herbaceous plants
are further classified into:

1.1. Herbs are herbaceous plants that can stand upright without support.
(Examples: corn, banana)

1.2. Vines are herbaceous plants that require supports to stand upright.
(Examples: upo, ubi)

2. Woody - crop plants that have hard stems because of their well-developed
secondary tissues. Woody plants are further classified into:

1.1. Trees are woody plants that possess a single central stem and are usually
taller than shrubs at peak height. They can stand upright without any
support. (Examples: santol, ipil-ipil)
1.2. Shrubs are woody plants with several more or less upright stems. Like trees,
they can stand upright without any support. (Examples: santan, cupea)
1.3. Lianas are climbing woody plants. They need support to stand upright.
(Example: grape).

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C. Based on Stem Growth Form

Certain plants can stand upright without artificial support, others cannot. Based on
this characteristic, plants are classified into:

1. Erect. Erect plants can stand upright without physical support, growing at about a
90-degree angle to the ground. This feature is needed for mechanization of certain
crops. Plant breeders develop erect (bush) forms of non-erect (pole) cultivars for
this purpose. There are both pole and bush cultivars of crops such as bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in cultivation.
2. Decumbent. Plants with decumbent stem growth form, such as peanuts (Arachis
hypogaea), are extremely inclined with raised tips.
3. Creeping or repent. Plants in this category, such as strawberry (Fragaria spp.),
have stems that grow horizontally on the ground.
4. Climbing. Climbers are plants with modified vegetative parts (stems or leaves) that
enable them to wrap around a nearby physical support, so they do not have to
creep on the ground, such as yam (Dioscorea spp.).

D. Based on Adaptation
1. Based on Temperature Adaptation
1.1. Cool-season crops or temperate crops. These plants, such as wheat and
sugar beet, prefer a monthly temperature between 15 and 18°C for growth
and development.
1.2. Warm-season crops or tropical plants. These plants, such as corn and rice,
require warm temperatures higher than 18°C during the growing season.

2. Based on Response to Light

2.1. Sciophytes. A plant that prefers shady conditions. Examples: Some orchids.

2.2. Heliophytes. Plants that like sunlight or plants that can survive and grow in
direct sunlight or that grow best in direct sunlight. Examples: Peanut, corn,
rice.

E. Based on Habitat

1. Terrestrial. Plants that live or grow on land rather than in water or in the air.
Example: Corn, mango
2. Aquatic. Plants that live or grow in water. Example: water lilies.
3. Halophytes. Plants capable of growing in salty soils. Example: Mangrove trees.
4. Epiphytes. Plants that grow on live trees or dead trunks but do not depend on
them for water and nutrients. Example: orchids.

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REFERENCES:

Acquaah, G. 2002. Principles of Crop Production: Theory, Techniques, and Technology.

Pearson Education Inc., New Jersey, U.S.A.

Bautista, O.K. (ed). 1994. Introduction to Tropical Horticulture. SEAMO-SEARCA and UPLB,
Los Baños , Laguna.

Encarta Dictionary Tools. 2004. Microsoft® Encarta® Reference Library. Microsoft

Corporation.

Janick, J. 1972. Horticultural Science. Second Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company San
Francisco. 586pp.

Kipps, M.S. 1976. The Production of Field Crops.

Lantican, R.M. 2001. The Science and Practice of Crop Production. SEAMEO-SEARCA
and UPLB, College, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.

Parker,R. 1998. Introduction to Plant Science. Delmar Publishers. Albamy New York.
USA. 704pp

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Name:________________________________ Date:________________
Year & Section:_________________________ Score:_______________

ACTIVITY NO. 3

IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS

Introduction

If one would grow a crop, he has to be able to identify it. It would be helpful also if
he/she could identify the group of plants to which it belongs. Grouping together plant that the
certain characteristics is called classification. Classification reduces the big group of crops
into smaller groups and allows convenience in identifying them and relating them to one
another.
There are many ways of classifying crops and any system depends on how the
classification is to be used. Crops may be classified on the basis of morphological,
anatomical, ultrastructural, physiological, phytochemical, cytological and evolutionary
relationships. This is called the botanical classification and is the most precise and most
universally used of the different classification methods.
Crops may be also grouped using the functional classification system, which is based
mainly on economic use. Under this system, crops are classified into agronomic crops, and
horticultural crops. These, in turn, are further classified into smaller groups.
Other classification systems, collectively called miscellaneous or practical
classification systems, are also used. There are based on various criteria including growth
and duration, structure and form, growth habit, climatic adaptation, water management and
habitat.

Objectives
At the end of the activity, the student will be able to:
1. identify at least 25 of the crops growing in your area and give the scientific
names and botanical families of at least 50% of them.
2. classify at least four crops using botanical classification system
3. classify the 25 crops identified based on growth duration and stem type; and
4. classify crops using the functional classification system.

Procedure

A. The student will have a field tour of their garden/area to identify crops and observe them
in their natural growing condition. Some crops are not currently found in their will be
allowed to used other references such as books, journals, IEC materials etc.
B. Botanical Classification. Fill up Tabel 1. Make a botanical classification of four crops by
writing your answer on the spaces provided. Use Arthur Cronquist’s System. Some taxa,
such as subfamily, may not be applicable for certain crops. Variety refers to botanical

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 PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

variety, not cultivated variety. For example, “10apitate” is the botanical variety of
cabbage; “KK cross” is one of its cultivated varieties.

Table 1. Botanical Classification

Common Name Common Name Common Name Common Name
of Crop 1 of Crop 2 of Crop 3 of Crop 4
Kingdom
Division
Class
Subclass
Order
Family
Subfamily
Genus
Species
Variety

C. Fill up Table 2a. Write the English and Filipino Common Names of the crops identified (at
least 25) during the field tour. Give the scientific names and family names of at least 60% of
the crops. Wrongly spelled and improperly written scientific names and family names will be
considered wrong.

Table 2a. Crops identified during the field tour in the area, their scientific names and family
names.
No. Common Name Scientific Family
Filipino English Name Name
Ex. Palay Rice Oryza sativa L. Gramineae
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

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 PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

D. Miscellaneous Classification. Fill up Table 2b. Write the English common names of the
crops identified during your field tour (see table 2a). Classify them based on growth duration
and stem type by writing the group to which each crop belongs to In the column Growth
duration, the choices are annual, biennial and perennial. Under Stem type, choose
between Woody and Herbaceous. In the column Woody, the choices are tree, shrub and
liana, while in the column Herbaceous, the choices are vine and herb.

Table 2b.
Stem Type
No. English or Common Name Growth Duration
Woody Herbaceous
Ex. Rice Annual Herb
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

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 PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

E. Functional Classification. Classify the crops listed in Table 2b using functional

classification. If the crop is an agronomic crop, writhe under the column Agronomic Crop
under Agronomic Classification to which it belongs. If the crop is a Horticultural Crop, write
under the column horticultural crop the main group and sub-group to which it belongs. In
case a crop has a multiple uses that make it both an agronomic crop and horticultural crop,
base your answer in its main use. Number 1 and 2 are example and bonuses.

Table 2c. Functional Classification of Crops

Horticultural Crop
No. Crops Agronomic Crop
Main Group Sub-group
Ex. Squash Vegetable Crop Cucurbits
Ex. Pineapple Fiber Crop Pomological or Fruit Crop Small Fruit
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

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 PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

19
20
21
22
23
24
25

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