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Chapter-11
ELECTRICITY
CONTENTS (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS – 2024)
❖ Electric current, potential difference and electric current. Ohm’s law; Resistance,
Resistivity,
❖ Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends. Series combination of
resistors, parallel combination of resistors and its applications in daily life.
❖ Heating effect of electric current and its applications in daily life. Electric power,
Interrelation between P, V, I and R.

❖ Important Definitions-
• Electric Current: The rate of flow of charge is called electric current.

• Potential: The work done require to bring a unit positive charge from infinity to a
particular point is called potential of that point
• Potential Difference: The work done require to bring a unit positive charge from
one point to another is called potential between those points.
• Battery: The device which offer potential difference.
• Resistance: The hindrance or obstacle offered by a conductor in the path of
electric current is called resistance.
• Resistor: It is a device that provides resistance in a circuit is resistor.
• Resistivity: The ability of material to offer resistance (resist the path of electric
current) is called resistivity.
• Electric power: The rate of doing work or consuming electrical energy is called
electric power.
• Voltmeter: The device that is used to measure potential difference between two
points.
• Ammeters: the device used to measure electric current in a circuit.
• Circuit: The path taken by electric current. It is always a closed loop
• Circuit diagram: The symbolic representation of a circuit.
• Heating effect of electric current: When electric current is supplied to a purely
resistive conductor, the energy of electric current is dissipated entirely in the form
of heat and as a result, resistor gets heated. The heating of resistor because of
dissipation of electrical energy is commonly known as Heating Effect of Electric
Current.
• Galvanometer: It is a device to detect current in an electric circuit.
• Conductors and Insulators: A substance which offers comparatively less
opposition to the flow of current is known as conductors. Substances which offer
larger opposition to the flow of electric current are insulators.
❖ Electric Potential and Potential Difference: The electric potential at a point is
defined as work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
The potential difference between two points is defined as the difference in electric
potentials between the two given points. It is denoted by the symbol ‘V’.
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• Equation: V=W/Q
• SI Unit of charge is Volt(V)
o 1 Volt is the potential difference between two points when 1 Joule of work done is
required to move a charge of one coulomb across them.
o A Voltmeter is used to measure potential difference.
❖ Conductors and Insulators
• A cell is a source of potential difference, which is created inside it due to internal
chemical reactions.
• A combination of cells is called a battery.
❖ Electric Current
• The rate of flow of electric charge is called electric current,
• Electric current is denoted by ’I’
• I=Q/t
• The direction of flow of electric current is from positive terminal to negative
terminal, i.e., opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
• SI Unit of electric current is Ampere(A).
• 1 Ampere is the current constituted by the flow of 1C charge in 1s.
• An Ammeter is used to measure electric current.
❖ Electric circuit and circuit diagram
• A closed-loop path which a current take is called an electric circuit.
• Representation of an electric circuit through symbols is called a circuit diagram.

Ohm’s law: If the physical condition remains same, the current flowing through a
conductor is directly proportional to the applied potential difference between the
two ends of the conductor and vice a versa. For the current I flowing through a
conductor having potential difference V across its ends, we have:

o V∝I
o V = IR
• Here R is the constant of proportionality and known as the resistance of the
conductor.
• Value of resistance does not change on changing electric current or potential
difference.
❖ Resistance: Resistance is a measure of the opposition offered to the current flow
in an electric circuit. SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω)
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❖ Factors affecting Resistance
• Resistance is: directly proportional to the length of the conductor.
R∝l
• Inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the conductor.
R ∝ 1/A
• Combining the two we have
R ∝ l/A
R = ρ l/A
Here ρ is the constant of proportionality and known as resistivity.

❖ Resistivity-The electrical resistance offered by a substance of unit length and unit

cross-sectional area is called resistivity.
• SI Unit of resistivity is ohm meter (Ωm)
• Factors affects resistivity: Resistivity depends on
o Temperature
o Material of the conductor

❖ Combination of Resistors-
• Resistors in series: Two resistors are said to be combined in series if they
carry the same current. In this circuit the following applies.
o I1 = I 2 = I 3 = I
o Vs = V1 + V2 + V3
o Using ohm’s law V=IR
o IRs=IR1+IR2+IR3
o IRs=I (R1+R2+R3)
o So, Rs = R1 + R2 + R3

So, the resultant resistance of the combination of the resistors in the series is the
sum of all resistance.
• Resistors in parallel: Two resistors are said to be combined in parallel if the
same potential difference is applied to them. In this circuit,
o I =I1+I2+I3
o Using OHM’s law V=IR => I=V/R
o V/Rp=V/R1+V/R2+V/R3
o V/Rp=V(1/R1+1/R2+1/R3)
o 1/Rp=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3
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❖ Heating Effect of Electric Current: When current passes through a conductor, it

produces heat. This phenomenon is called heating effect of electric current. The
amount of heat produced can be given by Joules law. By definition
o Power P = work done W/time t
o P=W/t
o P=H/t (work done = energy and heat is a form of energy)
o H=PX t
o H=VIt (P=W/t = VQ/t =VI)
o H=I2Rt (V=IR)
❖ Joule’s Law:
o Heat (H) ∝ square of the current (I).
o H ∝ Resistance of the given circuit.
o H ∝ Time (t) for which current flows through the conductor.
o So, H=I2Rt
When a potential difference is established, it causes electrons to move, i.e., flow
of current.
❖ Electric Power: The rate of doing work or rate of consumption of electrical energy
is called Electric Power.
If W is work done in time t, then P=W/t.
o P= VQ/t (V=W/Q => W=VQ)
o P =VI (Q/t= I)
o P= I2R (V=IR)
o P= V2/R (I=V/R)
o S.I unit of power is Watt (W).
One watt of power is consumed when 1 A of current flows at a potential difference
of 1 V.
❖ Electrical Energy
o SI unit of energy is Joule(J)
o The commercial unit of electrical energy is a kilowatt-hour (kWh).
o 1kWh = 3,600,000J = 3.6×106 J
• One kilowatt-hour is defined as the amount of energy consumed when 1kW of
power is used for 1 hour.
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CHAPTER – 12
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
CONTENT (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS – 2024)
❖ Magnetic effects of current: Magnetic field, field lines
❖ field due to a current carrying conductor,
❖ field due to current carrying coil or solenoid;
❖ Force on current carrying conductor, Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule,
❖ Direct current. Alternating current: frequency of AC.
❖ Advantage of AC over DC. Domestic electric circuits.

❖ Magnet: Magnet is an object that attracts objects made of iron, cobalt and nickel.
Magnet comes to rest in – South direction, when suspended freely.
❖ Properties of Magnet
a. A free suspended magnet always points towards the north and south direction.
b. The pole of a magnet which points toward north direction is called north pole or
north-seeking.
c. The pole of a magnet which points toward south direction is called south pole or
south seeking.
d. Like poles of magnets repel each other while unlike poles of magnets attract each
other.
❖ Use of Magnets:
a. In refrigerators.
b. In radio and stereo speakers.
c. In audio and video cassette players.
d. In children‘s toys.
❖ Magnetic field: The area around a magnet where a magnetic force is
experienced is called the magnetic field. It is a quantity that has both direction and
magnitude, (i.e., Vector quantity).
❖ Magnetic field and field lines: The influence of force surrounding a magnet is
called magnetic field. In the magnetic field, the force exerted by a magnet can be
detected using a compass or any other magnet.
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❖ Direction of field line:

• Outside the magnet, the direction of magnetic field line is taken from North Pole to
South Pole.
• Inside the magnet, the direction of magnetic field line is taken from South Pole to
North Pole.

❖ Strength of magnetic field: The closeness of field lines shows the relative
strength of magnetic field, i.e. closer lines show stronger magnetic field and vice –
versa. Crowded field lines near the poles of magnet show more strength.

❖ Magnetic field lines due to current a current carrying straight conductor

• A current carrying straight conductor has magnetic field in the form of concentric
circles, around it. Magnetic field of current carrying straight conductor can be
shown by magnetic field lines.

• The direction of magnetic field through a current carrying conductor depends upon
the direction of flow electric current.
Note: Let a current carrying conductor be suspended vertically and the electric
current is flowing from south to north. In this case, the direction of magnetic field
will be anticlockwise. If the current is flowing from north to south, the direction of
magnetic field will be clockwise.
• The direction of magnetic field - In relation to direction of electric current
through a straight conductor can be depicted by using the Right-Hand Thumb
Rule. It is also known as Maxwell ‘s Corkscrew Rule.
• Maxwell’s Corkscrew rule: As per Maxwell ‘s Corkscrew Rule, if the direction of
forward movement of screw shows the direction of the current, then the direction
of rotation of screw shows the direction of magnetic field.

• Right-Hand Thumb Rule: If a current carrying conductor is held by right hand,

keeping the thumb straight and if the direction of electric current is in the direction
of thumb, then the direction of wrapping of other fingers will show the direction of
magnetic field.
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❖ Properties of magnetic field

• The magnitude of magnetic field increases with increase in electric current and
decreases with decrease in electric current.
• The magnitude of magnetic field produced by electric current decreases with
increase in distance and vice – versa. The size of concentric circles of magnetic
field lines increases with distance from the conductor, which shows that magnetic
field decreases with distance.
• Magnetic field lines are always parallel to each other inside the magnet.
• No two field lines cross each other.

❖ Magnetic field in circular current carrying conductor: The magnetic field is

produced in the same manner as it is in case of a straight current carrying
conductor.
• In case of a circular current carrying conductor, the magnetic field lines would be
in the form of iron concentric circles around every part of the periphery of the
conductor. Since, magnetic field lines tend to remain closer when near to the
conductor, so the magnetic field would be stronger near the periphery of the loop.
On the other hand, the magnetic field lines would be distant from each other when
we move towards the center of the current carrying loop. Finally, at the center, the
arcs of big circles would appear as a straight line.
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• The direction of the magnetic field in loop conductor

o Right Hand Thumb‘s Rule. Let us assume that the current is moving in anti-
clockwise direction in the loop. In that case, the magnetic field would be in
clockwise direction, at the top of the loop. Moreover, it would be in an anti-
clockwise direction at the bottom of the loop.
o Clock Face Rule: A current carrying loop works like a disc magnet. The polarity
of this magnet can be easily understood with the help of Clock Face Rule. If the
current is flowing in anti – clockwise direction, then the face of the loop shows
North Pole. On the other hand, if the current is flowing in clockwise direction, then
the face of the loop shows South Pole.
• Magnetic field and number of turns of coil: Magnitude of magnetic field gets
summed up with increase in the number of turns of coil. If there are ‘n‘turns of coil,
magnitude of magnetic field will be ‘n‘ times of magnetic field in case of a single
turn of coil. The strength of the magnetic field at the center of the loop(coil)
depends on -
o The radius of the coil: The strength of the magnetic field is inversely proportional
to the radius of the coil. If the radius increases, the magnetic strength at the
center decreases
o The number of turns in the coil: As the number of turns in the coil increase, the
magnetic strength at the centre increases, because the current in each circular
turn is having the same direction, thus, the field due to each turn adds up.
o The magnetic field produced by current carrying coil is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the current passing through it.

❖ Magnetic field due to a current in a Solenoid:

o Solenoid is the coil with many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped
closely in the shape of a cylinder.
o A current carrying solenoid produces similar pattern of magnetic field as a bar
magnet. One end of solenoid behaves as the North Pole and another end
behaves as the South Pole.
o Magnetic field lines are parallel inside the solenoid, similar to a bar magnet,
which shows that magnetic field is same at all points inside the solenoid.
o The strength of magnetic field is proportional to the number of turns and
magnitude of current.
o By producing a strong magnetic field inside the solenoid, magnetic materials can
be magnetized. Magnet formed by producing magnetic field inside a solenoid is
called electromagnet.

❖ Electromagnet: An electromagnet consists of a long coil of insulated copper wire

wrapped on a soft iron.
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❖ Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field: A current carrying

conductor exerts a force when a magnet is placed in its vicinity. Similarly, a
magnet also exerts equal and opposite force on the current carrying conductor.
This was suggested by Marie Ampere, a French Physicist and considered as
founder of science of electromagnetism.
• The direction of force over the conductor gets reversed with the change in
direction of flow of electric current. It is observed that the magnitude of force is
highest when the direction of current is at right angles to the magnetic field.

• Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule: If the left hand is stretched in a way that the index
finger, the middle finger and the thumb are in mutually perpendicular directions,
then the index finger and middle finger of a stretched left hand show the direction
of magnetic field and direction of electric current respectively and the thumb
shows the direction of motion or force acting on the conductor.
• Many devices, such as electric motor, electric generator, loudspeaker, etc. work
on Fleming‘s Left Hand Rule.

❖ A.C. & D.C. CURRENT

• A.C. Current – Alternate Current: Current in which direction is changed
periodically is called Alternate Current. In India, most of the power stations
generate alternate current. The direction of current changes after every 1/100
second in India, i.e., the frequency of A.C in India is 50 Hz.
• D.C. – Direct Current: Current that flows in one direction only is called Direct
current. Electrochemical cells produce direct current.

• Advantages of A.C. over D.C.

o A.C is transmitted up to a long distance without much loss of energy is advantage
of A.C. over D.C.
o Cost of generator of A.C is much less than that of D.C.
o A.C can be easily converted to D.C.
o A.C can be controlled by the use of choke which involves less loss of power
whereas; D.C can be controlled using resistances which involves high energy
loss.
o AC machines are stout and durable and do not need much maintenance.
• Disadvantages of AC
o AC cannot be used for the electrolysis process or showing electromagnetism as it
reverses its polarity.
o AC is more dangerous than DC.
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❖ Domestic Electric Circuits: We receive electric supply through mains supported

through the poles or cables. In our houses, we receive AC electric power of 220 V
with a frequency of 50 Hz. (The AC changes direction after every 1/100 second).
❖ The 3 wires in domestic circuits are as follows
o Live wire – (Red insulated, Positive)
o Neutral wire – (Black insulated, Negative)
o Earth wire – (Green insulated) for safety measure to ensure that any leakage of
current to a metallic body does not give any serious shock to a user.

• The potential difference (or voltage) which is supplied in India is 220V.

• The electric current in house is first passed through a circuit called a fuse (High
resistant and low melting point metal/ore conductor wire). If any high voltage,
overloading, voltage fluctuation or short circuit occurs, the fuse wire melts thereby
restricting the current supply and preventing the high voltage from reaching the
electric appliances.
• These wires are passed to different electric appliances of the house through the
meter board.
• Generally, 2 types of electric circuits are used for household use:
o 15A: Appliances that have higher power ratings. i.e. Geysers, ACs, Refrigerators.
o 5A: Appliances that have lower power ratings. i.e. Television, Fans, Bulbs.

❖ Short Circuit: Short-circuiting is caused by the touching of live wires and neutral
wire and sudden a large current flow. It happens due to
o Damage of insulation in power lines.
o A fault in an electrical appliance.
o Overloading of an Electric Circuit: The overheating of electrical wire in any circuit
due to the flow of a large current through it is called overloading of the electrical
circuit.
o A sudden large number of current flows through the wire, which causes
overheating of wire and may cause fire also.

❖ Electric Fuse: It is a protective device used for protecting the circuit from short-
circuiting and overloading. It is a piece of thin wire of material having a low melting
point and high resistance.
o Fuse is always connected to live wire.
o Fuse is always connected in series to the electric circuit.
o Fuse is always connected to the beginning of an electric circuit.
o Fuse works on the heating effect.
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