Chapter 2.

2
Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments

1
 Dynamic Characteristics

Dynamic characteristics tell us about how well a sensor responds to changes in its input.
For dynamic signals, the sensor or the measurement system must be able to respond fast
enough to keep up with the input signals.

Sensor Output signal

Input signal
x(t) or y(t)
system

In many situations, we must use y(t) to infer x(t), therefore a qualitative understanding of
the operation that the sensor or measurement system performs is imperative to
understanding the input signal correctly.
2
 Dynamic Characteristics

§ The response of a measurement system subjected to a time varying input can be divided
into two parts:
1. the transient response and
2. the steady state response.
§ If � (� ) is the total response of the system, then in general
y � = �� � + ��� �
§ Where �� � the transient response and
��� � be the steady state response
Remark: In many applications, the transient response of the system i.e. the way the system
settles down to its final steady state conditions is more important than the steady state
response.

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Mathematical models of measurement systems
§ A measurement system is a physical system.

§ Therefore, before one can analyze the system, one must be able to determine the
mathematical model of the system.

§ The input-output relations which define the dynamics of an instrument can be written in a
differential equation.

§ Consider a linear time-invariant system which is defined by an ��ℎ order differential

equation with constant coefficient is given by the form:
d n y (t ) d n 1 y (t ) dy (t ) d m x (t ) d m 1 x (t ) dx (t )
an n
 a n 1 n 1
   a1  a 0 y ( t )  b m m
 b m 1 m 1
   b1  b0 x (t )
dt dt dt dt dt dt

F(t) = forcing function

4
 Contd...
Where m ≤ n
y(t) = output from the system
x(t) = input to the system
t = time
a’s and b’s = system physical parameters, assumed constant

y(0)
The solution � � = ��� + ���
x(t) y(t)
Measurement
system
Where ycf = complementary-function part of solution
ypi = particular-integral part of solution

5
Complementary-Function Solution

6
 Particular Solution
Method of undetermined coefficients:

��� = �� � + �� � + �� � ⋯

Where f(t) = the function that describes input quantity

A, B, C = constant which can be found by substituting ypi into ODEs
Important Notes

§After a certain-order derivative, all higher derivatives are zero.

§After a certain-order derivative, all higher derivatives have the same functional form as
some lower-order derivatives.
§Upon repeated differentiation, new functional forms continue to arise.

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 Zero-order Systems
All the a’s and b’s other than a0 and b0 are zero.
�� � � = �0 � � → � � = �� � �ℎ��� � = ������ ����������� = �� ��

§ The behavior is characterized by its static sensitivity, K and remains constant regardless
of input frequency (ideal dynamic characteristic).
�
xm � = �� ℎ���, � = �� ��
��
+
y=V Where 0  x  xm and Vr is a reference voltage
x=0 -

A linear potentiometer used as position sensor is a zero-order sensor.

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Zero-order Systems

9
 Zero-order Systems
§ A linear potentiometer used as position sensor is a zero-order sensor.
§ Remark: In zero-order instruments, there is no frequency dependency in between the
input and the output. The change in amplitude is uniform across the spectrum of all
possible frequency thus it is impossible to have such device practically except in limited
range of operation.

10
 First-Order Systems
§ All the a’s and b’s other than a1, a0 and b0 are zero.
�� �
�1 + �� � � = �� � �
��
�1 �� � �� � � � � �
+� � = � � = � =
�� �� �� � � �� + 1 � �� + 1

Where K = b0/a0 is the static sensitivity

 = a1/a0 is the system’s time constant (dimension of time)
eg. Mercury Thermometer, thermocouple,RL and RC circuits...
§ The natural or un-driven response for above equation is given as:
�
� 0 − �0 � � 0 −� �
� � = � 1 = � � �ℎ� �������� �������� � �� = k=
�1 �1 ���+1
§ With a initial value,we can easily solve for K to get the solution of the initial value problem.
§ In particular,if the initial value is given for time � = 0, � 0 = �. �ℎ������� � � = � 0 �−��

11
initial value problem
.
First-Order Systems

12
 First-Order Systems: Step Response
§ Let a step input with magnitude A be applied to a first order system.
0 t  0 dy (t )
x(t )  AU (t )     y (t )  KAU (t ) y (t )  Ce  t /  KA
A t  0 dt

The complete solution:

��−� � …��������� ��������

��…������ ����� ��������

Applying the initial condition, we get � = �� − ��, thus gives
y (t )  KA  ( y0  KA)e  t /

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 First-Order Systems: Step Response
§ Asignment 1: Let a unit step input be applied to a first order system.

1 1 �
� � =� � � � = = −
� �� + 1 � 1 + ��
2

)t(U

0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time, t

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 First-Order Systems: Step Response
Taking the inverse Laplace transform: � � = 1 − �−� �

i. Plot and the response to see that the reponse rises exponentially from zero value to
the final value of unity by using MATLAB for � = 1 , 2 ��� 4 .plot the results for
these � value on the same plot
ii. What is the initial slope of the curve?
iii. Pridict the steady state and dynamic state error of this system.
iv. At what time t be the out of the system reads 63.2%?

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 First-Order Systems: Ramp Response
§ If a system is subjected to a ramp input � � = � ��� � > 0, then the output is
� 1 � � �
§ � � =� � � � = ��+1 �2
= + 2 + ⋯�ℎ��� � =− �� , �=� , � = ��2
� � ��+1

§ Taking the inverse Laplace transform, we get: y t = � −� + � + ��−� �

⋯���? ? ?
§ The dynamic and steady state errors are respectively:
§ � � = � � − � � = � 1 − �−� �
��� � = 1
§ ��� = lim � � = �
�→∞

§ Thus the first order system will track the unit ramp input with a steady state error of � .

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First-Order Systems: Ramp Response

10

8
K/y ,langis tuptuO

6
Steady state
time lag = �
4

Steady state
2 error =

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
t/

Non-dimensional ramp response of first-order instrument

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 First-Order Systems: Impulse Response
§ Let the system be subjected to an input � � = �� � , then
Laplace transform of important functions
�
§ � � =� � � � = �
��+1
§ Taking inverse Laplace transform, we have,
��
§ � � = �−�
�

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 First-Order Systems: Frequency Response
From the response of first-order system to sinusoidal inputs,we have

x(t )  A sin t

dy
  y  KA sin t D  1y (t )  KA sin t
dt

KA
The complete solution: y (t )  Ce t /  
sin t  tan 1  
1  ( ) 2

Transient Steady state Frequency

response response = response

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 First-Order Systems: Frequency Response

If we do interest in only steady state response of the system, we can write the
equation in general form

y (t )  Ce t /  B( ) sint   ( )
KA
B( ) 
1  ( ) 
2 1/ 2

 ( )   tan 1 

Where B() = amplitude of the steady state response and () = phase shift
B 1
M ( )  

KA 1   2 1/ 2 
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 First-Order Instrument: Frequency Response
1
The amplitude ratio M ( )  The phase angle is  ( )   tan 1 ( )
( ) 2  1
1.2 Dynamic error 0
-10
1.0 0
-20

)( ,tfihs esahP

oitar edutilpmA

.8 -2 -30

)Bd( slebiceD
-3 dB
0.707 -40
.6 -4
-50
-6
.4 -8 -60
-10 -70
.2 Cutoff frequency -80
-20
0.0 -90
.01 .1 1 10 100 .01 .1 1 10 100
 
Frequency response of the first order
system...Bode Plot

21
 First-Order Instrument: Frequency Response
* Dynamic error, () = M(): a measure of an inability of a system to adequately
reconstruct the amplitude of the input for a particular frequency
* Frequency Response describe how the ratio of output and input changes with the
input frequency. (sinusoidal input)
* Dynamic error, () = 1- M() a measure of the inability of a system or sensor to
adequately reconstruct the amplitude of the input for a particular frequency
* Bandwidth the frequency band over which M()  0.707 (-3 dB in decibel unit)
* Cutoff frequency: the frequency at which the system response has fallen to 0.707 (-
3 dB) of the stable low frequency. 0.35
tr 
fc

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 Second-Order Systems
In general, a second-order measurement system subjected to arbitrary input, x(t)
�2 � � �� � 1 �2 � � 2� �� �
�2 2 + �1 + �0 � � = �0 � � 2 2 + + � � = �� �
�� �� �� �� �� ��

The essential parameters

�0
Taking the Laplace transform, we
�=
�0
������ ����������� obtain the transfer function:
�1
�= ������� �����, �������������
2 �0 �2

§ The standard form of the 2nd order ODE is:

�0
�� = �2
������� ������� ���������
�2 � � �� � 2 2
2 + 2�� � + � � � � = � �� �
�� ��

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 Second-Order Systems

Depending on the value of , three forms of complementary solutions are possible

Overdamped ( > 1) �� � = � 1 �
−�+ �2 −1 �� �
+ �2 �
−�− �2 −1 �� �

Critically damped ( = 1) �� � = �1 �−��� + �2 ��−���

Underdamped (< 1) �� � = ��−���� sin �� 1 − �2 �

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Second-Order Systems

Case I Underdamped (< 1) Case 2 Overdamped ( > 1)



S1, 2   n  n  2  1  
S1, 2      2  1 n
   j d
Case 3 Critically damped ( = 1):



yt
t S1, 2   n
Ae
yt
t
 1
sin(d t   )

 1

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 Second-Order Systems
Further Reading: Solve and :
i. plot the poles (roots of the characteristic equation) in the � � � � � � ,
ii. sketch step responses,
iii. characterize each cases based on the speed of response and comment on the
presence or absence of oscillation.

26
Second-Order Systems

27
Second-Order Systems

28
Dynamic Characteristics

29
Dynamic Characteristics
1.4
overshoot
1.2

AK/)t(y ,langis tuptuO

1.0 100%  5%

.8

.6

.4
settling
time
.2
rise time
0.0
0 5 10 15 20
Time, t (s)
Typical response of the 2nd order system

30
 Dynamic Characteristics
§ Speed of response: indicates how fast the sensor (measurement system) reacts to changes in
the input variable. (Step input)
§ Rise time: the length of time it takes the output to reach 10 to 90% of full response when a
step is applied to the input
§ Time constant: (1st order system) the time for the output to change by 63.2% of its maximum
possible change.
§ Settling time: the time it takes from the application of the input step until the output has
settled within a specific band of the final value.
§ Dead time: the length of time from the application of a step change at the input of the sensor
until the output begins to change

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