,

XI-Physics Practical (Code - 042)

(2023 – 2024)
The record to be submitted by the students at the time of practical examination
must include a record of at 8 Experiment (4 from each section) and 6 Activities
(3 from each section).

Section – A

1. To measure internal diameter and depth of a given beaker/calorimeter using

Vernier Callipers and hence find its volume.
2. To determine volume of an irregular lamina using screw gauge.
3. To determine radius of curvature of a given spherical surface by a spherometer.
4. Using a simple pendulum, plot its L-T2 graph and use it to find the effective length
of second's pendulum.

Section – B

5. To find the force constant of a helical spring by plotting a graph between load and
extension.
6. To study the relationship between the temperature of a hot body and time by
plotting a cooling curve.
7. To study the relation between the length of a given wire and tension for constant
frequency using sonometer.
8. To study the relation between frequency and length of a given wire under constant
tension using sonometer.

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Activities

Section – A

1. To make a paper scale of given least count, e.g., 0.2cm, 0.5 cm.
2. To determine mass of a given body using a metre scale by principle of moments.
3. To plot a graph for a given set of data, with proper choice of scales and error bars.

Section – B

4. To observe change of state and plot a cooling curve for molten wax.
5. To note the change in level of liquid in a container on heating and interpret the
observations.
6. To study the factors affecting the rate of loss of heat of a liquid.

General Instructions:
1. Start each experiment from a new page.
2. Draw the circuit diagram, general diagram and model graphs on the white
page (Left hand side).
3. Write the observations (Tabulation) on the white page (Left hand side).
4. Write down the aim, apparatus required, formula used, procedure, result,
precautions and source of errors on the ruled side (Right hand side).

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Section - A
1. Vernier calliper – Volume of a cylinder
Aim:
To measure the internal diameter and depth of a beaker/calorimeter using vernier callipers
and find its volume.
Materials Required:
Vernier callipers, A cylindrical object like a beaker, Magnifying glass
Theory:
Vernier calliper is a measuring device with two scales: the main scale and the vernier scale,
such that the vernier scale slides over the main scale. The main scale is divided into small
divisions in cm and mm and has two fixed jaws A and C. B and D are the jaws of the vernier
scale.
What Is Least Count?
The least count is defined as the smallest change in the measured quantity, which can be
resolved on an instrument’s scale.
How to Calculate Least Count?
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
The least count of vernier calliper = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

Volume of beaker/calorimeter = internal area of cross-section × depth

𝐷
𝑉 = ( )2 . 𝑑
2
Where, D is the internal diameter of the beaker/calorimeter
d is the depth of the beaker/calorimeter
Diagram

Procedure
1. Determine and record the least count of the vernier
calliper, also known as the vernier constant.

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2. To find the zero error, bring the movable jaw BD in contact with the fixed jaw AC. Repeat
and record this three times. If there is no zero error, then record zero error as nil.
3. Now put the jaws C and D inside the beaker and open them till they make contact with
the inner wall of the beaker without any pressure. Tighten the screw without putting too
much pressure.
4. On the main scale, record the zero mark of the vernier scale. Just before the zero mark
of the vernier scale, record the main scale reading, which is known as main scale reading
(M.S.R).
5. Let n be the number of the vernier scale division, which coincides with the main scale
division.
6. Rotate the vernier calliper at 90° and repeat steps 4 and 5 to measure the internal
diameter in a perpendicular direction.
7. To measure the depth, find the total reading and zero correction.
8. The edge of the main scale of the vernier calliper should be placed on the peripheral edge.
Care should be taken to make the strip go freely inside the beaker and its depth.
9. Once the moving jaw of the vernier calliper touches the bottom of the beaker
perpendicularly, the screw of the vernier calliper should be tightened.
10. For four different positions along the circumference of the beaker, repeat steps 4 and 5.
11. Find the total reading and also zero correction.
12. For internal diameter, take two different mean values and for depth, take four different
values.
13. Calculate the volume using the proper formula and record the same in the result with
units.
Observations
Determination of the least count of vernier calliper
1 M.S.D = ----- mm : ----- V.S.D = ----- M.S.D
∴ 1 V.S.D = -------- M.S.D = ----- mm
The least count of vernier calliper (V.C) = 1 M.S.D – 1 V.S.D
Zero error = (i)……. cm (ii)……. cm (iii)…….. cm
Mean zero error (e) = …….. cm; Mean zero correction = …….cm
Table for internal diameter (D)

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Table for the depth (d)

Calculations
Mean corrected internal diameter,
𝐷1 + 𝐷2 + 𝐷3 + 𝐷4
𝐷= = ⋯ . . 𝑐𝑚
4
Mean corrected depth,
𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3 + 𝑑4
𝑑= = ⋯ . . 𝑐𝑚
4
The volume of the beaker,
𝐷
𝑉 = 𝜋( )2 𝑑 = ⋯ . 𝑐𝑚3
2
Result
The volume of the beaker is …….cm3.
Precautions

• Apply machine oil or grease to make the vernier scale slide smoothly over the main
scale.
• Do not exert more pressure on the vernier screw to avoid damage to threads.
• To avoid errors due to parallax, keep the eye directly over the division mark.
• The significant figures and units used in observations must be correct.
Sources of Error

• Not accounting for the zero error in the instrument.

• Avoid gaps and undue pressure with respect to the placing of vernier callipers.

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2. Screw Gauge - Volume of an irregular lamina.

Aim
To determine the volume of an irregular lamina using a screw gauge.
Apparatus/ Materials Required: Screw Gauge, Irregular lamina of uniform thickness, A
centimetre graph paper and Magnifying glass.
Theory
A screw gauge is an instrument that is used to accurately measure the volume of the irregular
lamina. It is made of a U-shaped frame fitted to a screwed spindle that is attached to a thimble.
A scale graduated in mm is engraved parallel to the axis of the thimble. This is known as the
pitch scale. The head of the screw consists of a rachet that avoids undue tightening of the screw.
On the thimble, there is a circular scale known as the head scale which is divided into 50 to
100 equal parts. The pitch of the screw is the distance moved by the spindle per revolution. The
distance moved by the tip of the screw when the screw is turned through 1 division of the head
scale is known as the least count.
Least Count:
Least count is given as:
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 =
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
If a screw gauge has a pitch of 1 mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale then the least
count is given as:
1 𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = = 0.01 𝑚𝑚
100
Zero Error:
If zero line on circular scale does not coincide with zero on the linear scale when the screw of
circular scale is fully tightened or moved, the error due to this is called zero error of the screw
gauge.
Negative Zero Error:
If zero line on linear scale will coincide with line which will below the zero on the
circular scale when the screw of circular scale is fully tighten or moved. Then error due to this
is called negative error of the screw gauge. It is shown in figure here.
Positive Zero Error:
Positive zero-error of 2 circular scale divisions. Positive zero-error correction is done by
subtracting the positive zero-error from the actual reading.
How to take the linear scale reading?
Linear scale reading is taken by noting the mark on the linear scale which is close to the edge
of the circular scale.
How to take circular scale reading?
Circular scale reading is taken by noting the division on the circular scale that coincides with
the main scale reading.

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Formula:
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 =
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛

𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
Diagram

Procedure
1. Find the value of one linear scale division (L.S.D).
2. Determine and record the pitch and least count of the screw gauge.
3. To find the zero error, bring the plane face B and A near. Repeat and record this for three
times. Record zero error as nil if there is no error.
4. Move face B away from face A. using a ratchet head R, move the face A towards face B
lengthwise and stop when R turns without moving the screw.
5. Linear scale reading (L.S.R) is recorded by noting down the no. of visible and uncovered
divisions of linear scale.
6. Let n be the no. of divisions of the circular scale lying on the reference line.
7. For the entire lamina repeat steps 4,5, and 6 for five different positions and record the
observations.
8. Find the total reading and also zero correction.
9. Take the mean of different values of thickness.
10. Place the lamina on a clean cm graph and mark its boundary using a pencil.
11. Determine the area of the lamina by counting the small squares enclosed on graph paper
by the boundary of the lamina.
Observations
Determination of the least count of the screw gauge L.S.D = 1 mm
Number of full rotations given to screw = 4

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Distance moved by the screw = 4 mm
Hence, pitch p = 4 mm/4 = 1 mm
No. of divisions on circular scale = 100
Hence, the least count = 1 mm/100 = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm
Zero error (I) ……… mm (ii) ………. mm (iii) ……….. mm
Mean zero error (e) =……… mm
Mean zero correction (c) = ………. mm
Table for thickness of the lamina:

Observation:
From the outline of lamina drawn on the graph paper, note down the
Total number of complete squares (a) = _____ cm2
Total number of ¾ squares (b) = _____ cm2
Total number of ½ squares (c) = _____ cm2
Total number of ¼ squares (d) = _____ cm2
Area of the lamina = a + ¾ b + ½ c + ¼ d = ……………………….. cm2
The volume of the lamina (area × thickness) = _____ cm3
Result
The volume of the given lamina is ………cm3.

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Precautions

• There shouldn’t be any friction while moving the screw.

• The screw should always be rotated by ratchet R and not by cap K to avoid undue
pressure.
• For zero correction proper sign should be noted.
• To avoid back-lash error in the screw, the screw should be moved in the same
direction.
• The diameter of the wire should be measured at each place in two perpendicular
directions and mean should be taken.
• Along the entire length of the wire, readings should be taken at five different places.
• Avoid errors because of parallax.
Sources Of Error

• There might be friction in the screw.

• There might be a back-lash error in the screw gauge.
• Circular scale divisions may not be equally divided.
• There might not be uniformity in the wire.

3. Spherometer - Radius of Curvature

Aim
To determine the radius of curvature of a given spherical surface by a spherometer.
Materials Required
Spherometer, Convex surface and a big size plane mirror
Theory
A spherometer is a measuring device which has a metallic triangular frame supported on
three legs. The tips of the three legs form an equilateral triangle and lie on the radius.
There is a central leg which can be moved in a perpendicular direction. Below is the
experiment on how to determine the radius of curvature of a given spherical surface by a
spherometer
What is the least count of a spherometer?
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤
Least count of the spherometer = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

What is the pitch of spherometer?

Pitch is defined as the distance moved by the central screw in one complete rotation of the
circular disc scale. The pitch of the screw is 1 mm.
Formula used:
The radius of curvature of the convex surface is given as

𝑙2 ℎ
𝑅= + 𝑐𝑚
6ℎ 2
Where,
l is the distance between the legs of the spherometer.
h is the height moved by the disc
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Diagram:

Observations:
Distance between two legs of the spherometer = ……………………..
In △ABC marked by the legs of the spherometer
AB = …….cm BC = …….cm AC = …….cm Mean value = ………………
Least count of spherometer
1 pitch scale division = 1 mm No. of full rotations given to screw = 5
Distance moved by the screw = 5 mm
Hence, pitch, p = 5mm/5 = 1 mm
No. of divisions on circular (disc) scale = 100
Hence, least count = 1mm/100 = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm
Table:

Sl. Circular Scale Reading (CSR) No. of No. of CSR in Total Reading
No. Initial CSR in Final CSR in complete complete
Convex surface glass Slab rotation rotation 𝒉 = (𝒏 × 𝒑) + (𝒙 × 𝑳𝑪)
(r1) (r2) (n) X = r1 – r2
or (100+r1) – r2
1
2
3
4
5
6
Procedure
1. To get the three pricks of the spherometer, press the spherometer gently on the practical
note-book by lifting the central screw and mark these pricks as A, B, and C.
2. Join the points A, B, and C to form a triangle and measure the distance between these
points.

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3. Note the distances between AB, BC, and CA and take their mean.
4. Find the value of the pitch which is the vertical scale division.
5. Record the pitch and least count of the spherometer.
6. Lift the screw sufficiently upwards.
7. Place the spherometer on the convex surface so that all the three legs rest on it.
8. Turn the screw gently downwards till it touches the convex surface.
9. Let a be the reading taken from the circular scale which is in line with the vertical scale.
10. Now remove and place the spherometer on the plane mirror.
11. Let n1 be the no. of rotations completed by the disc when it is moved downwards.
12. Continue rotating the disc till the tip of the screw touches the plane surface of the mirror.
13. Let b be the reading of the circular scale which is in line with the vertical scale.
14. From the last incomplete rotation, find the number of a circular scale division.
15. Repeat steps 6 to 14 three times and record the observations.
Calculations:
ℎ1 +ℎ2 +ℎ3
Mean value of h = = ⋯ . . 𝑚𝑚 = ⋯ … … … … … … … … … … … …
3

𝑙2 ℎ
𝑅= + 𝑐𝑚 = ⋯ … … … … … … … … … … … … ..
6ℎ 2

= ….. mm = ….cm
Result
The radius of curvature of the given convex surface is ………..cm.
Precautions

• The movement of the screw should happen without any friction.

• To avoid backlash error, the screw should be moved in the same direction.
• Avoid excess rotation.
Source Of Error

• There might be friction in the screw.

• There might be a back-lash error in the spherometer.
• The divisions between the circular scale may not be of equal size.

4. Simple Pendulum
Aim:
Using a simple pendulum, plot L-T and L-T2 graphs and use it to find the effective length of
the second’s pendulum.
Apparatus and Material Required:
Clamp stand, Split Cork, Heavy metallic spherical bob with a hook, Long and strong cotton
thread, Stopwatch, Meter scale and Graph Paper.
Principle
The simple pendulum exhibits Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) as the acceleration of the
pendulum bob is directly proportional to the displacement from the mean position and is always
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directed towards it. The time period (T) of a simple pendulum for oscillations of small amplitude
is given by the relation

𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

Where l is the length of the pendulum and g is the acceleration of gravity.

Diagram:

Observation
The radius of the pendulum of the bob = ….. cm
Length of the hook = ….. cm
Least count of the meter scale = ….. mm
Least count of the stopwatch = ….. s

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Table:

Length Time taken for 20

Length of the
of the oscillations Time period
string + bob
Sl. No. string t (s) 𝒕
radius (l+r) 𝑻= (𝒔)
(l) 𝟐𝟎
(cm) (i) (ii) Mean
(cm)

Procedure

• Place the clamp stand on the table. Tie the hook attached to the pendulum bob, to one
end of the string of about 150 cm in length and the other end of the string through two
half-pieces of a split cork.
• Clamp the split cork firmly to the clamp stand such that the line of separation between
the two pieces of the split cork is at right angles to the line OA along which the pendulum
oscillates as given in the figure. Mark the edge of the table a vertical line parallel to and
just behind the vertical thread OA, the position of the bob at rest. Take care that the bob
hangs vertically (about 2 cm above the floor) beyond the edge of the table so that it is
free to oscillate.
• Measure the effective length of the simple pendulum as shown in the figure
• Displace the bob not more than 15 degrees from the vertical position OA and then gently
release it. If you notice the stand to be shaky, put a heavy object on its base. Make sure
that the bob oscillates in a vertical plane about its rest and does not (i) spin about its
own axis (ii) move up and down while oscillating (iii)revolve in an elliptic path around its
mean position.
• Keep the pendulum oscillating for a few minutes. After the completion of few oscillations,
start the stopwatch as the thread attached to the bob crosses the mean position.
Consider it as a zero oscillation.
• Keep counting the oscillation 1,2,3…n every time the bob crosses the mean position.
Stop the stopwatch at the count of n oscillations. For better results, n should be chosen
such that the time taken to complete n oscillations is 50 s or more. Read the total time
taken for n oscillations. Repeat the observation a few times by noting down the time for
the same n number of oscillations. Once noted down, take the mean of the readings.
Calculate the time for one oscillation, i.e., the time period T ( = t/n) of the pendulum.
• Change the length of the pendulum, by about 10 cm. Repeat step 6 again for finding the
time (t) for about 20 oscillations or more for the new length and find the mean time
period. Take 5 or 6 more observations for different lengths of the pendulum and find the
mean time period in each case.
• Report observations in tabular form with proper units and significant figures.
• Take effective length L along the x-axis and T2 (or T) along the y-axis, using the observed
values from the table. Choose suitable scales on these axes to represent L and T2 (or T).
Plot a graph between L and T2.
Result:
The graph L versus T is curved, convex upwards.
The graph L versus T2 is a straight line.
The effective length of the second’s pendulum from the L versus T2 graph is ……… cm.

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Sources of error:

• Human errors come in when measuring the period using a stopwatch. The reaction time
of the observer plays a significant error when starting the stopwatch and when stopping
it.
• The friction between the swinging bob and the surrounding air is another source of error.
This can be minimized by using a heavier bob than a lighter bob. The shape of the bob
must be spherical to minimize this friction.
Precautions:

• The thread should be very light and strong.

• The point of suspension should be reasonably rigid.
• The pendulum should oscillate in the vertical plane without any spin motion.
• The floor of the laboratory should not have vibration, which may cause a deviation from
the regular oscillation of the pendulum.
• The amplitude of vibration should be small (less than 15o).
• The length of the pendulum should be as large as possible in the given situation.
• Determination of time for 20 or more oscillations should be carefully taken and repeated
for at least three times.
• There must not be strong wind blowing during the experiment.
Section B
5. Hooke’s Law – Helical Spring
Aim
To find the force constant of a helical spring by plotting a graph between load and extension.
Apparatus/ Materials Required:
A rigid support, Spring, A 50 g or 20 g hanger, Six 20 g or 50 g slotted weight, A fine pointer,
A vertical wooden scale and A hook.
Diagram:

Theory
When a load F suspended from the lower free end of the spring hanging from rigid support
increases its length by l, then
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𝐹∝𝑙
or

𝐹 = 𝐾𝑙
Where K is the proportionality constant
K, the proportionality constant, is also known as the force constant or the spring constant
of the spring
From the above equation, it is clear that if l =1, F = K.
Hence, spring constant can be defined as the force required to produce a unit extension in
the spring.
Observations
The least count of vernier scale is 0.1 cm.
Table:

Procedure
1. Suspend the spring from a rigid support and attach the pointer and the hook from its
lower free end.
2. Hang a 10 g hanger from the hook
3. Arrange the vertical wooden scale such that the tip of the pointer comes over the
divisions on the scale but does not touch the scale.
4. Note the reading on the scale and record it in the loading column against the zero
loads.
5. Gently add a suitable load of 10 g of slotted weight to the hanger. The tip of the pointer
moves down.
6. Wait for some time till the pointer comes to rest. Repeat step 4.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 till six slots have been added.

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8. Remove one slotted weight. The pointer moves up. Repeat step 6 and record the
reading in the unloading column.
9. Repeat step 8 till the only hanger is left.
10. Record your observation as given below in the table.
Result
The spring constant of the given spring is determined to be = ⋯ … … … … … … … … … ….
Calculations:
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Spring constant = 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
= ⋯ … … … … … … … … … ….

Source of error:

• The main cause of error in this experiment is reading the stretched length of the
spring.
• The metre rule scale should be read at eye level directly opposite the pointer.
Precautions:

• Avoid Overloading the Spring.

• Ensure Proper Alignment of the Spring.
• Avoid applying excessive force.

6. Newton’s law of cooling

Aim
To study the relationship between the temperature of a hot body and time by plotting the
cooling curve.
Apparatus and Materials Required:
Newton’s law of cooling apparatus (copper calorimeter with a wooden lid having two holes for
inserting a thermometer and a
stirrer and an open double –
walled vessel), Two
thermometers, stop clock,
Heater, Burner, Water, Clamp
Stand, two rubber stoppers with
holes, Strong cotton threads
and Beaker.
Diagram:

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 Vaasavi International School – CBSE, Muthialpet, Pondicherry
Theory
Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of cooling of a body is directly proportional to the
temperature difference between the body and the surrounding, provided the temperature
difference is small.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as follows:
𝑑𝑄
∝ (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝑑𝑡
For a body of mass m, specific heat c, with a temperature T kept in the surrounding of
temperature T0, the heat energy is given as follows:
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑇
Rate of cooling, = 𝑚𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇
Hence, 𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑡 ∝ (𝑇 − 𝑇0 )
𝑑𝑇
ms is a constant, 𝑑𝑡
∝ (𝑇 − 𝑇0 )

From the above relation, it is clear that as time increases, T decreases, (T–T0) decreases, as
result the fall of temperature (dT/dt) must also decrease.

Procedure

• Fill the space between the double wall of the enclosure with water and keep it on top of
a table.
• Fill two-thirds of the calorimeter with water heated to about 80 °C.
• Suspend the calorimeter inside the enclosure with a thermometer in it. Cover it with a
wooden lid with a hole in the middle.
• Suspend a thermometer from the clamp and stand into the enclosure water and the
other thermometer in calorimeter water.
• Note the least count of thermometers.
• Set the stop clock to zero and note down its least count.
• Note the temperature T0 of water in the enclosure.
• Start stirring the water in calorimeter so that it cools uniformly.
• When the calorimeter has convenient temperature reading, note it down and start and
stop the clock watch
• Continue stirring and note the temperature after every few minutes. The temperature
falls quickly in the first few minutes
• Note down the enclosure water temperature every five minutes.
• When the temperature fall becomes slow, note down the temperature at an interval of
two minutes for ten minutes and then an interval of 5 minutes.
• Stop when the fall of temperature becomes very slow.
• Record your observation as given in the table below.

Observation:

Room Temperature = _____ °C

The Least count of thermometer = _____ °C
The Least count of stop clock watch = _____ s
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 Vaasavi International School – CBSE, Muthialpet, Pondicherry

Table:

Sl. No. Time (s) Temperature (oC) Sl. No. Time (s) Temperature (oC)
1 0 31 930
2 30 32 960
3 60 33 990
4 90 34 1020
5 120 35 1050
6 150 36 1080
7 180 37 1110
8 210 38 1140
9 240 39 1170
10 270 40 1200
11 300 41 1230
12 330 42 1260
13 360 43 1290
14 390 44 1320
15 420 45 1350
16 450 46 1380
17 480 47 1410
18 510 48 1440
19 540 49 1470
20 570 50 1500
21 600 51 1530
22 630 52 1560
23 660 53 1590
24 690 54 1620
25 720 55 1650
26 750 56 1680
27 810 57 1710
28 840 58 1740
29 870 59 1770
30 900 60 1800

Result
The temperature is seen to fall quickly in the beginning and then the difference in temperature
slowly decreases. This is in agreement with Newton’s law of cooling.
Precautions:

• The difference in temperature between the body and surroundings must be small.
• The loss of heat from the body should be by radiation only.
Source of error:

• The time and temperature are to be recorded properly.

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 Vaasavi International School – CBSE, Muthialpet, Pondicherry

7. Sonometer – Variation with tension

Aim:
To study the relation between the length of a given wire and tension for constant frequency
using a sonometer.
Materials Required:
A sonometer, A set of eight tuning forks, ½ kg hanger, Seven ½ kg slotted weights, Rubber pad,
Paper rider and Metre-scale.
Theory:
The frequency of the string and the tuning fork will be the same if they vibrate at the same
resonance. For a string with length l, diameter D, material density ρ and tension T, then the
frequency v is given as:

1 𝑇
𝑣= √
𝑙𝐷 𝜋𝜌

Diagram:

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 Vaasavi International School – CBSE, Muthialpet, Pondicherry
Procedure:
1. Place the sonometer with a load of 4 kg on the table as shown in the above diagram.
2. Frictionless pulley should be used for the experiment.
3. The hanger should carry a maximum weight that is suitable for it.
4. To have a maximum length of the wire, move the wooden bridges accordingly.
5. From the set of tuning fork, select 256 Hz fork and strike it against the rubber pad to
make it vibrate. After striking the fork, bring it near your ear.
6. Leave the wire AB to vibrate by plucking it from the middle.
7. To determine the lowest frequency, the sound produced from tuning fork and wire
should be compared. Note: Sound with low pitch will have less frequency.
8. Reduce the distance between the wooden bridges as the frequency from the wire is less.
Check for the frequencies again.
9. The length of the wire AB should be reduced continuously until the frequency of the
wire becomes equal to the frequency of the tuning fork.
10. Place a V shaped paper rider R in the middle of the wire. Strike the tuning fork against
the rubber pad and touch the lower end of the handle with the sonometer board. The
wire AB will start to vibrate and the rider R falls off the wire AB.
11. As the wooden bridges are moved closer the length of the wire AB reduces. Record the
length of wire AB in the table under the “length decreasing” column.
12. Now bring the wooden bridges closer and adjust the length of the wire AB by increasing
it till the rider R falls off.
13. Record the increase in the length of the wire under “length increasing” in the table.
14. Remove the slotted weights one by one and reduce the loads to 3.5 kg, 3 kg, etc till it
reaches 1 kg. Repeat the above steps with the same fork.
15. Record the observations in a tabular form.
Observations
Constant frequency of tuning fork, 𝑣 = ……………. Hz
Table:

Resonant length of wire

Inc. Dec.
Load M Tension Mean = 𝒍𝟐
Sl. No. Length Length l2
(kg) T = Mg (N) 𝒍𝟏+𝒍𝟐 𝑻
l1 l2 (cm)
𝟐
(cm) (cm)
1
2
3
4
5

Result:

From the graph, it is concluded that T ∝ l2 for constant frequency v.

This verifies the law of tension of transverse vibrations of strings.
Precautions

• Frictionless pulleys should be used.

• The wires should be of uniform cross-section and kinkless.
• The maximum load on the wire should not exceed the elastic limit.

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 Vaasavi International School – CBSE, Muthialpet, Pondicherry
• Soft rubber pad should be used to strike the tuning forks.
• For calculations, the mean of length decreasing and increasing should be used.
• While transferring the vibrations, the lower end of the handle should be touched gently
to the sonometer board.
• The load should include hanger weight too.
• After the experiment, the load should be removed.
Sources of Error:

• Frictionless pulley might not be used.

• The rigid and uniform cross-sectional wire might not be used.
• Correct weights are not used.
• Sharp wooden bridges might not be used.

8. Sonometer – Variation with frequency

Aim:
To study the relation between the frequency and the length of a given wire under constant
tension using a sonometer.
Materials Required:
A sonometer, A set of eight tuning forks, ½ kg hanger, Seven ½ kg slotted weights, Rubber pad,
Paper rider and Metre-scale.
Theory:
The frequency of the string and the tuning fork will be the same if they vibrate at the same
resonance. For a string with length l, diameter D, material density ρ and tension T, then the
frequency v is given as:

1 𝑇
𝑣= √
𝑙𝐷 𝜋𝜌

From the above equation, we know that

1
𝑣∝
𝑙
vl = constant
The graph between v and l will be a hyperbola
The relation between the length (l) and tension (T) from the above equation, is given as follows:

𝑇
√ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑙

√𝑇 ∝ 𝑙
𝑇 ∝ 𝑙2

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 Vaasavi International School – CBSE, Muthialpet, Pondicherry
Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Place the sonometer on the
table as shown in the figure.
2. Oil the pulley to make it
frictionless
3. Put suitable maximum weight
to the hanger
4. Move the wooden bridge P
outward to include the
maximum length of wire AB
between them.
5. Pick the tuning fork of the least
frequency from the set. Make it
vibrate by striking its prong on a rubber pad. Bring the fork close to the ear.
6. Pluck the wire AB from the middle and leave it to vibrate.
7. Listen to the sound produced by both the tuning fork and the wire and judge which has
less frequency.
8. Since the long wire may have less frequency move the bridges inward and check the
frequencies again.
9. Go on decreasing the length of the wire till the frequency of the wire becomes equal to
the frequency of the tuning fork.
10. Place an inverted V-shaped paper rider in the middle of the wire AB. Vibrate the tuning
fork and touch the lower end of its handle with a sonometer board. The wire AB vibrates
due to resonance and the paper rider falls.
11. Note the length of the wire AB between the edges of two bridges and record it in the
‘length decreasing’ column.
12. Bring the bridges closer and adjust the length of the wire by increasing little by little till
the rider falls.
13. Note the length of the wire and record it in ‘length increasing column.’
14. Take the rest of the five tuning forks, and one by one, in the order of increasing
frequency repeat steps 5 to 13.
Observations
Constant tension on the wire, T = _____ kgwt.

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 Vaasavi International School – CBSE, Muthialpet, Pondicherry
Resonant length of the wire (cm)
Frequency of
Sl. Length Length
No.
the Turning 𝒍𝟏 + 𝒍𝟐 vl
fork v (Hz) Increasing Increasing 𝒍=
(l1) cm (l2) cm 𝟐
1
2
3
4
5

Result
From the graph, it can be concluded that vl = constant.
Precautions

• Frictionless pulleys should be used.

• The wires should be of uniform cross-section and kinkless.
• The maximum load on the wire should not exceed the elastic limit.
• Soft rubber pad should be used to strike the tuning forks.
• For calculations, the mean of length decreasing and increasing should be used.
• While transferring the vibrations, the lower end of the handle should be touched gently
to the sonometer board.
• The load should include hanger weight too.
• After the experiment, the load should be removed.
Sources of Error:

• Frictionless pulley might not be used.

• The rigid and uniform cross-sectional wire might not be used.
• Correct weights are not used.
• Sharpe wooden bridges might not be used.

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 Vaasavi International School – CBSE, Muthialpet, Pondicherry
Section – A

Activity - 1: Paper Scale making

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Activity – 2: Principle of moments

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Activity – 3 Graph Plotting

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Section – B
Activity – 4: Cooling curve of Molten Wax

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Activity – 5: Expansion of Liquid

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Activity – 6: Factors affecting heat loss

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