NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS

AARON LANDESMAN

C ONTENTS
1. Introduction 3
1.1. Acknowledgements 3
1.2. A first definition 3
1.3. Examples 4
1.4. Characters 7
1.5. Character Tables and strange coincidences 8
2. Basic Properties of Representations 11
2.1. Irreducible representations 12
2.2. Direct sums 14
3. Desiderata and problems 16
3.1. Desiderata 16
3.2. Applications 17
3.3. Dihedral Groups 17
3.4. The Quaternion group 18
3.5. Representations of A4 18
3.6. Representations of S4 19
3.7. Representations of A5 19
3.8. Groups of order p3 20
3.9. Further Challenge exercises 22
4. Complete Reducibility of Complex Representations 24
5. Schur’s Lemma 30
6. Isotypic Decomposition 32
6.1. Proving uniqueness of isotypic decomposition 32
7. Homs and duals and tensors, Oh My! 35
7.1. Homs of representations 35
7.2. Duals of representations 35
7.3. Tensors of representations 36
7.4. Relations among dual, tensor, and hom 38
8. Orthogonality of Characters 41
8.1. Reducing Theorem 8.1 to Proposition 8.6 41
8.2. Projection operators 43
1
2 AARON LANDESMAN

8.3. Proving Proposition 8.6 44

9. Orthogonality of character tables 46
10. The Sum of Squares Formula 48
10.1. The inner product on characters 48
10.2. The Regular Representation 50
11. The number of irreducible representations 52
11.1. Proving characters are independent 53
11.2. Proving characters form a basis for class functions 54
12. Dimensions of Irreps divide the order of the Group 57
Appendix A. Definition and constructions of fields 59
A.1. The definition of a field 59
A.2. Constructing field extensions by adjoining elements 60
Appendix B. A quick intro to field theory 63
B.1. Maps of fields 63
B.2. Characteristic of a field 64
B.3. Basic properties of characteristic 64
Appendix C. Algebraic closures 66
Appendix D. Existence of algebraic closures 67
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 3

1. I NTRODUCTION
Loosely speaking, representation theory is the study of groups acting on
vector spaces. It is the natural intersection of group theory and linear algebra.
In math, representation theory is the building block for subjects like Fourier
analysis, while also the underpinning for abstract areas of number theory
like the Langlands program. It appears crucially in the study of Lie groups,
algebraic groups, matrix groups over finite fields, combinatorics, and alge-
braic geometry, just to name a few. In addition to great relevance in nearly all
fields of mathematics, representation theory has many applications outside
of mathematics. For example, it is used in chemistry to study the states of the
hydrogen atom and in quantum mechanics to the simple harmonic oscillator.
To start, I’ll try and describe some examples of representations, and high-
light some strange coincidences. Much of our goal through the course will
be to prove that these “coincidences” are actually theorems.

1.1. Acknowledgements. I’d like to thank Noah Snyder for sending me

some homework from a course he taught in representation theory. Many of
his problems appear in these notes. In turn, some of those problems may
have been taken from a class Noah took with Richard Taylor.

1.2. A first definition. To start, let’s begin by defining a representation so

that we can hit the ground running. In order to define a representation, we’ll
need some preliminary definitions to set up our notation.
Remark 1.1. Throughout these notes, we’ll adapt the following conventions:
(1) Our vector spaces will be taken over a field k. You should assume k =
C unless you are familiar with field theory, in particular the notion of
characteristic and algebraically closed. (We will make explicit which
assumptions we need on k when they come up. After a certain point,
we will work over C.)
(2) All vector spaces will be finite dimensional.
To start, we recall the definition of a group action.
Definition 1.2. For A and B two sets, we let Homsets ( A, B) denote the set
of maps from A to B and Autsets ( A) := Homsets ( A, A). For A and B two
vector spaces over a field k, we let Homvect ( A, B) denote the set of linear
maps from A to B and Autvect ( A) := Homvect ( A, A).
Remark 1.3. In general, A and B have extra structure, we will often let
Hom( A, B) denote the set maps preserving that extra structure. In particular,
when A and B are vector spaces, we will often use Hom( A, B) in place of
Homvect ( A, B) and similarly Aut( A) to denote Autvect ( A).
4 AARON LANDESMAN

Definition 1.4. Let G be a group and S be a set. An action of G on S is a

map π : G → Aut(S) so that π (e) = idS and π ( g) ◦ π (h) = π ( g · h), where
g, h ∈ G, s ∈ S and e ∈ G is the identity.
Joke 1.5. Groups, like men, are judged by their actions.
We can now define a group representation.
Definition 1.6. Let G be a group. A representation of G (also called a G-
representation, or just a representation) is a pair (π, V ) where V is a vector
space and π : G → Autvect (V ) is a group action. I.e., an action on the set V
so that for each g ∈ G, π ( g) : V → V is a linear map.
Remark 1.7. If you’re having trouble understanding the definition of a
representation, a good way to think about it is an assignment of a matrix to
every element of the group, in a way compatible with multiplication.
Exercise 1.8 (Easy exercise). If g ∈ G has order n so that gn = 1, and
π : G → Aut(V ) is a representation, show that π ( g) is a matrix of order
dividing n.
1.3. Examples. Let’s start by giving few examples of representations. The
first one is rather trivial.
Example 1.9. Let G be any group. Consider the representation (π, V ) where
V is a 1 dimensional vector space and every element of G acts by the matrix
(1). Formally, π : G → Aut(V ) satisfies π ( g) = (1) for every g ∈ G. Said
another way, G acts as the identity map V → V. This is a representation
because for any g, h ∈ G,
π ( g)π (h) = (1) · (1) = (1) = π ( gh).
This is called the trivial representation and we denote it by triv.
Let’s see a couple more examples of representations on a 1-dimensional
vector space.
Remark 1.10. We refer to representations on an n-dimensional vector space
as n-dimensional representations. Further, for (π, V ) a representation, we
often refer to the representation simply as π when or V when clear from
context. We call a representation (π, V ) a complex representation if V is a
vector space over the complex numbers. Similarly, we say the representation
is a real representation if V is a vector space is over the real numbers.
Example 1.11. Consider the 1-dimensional complex representation (π, V ) of
the group Z/2 = {ι, id} (with ι the nontrivial element ι ∈ Z/2) defined by
π (ι) = ×(−1). In other words, π (ι)(v) = −v.
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 5

Exercise 1.12 (Easy exercise). Verify the representation of Example 1.11 is

indeed a representation.

We refer to this as the sign representation and denote it by sgn.

Example 1.13. Consider the 1-dimensional representation of Z/3 on the

complex numbers defined as follows: Let x be a generator for Z/3 √
so that
3
Z/3 = x, x , id . Define (π, C) by π ( x ) = (ω ) for ω := − 2 + i 2 a cube
2 1


root of unity. This forces π ( x2 ) = (ω 2 ), and, as always, π (id) = (1). Here

we use parenthesis around a complex number to denote a 1 × 1 matrix, which
is the element of Aut(C) given by multiplication by the entry.
There is another representation, which we call given by π ( x ) = ω 2 and
π ( x2 ) = ω.

Exercise 1.14. Generalizing Example 1.13 For n an integer, construct n dif-

ferent representations of Z/n on C (i.e., construct action maps π : Z/n →
Aut(C)) and prove these are indeed representations. Hint: For each of the n
possible roots of unity ζ with ζ n = 1, send a generator of Z/n to the linear
transformation C → C given by x 7→ ζ · x.

The following example is more complicated, but prototypical.

Example 1.15. Let V denote the complex numbers, considered as a 2-dimensional

R-vector space with basis {1, i }. Consider the triangle with vertices at
the three cube roots of unity. Explicitly, vertex1 is at (1, 0) vertex 2 is at
√  √
(−1/2, 3/2) and vertex 3 is at −1/2, − 3/2 . See Figure 1 for a picture.

Then, there is a group action of the symmetric group on three elements, S3 ,

permuting the three vertices of the triangle. In fact, this action can be realized
as the restriction of a representation of S3 on R2 to the set {1, 2, 3}. Indeed,
since the vectors corresponding to the vertices 1 and 2 are independent, any
linear transformation is uniquely determined by where it sends 1 and 2. This
shows the representation is unique. To show existence, we can write down
the representation in terms of matrices. Explicitly, we let the elements of S3
act by the following matrices. That is, we consider the map π : S3 → Aut(V )
6 AARON LANDESMAN

F IGURE 1. Picture of a triangle with three labeled vertices,

corresponding to the S3 action

given by

 
1 0
id 7→
0 1
√ !
1 3
−
√2 2
(12) 7→ 3 1
2 2
 
1 0
(23) 7→
0 −1
√ !
−√12 − 23
(13) 7→
− 23 1
2
√ !
−
√2
1
− 23
(123) 7→ 3
2 − 12
√ !
3
−√21 2
(132) 7→
− 23 − 12

To check this is a representation, we need to see that id maps to the identity

and π ( g) ◦ π (h) = π ( g · h). Let’s check this in the case g = (12), h = (23).
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 7

Indeed, in this case,

√ !
1 3

−
√2 2 1 0
π (12)π (23) = 3 1 0 −1
2 2
√ !
−
√2
1
− 23
= 3
2 − 12
= π (123).
Visually, this is saying that if one first flips the triangle flips 1 and 2, and then
flips 2 and 3, this composition is the same as rotating 1 to 2.
Exercise 1.16. Verify that this is indeed a representation by checking that for
all g, h ∈ S3 , π ( g)π (h) = π ( g · h). (We checked g = (12), h = (23) above.)
Hint: It will probably be much easier to check this holds visually in terms of
rotations and reflections than by writing out matrix multiplications.
The moral of this example is that a representation is an assignment of a
matrix to each element of a group, in a way that respects composition of
group elements.
We call this representation the standard representation of S3 and denote
it by std.
1.4. Characters. One useful piece of information which can be garnered
from a representation is its character.
Definition 1.17. For M : V → V a matrix, the trace of M, denoted tr( M ), is
the sum of the diagonal elements of M.
Definition 1.18. For (π, V ) a G-representation, define the character of (π, V )
by
χπ : G → k
g 7→ tr (π ( g)) .
Example 1.19. The character of the standard representation of S3 from Ex-
ample 1.15 is given by
id 7→ 2
(12) 7→ 0
(23) 7→ 0
(13) 7→ 0
(123) 7→ −1
(123) 7→ −1
8 AARON LANDESMAN

Warning 1.20. The character is in no way a group homomorphism. This is

already seen in Example 1.19.
Definition 1.21. Two elements g, h ∈ G are conjugate if there is some x ∈ G
with xgx −1 = h.
Exercise 1.22. Verify that the relation g ∼ h if g is conjugate to h is an
equivalence relation.
Definition 1.23. A conjugacy class of a group G is a maximal set of elements
of G all conjugate to each other. That is, it is an equivalence class of G under
the relation of conjugacy.
Lemma 1.24. For (π, V ) a G-representation, if g and h are conjugate in G, then
χ π ( g ) = χ π ( h ).

Proof. Say h = kgk−1 . We wish to verify tr(π (h)) = tr(π (kgk−1 )) = tr(π (k)π ( g)π (k )−1 ).
So, taking A = π (k) and B = π ( g), it suffices to show
tr( B) = tr( ABA−1 ).

Exercise 1.25. Verify this identity. Hint: Here are two possible approaches.
(1) If you’ve seen generalized eigenvalues, use that the trace is the sum of
generalized eigenvalues with multiplicity, and note that generalized eigen-
values are preserved under conjugation. (2) If you haven’t seen the notion of
generalized eigenvalues, reduce to showing tr(CD ) = tr( DC ) and determine
a formula for both of these in terms of the matrix entries of C and D.
□
Remark 1.26. Let Conj( G ) denote the set of conjugacy classes of G. For
c ∈ Conj( G ) and g a representative for c, and π as G-representation, define
χπ (c) := χπ ( g). This is independent of choice of g by Lemma 1.24.
1.5. Character Tables and strange coincidences. As promised, we now
espouse the amazing coincidences associated with representations of groups.
To see some of these coincidences, we look at the character table. Given
a group G we can associate to G a character table, where in the rows we
list certain representations (the irreducible representations, to be defined
precisely later) and in the columns we list the conjugacy classes of G. In the
row associated to (π, V ) and column associated to the conjugacy class of g,
we put χπ ( g) (which is independent of choice of g by Lemma 1.24). Let’s see
a few examples.
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 9

id ι
triv 1 1
sgn 1 −1

TABLE 1. Character table for Z/2

Example 1.27. Let G = Z/2, let ι be the nontrivial element, and let triv and
sgn be the representations discussed in Example 1.9 and Example 1.11. We
can form the character table
Here’s another example:
Example 1.28. Let G = Z/3 with elements x, x2 , id, and let π1 , π2 be the two
representations discussed in Example 1.13 so πi ( x ) = ω i for ω a cube root of
unity. We can form the character table

id x x2
triv 1 1 1
π1 1 ω ω2
π2 1 ω2 ω

TABLE 2. Character table for Z/3

Let’s do one more example:

Example 1.29. Let G = S3 be the symmetric group on three elements. Let
std denote the standard representation of Example 1.15. Let sgn denote the
1-dimensional representation where the transpositions (12), (13), (23) act
by (−1) and all other elements act by (1) (this is related to Example 1.11
by composing the map S3 → Z/2, sending transpositions to the nontrivial
element of Z/2, with the sign representation for Z/2). Then, with some help
from Example 1.19, S3 has character table given as follows:

id (12) (123)
triv 1 1 1
sgn 1 −1 1
std 2 0 −1

TABLE 3. Character table for S3

10 AARON LANDESMAN

Note that in the top row we use (12) to denote the conjugacy class of (12).
So it really corresponds to the three elements (12), (13), (23). Similarly, (123)
denotes the conjugacy class of (123), which is {(123), (132)}.
Let x denote the complex conjugate of x. Recall that the dot product of
two complex vectors v and w ∈ Cn is by definition ⟨v, w⟩ := ∑in=1 vi wi .
Remark 1.30. Let us make some observations regarding the above two
character tables:
(1) The number of representations agrees with the number of conjugacy
classes.
(2) The size of the group is equal to the sum of the squares of the dimen-
sions of the representations.
(3) The dimensions of all representations divide #G.
(4) The dot product of any two distinct columns is equal to 0.
(5) The dot product of any column, corresponding to a conjugacy class c,
with itself is equal to #G/#c.
(6) Given two rows of a character table, corresponding to represen-
tations π and ρ, define a weighted inner product by ⟨χπ , χρ ⟩ :=
∑c∈Conj(G) #cχπ (c)χρ (c). Then, this weighted inner product of any
row with itself takes value #G and the weighted inner product of any
two distinct rows is 0.
Exercise 1.31 (Crucial exercise). (1) Verify all claims of Remark 1.30 for
the groups Z/2, Z/3, S3 as in examples Example 1.27, Example 1.28,
and Example 1.29.
(2) Write down the character table for the representations of Z/n con-
structed in Exercise 1.14. Verify the claims of Remark 1.30 for those
representations.
It turns out these amazing coincidences hold for all finite groups. Much of
the rest of the course will be devoted to proving this.
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 11

2. B ASIC P ROPERTIES OF R EPRESENTATIONS

Having seen a preview of coming attractions yesterday, we’ll begin solidi-
fying basic notions today.
As is ubiquitous in mathematics, once one has defined the objects of
a category, one should define the maps. For example, in the category of
groups, the objects are groups and the maps are group homomorphisms.
In the category of k-vector spaces, the objects are k-vector spaces and the
maps are linear transformations. We next define the maps in the category of
G-representations.
Definition 2.1. Let (π, V ) and (ρ, W ) be two G-representations. A map of
representations is a linear map of vector spaces T : V → W so that for all
g ∈ G,
T ◦ π ( g) = ρ( g) ◦ T.
Said another way, the diagram
π ( g)
V V
(2.1) T T
ρ( g)
W W
commutes.
Definition 2.2. A map of G-representations T : (π, V ) → (ρ, W ) is an isomor-
phism if there is an inverse map of G-representations S : (ρ, W ) → (π, V ) so
that S ◦ T : (π, V ) → (π, V ) is the identity on V and T ◦ S : (ρ, W ) → (ρ, W )
is the identity on W. We say two G-representations are isomorphic if there
exists an isomorphism between them.
Exercise 2.3 (Optional Exercise). Show that a map of G-representations T is
an isomorphism if and only if T : V → W, when viewed simply as a linear
transformation of vector spaces, is an isomorphism. Hint: Show that the
inverse map to T is automatically a map of representations.
Let’s see an example of a map of representations.
Example 2.4. Take G = Z/2 and define the 2-dimensional representation
(π, V ) by
 
0 1
π (ι) =
1 0
for ι the nontrivial element of Z/2. In other words, ι swaps the basis vectors
of V. Let e1 and e2 denote the two basis vectors of V. Then, we have a map
T : (triv, k ) → (π, V )
12 AARON LANDESMAN

Defined by T (1) = e1 + e2 .
Let’s check this is a map of representations. We have to check that for all
g ∈ G, v ∈ V, T triv( g)v = π ( g) Tv. Pictorially, we want to check
id
k k
(2.2) T T
π ( g)
V V
commutes.
In equations, since triv( g) = (1), we only need to check Tv = π ( g) Tv. In
other words, we just need to check that all elements g ∈ G fix the image of
T. However, the image of T is the span of e1 + e2 . The identity in Z/2 fixes
everything and π (ι)(e1 + e2 ) = e2 + e1 , so it is indeed fixed.
Exercise 2.5. Define a nonzero map of Z/2 representations from (sgn, C) to
(π, V ) with sgn the sign representation and (π, V ) the representation given
in Example 2.4. Show your map of representations is unique up to scaling.
2.1. Irreducible representations. We next introduce irreducible represen-
tations, which are essentially the building blocks of representation theory.

Definition 2.6. For (π, V ) a representation, a subrepresentation is a subspace

W ⊂ V which is stable under the action of all g ∈ G (i.e., π ( g)(W ) ⊂ W for
all g ∈ G). Such a W has the structure of a representation given by (π |W , W )
where π |W ( g) := π ( g)|W . I.e., viewing π ( g) as a map V → V, π ( g)|W is the
induced map W → W, which has the correct target because π ( g)(W ) ⊂ W.
Exercise 2.7. Show that for (π, V ) a representation and g ∈ G, if W ⊂ V
is subrepresentation then the inclusion π ( g)(W ) ⊂ W is automatically an
equality. (Recall: All representations are finite dimensional.)
Example 2.8. For any representation (π, V ), both 0 and V define subrepre-
sentations.
Definition 2.9. A representation (π, V ) is irreducible if its only subrepresen-
tations are the 0 subspace and all of V. If a representation is not irreducible,
we say it is reducible. For brevity, we sometimes refer to an irreducible
representation as an irrep.
Exercise 2.10 (Easy exercise). Show that all 1-dimensional representations
are irreducible.
Example 2.11. The standard representation of S3 from Example 1.15 is irre-
ducible. To see this, if it were reducible, it would have some 1 dimensional
subrepresentation, spanned by a nonzero vector v. But then, π ((123))(v) is
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 13

a vector not in the span of v, because it is related to v by rotation by 120◦

which is not in the span of v. Therefore, std, R2 cannot be reducible, so it


is irreducible.
Exercise 2.12. Let Sn denote the symmetric group on n elements. Define
the permutation representation of Sn as the representation (π, V ) where V
has basis e1 , . . . , en and σ ∈ Sn acts by π (σ)(ei ) = eσ(i) . This is called the
permutation representation, which we denote perm. Show that V has two
subrepresentations given by the subspaces W1 , W2 where
( )
n
W1 := ∑ a i ei ∈ V : ∑ a i = 0
i =1 i
and
( )
n
W2 := ∑ a i ei ∈ V : a1 = a2 = · · · = a n .
i =1
For the remainder of this exercise, assume the characteristic of k does not
divide n. If you have not seen the notion of characteristic, feel free to assume
k = C.
(1) Determine the dimensions of W1 and W2 .
(2) Show that W1 and W2 are independent and span V.
(3) In the case n = 3, show W1 is isomorphic to std the standard repre-
sentation of Example 1.15 (in fact, this holds for n > 3, but we haven’t
yet defined the standard representation for higher n).
(4) Determine which 1-dimensional representation (π |W2 , W2 ) is isomor-
phic to. Hint: It is one we have already seen, and we haven’t seen
very many!
Definition 2.13. We call the representation W1 from Exercise 2.12 the stan-
dard representation of Sn , and denote it by std.
Note that Definition 2.13 is not a conflict of notation with our definition of
the standard representation for S3 by Exercise 2.12(3).
If you are assuming k = C skip the following exercise.
Exercise 2.14 (Optional tricky exercise for those familiar with the characteris-
tic of a field). In the setup of Exercise 2.12, assume n = 3 and char (k ) = 3.
What is the dimension of W2 ? Are W1 and W2 independent? Is W1 irre-
ducible?
Exercise 2.15 (Important exercise). Let T : (π, V ) → (ρ, W ) be a map of
representations. Show that ker T ⊂ V is a subrepresentation of V and
im T ⊂ W is a subrepresentation of W.
14 AARON LANDESMAN

Lemma 2.16. A representation is irreducible if and only if for all nonzero v ∈ V,

the set { g · v} g∈G spans V.

Proof. Observe that for any v ∈ V, Span {π ( g)v} g∈G is a G-stable subspace
because for any fixed h ∈ G,
Span {π ( g)v} g∈G = Span {π (h)π ( g)v} g∈G .

Therefore, if the representation is irreducible, Span {π ( g)v} g∈G must either

be all of V or 0. In other words, if v ̸= 0, Span {π ( g)v} g∈G = V.
Conversely, if the representation is reducible, let W ⊂ V be a subrepre-
sentation and take some nonzero w ∈ W. Then {π ( g)w} g∈G ⊂ W does not
span V, as desired. □
Exercise 2.17. In the setup of Exercise 2.12 (still assuming char (k ) ∤ n), show
that V is reducible and W1 , W2 are irreducible subrepresentations. Show that
these are the only nonzero proper subrepresentations. Hint: If W is a third
subrepresentation, pick w = ∑in=1 ai ei ∈ W nonzero and look at the span
of { gw} g∈G . Depending on whether a1 = · · · = an and whether ∑i ai = 0,
show that this span is either W1 , W2 , or all of V.
2.2. Direct sums. We now recall a construction from linear algebra.
Definition 2.18. For V and W two vector spaces, the direct sum, denoted
V ⊕ W, is defined by
V ⊕ W := {(v, w) : v ∈ V, w ∈ W } .

Addition is given by (v1 , w1 ) + (v2 , w2 ) = (v1 + v2 , w1 + w2 ) and scalar

multiplication is given by c (v, w) = (cv, cw). This makes V ⊕ W into a vector
space. More generally, one can define ⊕in=1 Vi as the set of tuples (v1 , . . . , vn )
with vi ∈ Vi , and give it the structure of a vector space analogously.
Remark 2.19. Sometimes, the object defined above as V ⊕ W is also referred
to as V × W.
Example 2.20. The vector space R2 = R ⊕ R. Also, R12 = R7 ⊕ R3 ⊕ R2 .
Further, Rn = ⊕in=1 R.
Just as we often construct new vector spaces by taking direct sums of vector
spaces we have already constructed, we can also construct new representa-
tions by taking direct sums of representations we have already constructed.
We now formalize this notion.
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 15

Definition 2.21. If (π, V ) and (ρ, W ) are two G-representations, the direct
sum is the representation (π ⊕ ρ, V ⊕ W ) defined by
(π ⊕ ρ)( g) : V ⊕ W → V ⊕ W
(v, w) 7→ (π ( g)v, ρ( g)w) .
Exercise 2.22. Check that the direct sum of two representations (π, V ) and
(ρ, W ) is indeed a representation. Check that (π, V ) and (ρ, W ) are both
subrepresentations of (π ⊕ ρ, V ⊕ W ). In particular, deduce that the direct
sum of two nonzero representations is never irreducible. Hint: Choose bases
for V and W, and write out the matrix π ( g) as a block matrix with blocks
corresponding to the maps V → V and W → W.
Exercise 2.23. Show that the representation (π, V ) of Z/2 from Example 2.4
can be written as
(π, V ) ≃ (triv, C) ⊕ (sgn, C) .
Exercise 2.24. For (π, V ) a representation, recall χπ ( g) = tr(π ( g)). Show
that for (π, V ) , (ρ, W ) two representations, we have χπ ⊕ρ ( g) = χπ ( g) +
χ ρ ( g ).
 16 AARON LANDESMAN

3. D ESIDERATA AND PROBLEMS

In this section, we’ll state the main results we’ll prove later in the course,
and use them to compute lots of examples and fun problems. To start,
we recall the main things we want to prove about representations of finite
groups, which were essentially already stated in Remark 1.30. In order to
temporarily state our desiderata, we need to define certain inner products on
the rows and columns of a character table. We recommend you jump to the
exercises in subsection 3.2 and come back to read subsection 3.1 as needed.
3.1. Desiderata. Given a group G and its associated character table (where
we think of the character table as a matrix with rows corresponding to
irreducible representations π, columns corresponding to conjugacy classes c
and entries given by tr π (c)) we define the following inner products: Given
two rows of the character table v and w (thought of as vectors with entries
vc , c ∈ Conj( G ),) define
⟨v, w⟩row := ∑ #c · vc wc .
c∈Conj( G )

Let Irrep( G ) denote the set of isomorphism classes of complex irreducible

representations of G. Given two columns of the character table x and y
(thought of as vectors with entries xπ , π ∈ Irrep( G )) define
⟨ x, y⟩column := ∑ xπ yπ .
π ∈Irrep( G )

(These notations are temporary for this section only, we will re-introduce the
relevant inner products later in a broader context.)
Desiderata 3.1. Let G be a finite group. Then, the following hold:
Maschke’s theorem Every complex representation is a direct sum of irreducible representations.
Isotypic decomposition The direct sum decomposition of the previous part is unique in the sense
that any two such decompositions have the same multiset of irreducible
components. That is, each irreducible representation which appears in one
decomposition appears in the other with the same multiplicity.
Sum of squares # Irrep( G ) is finite, and in fact #G = ∑π ∈Irrep(G) (dim π )2 .
Conjugacy and irreps # Conj( G ) = # Irrep( G )
Dimensions of irreps For π ∈ Irrep( G ), dim π | #G.
Orthogonality of rows For G a group, the rows of the character table are orthogonal in the sense that
for any two rows v and w, ⟨v, w⟩row = 0 if v ̸= w and ⟨v, w⟩row = #G if
v = w.
Orthogonality of columns The columns of of the character table are orthogonal in the sense that for any
two columns x and y, ⟨ x, y⟩column = 0 if x ̸= y and ⟨ x, y⟩column = #G #c for
x=y
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 17

Multiplicity If (π, V ) is a representation with some irreducible representation (W, ρ)

appearing with multiplicity n inside π (that is, π ≃ ρ⊕n ⊕ ρ′ where ρ′ has
no subrepresentations isomorphic to ρ) then ∑c∈Conj(G) #cχπ (c)χρ (c) =
#G · n. Recall that, for any g ∈ c, we have defined χπ (c) := tr π ( g).
The items above will be proven in Theorem 4.5, Theorem 6.3, Theorem 10.1,
Corollary 11.6, Theorem 12.1, Theorem 9.2, and Corollary 10.8 below.

3.2. Applications. We now get to apply our desiderata with great effect. In
what follows in this subsection, we will assume Desiderata 3.1 throughout
(and we may avoid stating explicitly when we are using it). We also assume
all representations are over the complex numbers so that we can apply
Desiderata 3.1 freely.
Exercise 3.2. (1) If you haven’t yet finished Exercise 1.31, (which asked
you to compute the character tables of S3 and Z/n and verify the
properties listed in Desiderata 3.1) now is your chance! Do it!
(2) Show that all the representations you write down are irreducible.
(3) Show that every irreducible of the relevant group appears in your list
using Desiderata 3.1[Sum of squares].
Exercise 3.3. Using orthogonality of characters, show that two irreducible
complex representations of a finite group G have equal characters if and only
if they are isomorphic.
3.3. Dihedral Groups. In this section, we work out the character tables of
dihedral groups.
Definition 3.4. The dihedral group of order 2n, denoted D2n is the finite
nonabelian group generated by r and s and satisfying the relations r n = s2 =
1, sr = r −1 s.
Remark 3.5. The dihedral group D2n can be thought of as the symmetries of
the n-gon with r acting by rotation by 2π/n and s acting as a reflection. In
particular, D6 ≃ S3 .
Exercise 3.6. (1) If n is odd, construct two distinct 1-dimensional repre-
sentations of D2n .
(2) If n is even, construct four distinct 1-dimensional representations of
D2n . Hint: Allow r and s to act by ±1.
Exercise 3.7. (1) If n is odd, construct n− 1
2 distinct 2-dimensional irre-
ducible representations of D2n . Hint: Consider the action on the
n-gon where r acts by rotation by j · 2π/n for 1 ≤ j < n/2. Compute
characters to show they are distinct.
18 AARON LANDESMAN

n −2
(2) If n is even, construct 2 distinct 2-dimensional irreducible represen-
tations of D2n .
Exercise 3.8. Show that the representations constructed in Exercise 3.6 and
Exercise 3.7 are all irreducible representations of D2n . Hint: Use Desider-
ata 3.1[Sum of squares]
Exercise 3.9. Determine the character table for the group D2n . Check its rows
and columns are orthogonal in the sense of Desiderata 3.1.
3.4. The Quaternion group. In this subsection, we work out the character
table of the Quaternion group.
Definition 3.10. The Quaternion group, Q is a group of size 8 with elements
±1, ±i, ± j, ±k with the relations i2 = j2 = k2 = −1 and ij = k, ji = −k, ki =
j, ik = − j, jk = i, kj = −i.
Exercise 3.11. Construct an irreducible 2-dimension complex representation
of the Quaternion group and prove it is irreducible. Hint: Consider the
2-dimensional vector space V over C with basis vectors 1, j, which is a 4-
dimensional R-vector space V with basis 1, i, j, i · j. Identifying k = ij ∈ Q,
define an action of Q on {±1, ±i, ± j, ±i · j} ∈ V, and extend this to an action
on V.
Exercise 3.12. Construct 4 1-dimensional representations of Q and prove
they are pairwise non-isomorphic. Hint: To construct them, allow i and j to
act by either 1 or −1. To show they are distinct, use Exercise 3.3.
Exercise 3.13. Compute a complete character table for Q. It turns out there
are only two order 8 nonabelian groups up to isomorphism: Q and D8 . Can
you distinguish these two groups using their character tables?
3.5. Representations of A4 . In this section, we determine the character table
for the alternating group A4 .
Exercise 3.14. (1) Show that the Klein-4 subgroup consisting of permuta-
tions e, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23) ∈ A4 (isomorphic to Z/2 × Z/2)
is a normal subgroup of A4 .
(2) Show that the quotient A4 /K4 ≃ Z/3.
(3) Use the projection A4 → Z/3 to define 3 irreducible 1-dimensional
representations of A4 , coming from the three irreducible representa-
tions of Z/3.
Exercise 3.15. Identify the rotations of the tetrahedron in R3 with the alter-
nating group A4 . Hint: Here, A4 acts as a subgroup of the permutations of
the 4-points on the tetrahedron.
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 19

Exercise 3.16. Using Exercise 3.15, construct an irreducible 3-dimensional

representation of A4 .
Exercise 3.17. Show that the 3 1-dimensional representations of A4 con-
structed in Exercise 3.14, together with the 3-dimensional representation
constructed in Exercise 3.16 are all irreducible representations of A4 . Com-
pute the character table of A4 . Hint: After determining these are all the
representations, to avoid computing angles of rotation of the tetrahedron,
you can use the orthogonality properties of the character table to compute
the character for the 3-dimensional representation.
3.6. Representations of S4 . In this section, we determine the character table
for S4 .
Exercise 3.18. (1) Show that the Klein-4 subgroup consisting of permuta-
tions e, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23) ∈ S4 (isomorphic to Z/2 × Z/2)
is a normal subgroup of S4 .
(2) Show that the quotient S4 /K4 ≃ S3 .
(3) Use the projection S4 → S4 /K4 ≃ S3 construct irreducible representa-
tions of S4 corresponding to the three irreducible representations of
S3 (triv, sgn, and std).
Exercise 3.19. Show that S4 can be realized as the automorphisms of the
cube. Hint: Stare at the four long diagonals of the cube.
Exercise 3.20. Use Exercise 3.19 to construct an irreducible 3-dimensional
representation of S4 .
Exercise 3.21. (1) Show that altogether, S4 has 5 irreducible representa-
tions: 3 were constructed in Exercise 3.18, one was constructed in
Exercise 3.20, and there is one more, call this last one we have not yet
constructed (π, V ).
(2) Determine the dimension of V from the previous part.
(3) Even though we have not constructed the representation V, compute
the character table of S4 .
(4) Using the character table as a guide, can you construct the representa-
tion V explicitly. Hint: Can you figure out the relation between V, the
sgn representation (coming from sgn on S3 via Exercise 3.18), and the
3-dimensional representation of Exercise 3.20? This is a first example
of the “tensor product“ of representations, which we will see more of
later.
3.7. Representations of A5 . In this section, we compute character table of
A5 .
20 AARON LANDESMAN

Exercise 3.22. Compute the conjugacy classes of A5 . Hint: There are 5

conjugacy classes.
Exercise 3.23. Using the inclusion A5 → S5 construct a 4-dimensional irre-
ducible representation of A5 (which we again call std for A5 ) by composing
std
A5 → S5 −→ Aut(V ), where the latter map is the standard representation
(std, V ) (as defined in Definition 2.13) of S5 .
Exercise 3.24. Identify A5 as the group of rotations of the dodecahedron. Use
this to construct an irreducible 3-dimensional representation of A5 . Compute
the character of this representation. Hint: To compute the character, find
automorphisms of the dodecahedron of orders 2, 3, and 5. The conjugacy
classes are almost determined by their orders, with the exception that there
are 2 conjugacy classes of order 5. Note that all but one of the conjugacy
classes act by rotation. If they rotate an angle of θ about the third basis vector
(which we choose to be the angle of rotation), the action of these elements
can be expressed as
 
cos θ − sin θ 0
 sin θ cos θ 0 .
0 0 1
 √ 
It may be helpful to know cos 2π 5 = 1
4 − 1 + 5 .
Exercise 3.25. (1) Construct an automorphism S5 → S5 by sending σ 7→
(12)σ(12). Show that this restricts to an automorphism ϕ : A5 → A5 .
(2) Let (π, V ) denote the 3-dimensional representation of A5 constructed
in Exercise 3.24. Compose the automorphism ϕ : A5 → A5 con-
structed in the previous part with the representation π : A5 →
Aut(V ) to obtain another 3-dimensional representation (ρ, W ) of A5 .
Show (ρ, W ) is irreducible, but is not isomorphic to (π, V ). Hint: To
show it is not isomorphic, show that it flips the actions of the two
conjugacy classes consisting of order 5 elements.
(3) Compute the character of (ρ, W ).
Exercise 3.26. Show that A5 has 5 irreducible representations: triv, the 4-
dimensional std from Exercise 3.23, the two 3-dimensional representations
from Exercise 3.24 and Exercise 3.25, and one more. Compute the dimension
of this last representation.
Exercise 3.27. Compute the character table of A5 .
3.8. Groups of order p3 . In this subsection, we guide the reader in determin-
ing the number of conjugacy classes of any group of order p3 for p a prime.
This is carried out in Exercise 3.44
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 21

Definition 3.28. Let G be a group. Define the center of G, denoted Z ( G ) by

Z ( G ) := { g ∈ G : gh = hg for all g ∈ G } .
Remark 3.29. The center is the set of elements that commute with all other
elements, so G is abelian if and only if G = Z ( G ).
Exercise 3.30. Show Z ( G ) ⊂ G is a normal subgroup.
Exercise 3.31. Suppose p is a prime and G is a p-group (meaning #G = pn for
some n). Suppose G acts on a finite set S. Let FixG (S) ⊂ S denote the set of
s ∈ S with g · s = s for all g ∈ G. I.e., FixG (S) is the set of fixed points under
the G-action. Show # FixG (S) ≡ #S mod p. Hint: Use the orbit stabilizer
theorem.
Exercise 3.32. Let p be a prime. If G is a p-group show Z ( G ) is nontrivial.
Hint: Consider the conjugation action of G on itself and use Exercise 3.31.
Exercise 3.33. Suppose that G is a group with G/Z ( G ) ≃ Z/nZ. Show that
in fact G = Z ( G ) (so n = 1).
Exercise 3.34. For G a nonabelian group of order p3 for p prime, show
#Z ( G ) = p. Hint: Rule out the possibilities that #Z ( G ) = 1, p2 , p3 .
Definition 3.35. For G a group, define the commutator subgroup, denoted
[ G, G ] to be the subgroup of G generated by all elements of the form xyx −1 y−1
for x, y ∈ G. That is, [ G, G ] consists of all products of elements of the form
xyx −1 y−1 .
Exercise 3.36. For G a group, show that [ G, G ] ⊂ G is a normal subgroup.
Exercise 3.37. Show there are no nonabelian groups of order p2 . Hint: Use
Exercise 3.32 and Exercise 3.33.
Exercise 3.38. Let G be a non-abelian group of order p3 for some prime p.
Show [ G, G ] = Z ( G ) and both have size p in the following steps
(1) Let q : G → G/[ G, G ] denote the quotient map. Show that if we have
a map f : G → H for H an abelian group then there is a unique map
ϕ : G/ [ G, G ] → H so that ϕ ◦ q = f .
(2) Show that [ G, G ] /Z ( G ) is abelian using Exercise 3.37. Conclude from
the previous part that if f : G → G/Z is the quotient map, there is a
unique map ϕ : G/[ G, G ] → G/Z ( G ) so that ϕ ◦ q = f .
(3) Show that for H and K groups, and N ⊂ H a normal subgroup, the
set of maps H/N → K are in bijection with maps H → K sending N
to the identity element of K.
(4) Conclude from the previous two parts that [ G, G ] ⊂ Z ( G ).
(5) Show that [ G, G ] ̸= 1
22 AARON LANDESMAN

(6) Conclude [ G, G ] = Z ( G ) and both have size p. Hint: Use Exer-

cise 3.34.
Exercise 3.39. Suppose G is a non-abelian group of order p3 for some prime
p. Show that G/ [ G, G ] = Z/p × Z/p. Hint: Show G/ [ G, G ] is abelian of
order p2 , but not cyclic. For this, use Exercise 3.37 and Exercise 3.38.
Exercise 3.40. For G any finite group, show that if g ∈ [ G, G ], then for
any 1-dimensional (π, k ) of G, π ( g) = id. Use this to show there is a
bijection between the 1-dimensional representations of G and 1-dimensional
representations of G/ [ G, G ].
Exercise 3.41. (1) Construct p2 distinct irreducible 1-dimensional repre-
sentations of Z/p × Z/p and show these are all of them. Hint: Send
generators to multiplication by roots of unity, as in Exercise 1.31.
(2) If you are so inclined, generalize this to arbitrary finite abelian groups
(which are necessarily a product of cyclic groups by the fundamental
theorem for finitely generated abelian groups).
Exercise 3.42. Suppose G is a non-abelian group of order p3 for some prime
p. Find all 1-dimensional representations of G. Hint: Combine Exercise 3.39,
Exercise 3.40, and Exercise 3.41.
Exercise 3.43. Let G be a nonabelian group of order p3 for p prime. Show
that G has p2 irreps of dimension 1 and p − 1 irreps of dimension p. Hint:
Use that the dimension of any irrep must divide the order of the group,
together with the previous exercises.
Exercise 3.44. Let p be a prime and G a nonabelian group of order p3 . Show
that G has p2 + p − 1 conjugacy classes. Hint: Use Exercise 3.43.
3.9. Further Challenge exercises.
Exercise 3.45. Consider the regular representation of S3 , Reg(S3 ), defined
as the 6-dimensional representation spanned by basis vectors e g g∈S with
3
action given by σ · e g = eσ· g . Calculate the character of the regular representa-
tion and use the multiplicity criterion from Desiderata 3.1 to find the number
of copies of the three irreducible representations of S3 (triv, sgn, std) inside
Reg(S3 ). (Note, this calculation is done for an arbitrary group in the proof
of the sum of squares formula.) Then, describe an explicit decomposition of
Reg(S3 ) as a direct sum of irreducible subrepresentations.
Exercise 3.46 (Tricky exercise). In this exercise, we explore the possible
number of even and odd dimensional irreducible representations of a group
G. A priori, there are four possibilities either G has
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 23

(1) an even number of odd dimensional irreducible representations and

an even number of even dimensional irreducible representations
(2) an odd number of odd dimensional irreducible representations and
an even number of even dimensional irreducible representations
(3) an even number of odd dimensional irreducible representations and
an odd number of even dimensional irreducible representations
(4) an odd number of odd dimensional irreducible representations and
an odd number of even dimensional irreducible representations
For which of (1), (2), (3), and (4) does there exist a finite group G with such
a number of odd and even dimensional irreducible representations? Either
given an example of such a G or prove no such G exist.
Here are two problems, which can be solved both by elementary methods
and using representation theory.
Exercise 3.47. Let Sn act on [n] := {1, . . . , n} by permuting the elements. For
g ∈ Sn , let Fix( g) denote the set of x ∈ [n] so that g( x ) = x. That is, Fix( g) is
the set of x fixed by g.
(1) Show using elementary methods (without representation theory) that
∑ g∈Sn # Fix( g) = n!.
(2) Show using representation theory ∑ g∈Sn # Fix( g) = n!. Hint: Consider
the permutation representation of Sn as defined in Exercise 2.12, and
recall it decomposes as a direct sum of triv and std, two irreducible
representations, as shown in Exercise 2.12 and Exercise 2.17. Let χperm
be the associated character and relate ∑ g∈Sn # Fix( g) to ⟨χperm , χtriv ⟩.
Exercise 3.48. Let Sn act on [n] := {1, . . . , n} by permuting the elements.
Show that ∑ g∈Sn (# Fix( g))2 = 2n!. See if you can do it both using represen-
tation theory, and via elementary means.
Exercise 3.49. Show that G is abelian if and only if all irreducible representa-
tions are 1-dimensional.
Exercise 3.50. Fix a group G. Show that G is abelian if and only if it is
possible to reorder the irreps and conjugacy classes of G so that the character
table of G is symmetric about the diagonal line from the upper left to lower
right.
Exercise 3.51. Let D∞ be the “infinite dihedral group“ generated by r and s
with the relations that s2 = 1 and sr = r −1 s. (If we imposed r n = 1, we would
get the usual dihedral group D2n .) Find a 2-dimensional representation of D∞
which is not irreducible, but cannot be written as a direct sum of irreducible
representations. Note this does not contradict Maschke’s theorem because
D∞ is infinite.
24 AARON LANDESMAN

4. C OMPLETE R EDUCIBILITY OF C OMPLEX R EPRESENTATIONS

We begin the saga of proving Desiderata 3.1. To start, we next introduce
a notion of complete reducibility. Just as every vector space breaks up as a
direct sum of copies of the base field (by choosing a basis), in many nice cases,
every representation breaks up as a direct sum of irreducible representations.
We next codify the notion of complete reducibility:

Definition 4.1. A G-representation (π, V ) is completely reducible if V can

be written as a direct sum of irreducible G-representations. That is, one can
find a collection of irreducible subrepresentations V1 ⊂ V, . . . , vn ⊂ V which
together span V and V1 ∩ · · · ∩ Vn = 0.

We’d like to give a criterion for when every G-representation is completely

reducible, so it can always be broken down into irreducible pieces. This is
done in Theorem 4.5. In particular, we will see this is always true over C or
more generally any field of characteristic 0.
To set this up, we define quotient representations. Recall that for W ⊂ V a
subspace, the quotient V/W is the quotient of V by the equivalence relation
v1 ∼ v2 if v1 − v2 ∈ W. The following exercise is crucial, especially if you
haven’t seen quotients:

Exercise 4.2 (Important Exercise). Let W ⊂ V be a subspace.

(1) Verify that the relation v1 ∼ v2 if v1 − v2 ∈ W is an equivalence
relation.
(2) Give the set V/W the structure of a vector space by declaring c[v] :=
[cv] and [v1 ] + [v2 ] := [v1 + v2 ]. Check that this is well defined (i.e.,
independent of the choice of representative for v ∈ V.
(3) Check that dim V/W = dim V − dim W. Hint: Choose a basis e1 , . . . , em
for W and extend it to a basis e1 , . . . , en for V. Check the images
[em+1 ], . . . , [en ] in V/W form a basis for V/W.
(4) Let

q : V → V/W
v 7→ [v]

denote the projection map. Verify that there is a map of vector spaces
s : V/W → V so that q ◦ s = idV/W . Hint: Choose bases as in the
previous part and define s by sending [em+ j ] ∈ V/W to em+ j ∈ V.
(5) Let i : W → V denote the given inclusion. Show that for any such
map s as in the previous part, the map (i, s) : W ⊕ V/W → V is an
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 25

isomorphism. Here, (i, s) denotes the map

(i, s) : W ⊕ V/W → V
(w, x ) 7→ i (w) + s( x ).
Definition 4.3. For (π, V ) a G-representation and W ⊂ V a subrepresenta-
tion, define the quotient representation (π, V/W ) to be the representation
with vector space V/W and action given by π ( g)[v] := [π ( g)(v)] where
for x ∈ V, [ x ] denotes the image under the map V → V/W taking the
equivalence class in the quotient.
Exercise 4.4. (1) Check definition Definition 4.3 is well defined. That is,
check that if v1 , v2 are two representatives for [v] then [π ( g)(v1 )] =
[π ( g)(v2 )].
(2) Verify that V/W is indeed a G-representation.
(3) Show q : V → V/W is a map of representations.
If you are assuming k = C, then ignore the assumption on char (k) every-
where that follows, as it is automatically satisfied.
Theorem 4.5 (Maschke’s Theorem). Suppose char (k ) ∤ #G. Then every G-
representation is completely reducible.
Before continuing with the proof, we include a couple illustrative exercises.

Exercise 4.6. Let (perm, V ) be the permutation representation for S3 , as

discussed in Exercise 2.12. Recall this was the 3-dimensional representation
with basis e1 , e2 , e3 so that perm(σ)(ei ) = eσ(i) . Let (triv, W ) ⊂ (perm, V )
denote the 1-dimensional subrepresentation spanned by e1 + e2 + e3 . Find a
T ∈ Aut(perm) with T 2 = T and im T = W. Compute the subrepresentation
ker T. Hint: You might guess what T and ker T have to be via your solution
to Exercise 2.12.
Exercise 4.7. (1) Let (π, V ) denote the 2-dimensional Z/2 representa-
tion defined in Example 2.4 where the nontrivial element ι acts by
π (ι)(e0 ) = e1 , π (ι)(e1 ) = e0 . Write (π, V ) as a direct sum of irre-
ducible representations. Hint: We already did this in Exercise 2.23.
(2) Similarly, for this part, let (π, V ) denote the 3-dimensional repre-
sentation of Z/3 = {0, 1, 2} with basis e1 , e2 , e3 satisfying π ( j)ei =
ei+ j mod 3 . Write (π, V ) as a direct sum of irreducible Z/3 representa-
tions.
(3) Can you generalize the previous part replacing Z/3 with Z/n?
Proof of Theorem 4.5. Let (π, V ) be a G-representation. Let i : (π |W , W ) ⊂
(π, V ) be a nonzero proper subrepresentation and (π, V/W ) be the quotient
26 AARON LANDESMAN

representation defined in Definition 4.3. Let q : (π, V ) → (π, V/W ) denote

the quotient map.
We claim (π, V ) ≃ (π |W , W ) ⊕ (π, V/W ). Indeed, once we show this, by
induction on the dimension of V, we will be done, because π |W and π are
smaller dimensional representations. Therefore, by induction on the dimen-
sion, we can write (π |W , W ) = in=1 (πi , Wi ) and (π, V/W ) = m ′
L L
j=1 ( π j , Vj )
for irreducible πi and π j . Then,
!  
n m
(π j , Vj′ ) .
M M M
(π, V ) ≃ (π |W , W ) ⊕ (π, V/W ) ≃ (πi , Wi ) 
i =1 j =1

So, to conclude, it suffices to show (π, V ) ≃ (π |W , W ) ⊕ (π, V/W ). To

prove this, we claim we claim there is a map of representations ι : (π, V/W ) →
(π, V ) so that q ◦ ι = idV/W . This is shown next in Proposition 4.9. Let’s see
why this concludes the proof, and then we’ll come back to prove Proposi-
tion 4.9.
To conclude the proof, by Exercise 4.2(5) the resulting map (i, ι) : W ⊕
V/W → V is an isomorphism of vector spaces. Further, since ι and i are
both maps of representations, it is also a map of representations.
Exercise 4.8 (Easy exercise). Check for yourself that (i, ι) is indeed a map of
representations.
Hence (i, ι) is an isomorphism of representations, which is what we needed
to check. □

So, to conclude the proof of Theorem 4.5, we only need to prove the
following proposition.
Proposition 4.9. Let char (k ) ∤ #G. Let (π, V ) be a representation, W ⊂ V a
subrepresentation, V/W the corresponding quotient representation with quotient
map q : V → V/W. Then there is a map of representations ι : V/W → V so that
q ◦ ι = idV/W .
Proof. First, we know there exists a map f : V/W → V of vector spaces so
that q ◦ f = idV/W , as shown in Exercise 4.2(4). However, this may not be
a map of representations (as there is no reason that f ◦ π ( g) should equal
π ( g) ◦ f ). We rectify this by an averaging trick: Define
ι : V/W → V
1
x 7→
#G ∑ π ( g ) f ( π ( g −1 ) x ).
g∈ G
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 27

We claim ι is a map of representations and satisfies q ◦ ι = idV/W . Once

we check these two facts, we will be done. First, let’s check ι is a map of
representations. Pictorially, this means we have to check

π (h)
V/W V/W
(4.1) ι ι
π (h)
V V

commutes.
Indeed, for x ∈ V/W,

1
ι(π (h) x ) =
#G ∑ π ( g ) f ( π ( g −1 ) π ( h ) x )
g∈ G
1
=
#G ∑ π (hh−1 g) f (π ( g−1 h)x)
g∈ G
   −1  
1
=
#G ∑ π (h)π (h −1
g) f π −1
h g x
g∈ G
   −1  
1
= π (h)
#G ∑ π (h −1
g) f π −1
h g x
h −1 g ∈ G
= π (h)ι( x )

as desired.
28 AARON LANDESMAN

To conclude, we check q ◦ ι = idV/W . Indeed, for x ∈ V/W,

!
1
q ◦ ι( x ) = q ∑
#G g∈G
π ( g ) f ( π ( g −1 ) x )

1  
#G g∑
−1
= q π ( g ) f ( π ( g ) x )
∈G
1  
#G g∑
−1
= π ( g ) q f ( π ( g ) x )
∈G
1
=
#G ∑ π ( g ) π ( g −1 ) x
g∈ G
1
=
#G ∑ π ( gg−1 )x
g∈ G
1
=
#G ∑ π (e) x
g∈ G
1
=
#G ∑ x
g∈ G
= x.
□
This concludes the proof of Maschke’s theorem.
We note that the assumption that char (k ) ∤ #G is crucial to Theorem 4.5.
(Again, ignore this if you are assuming k = C.) We give an exercise exhibiting
of a representation that is not completely reducible when char (k) | #G. This
is essentially spelling out the solution to Exercise 2.14. Again, skip this if you
are assuming k = C.
Exercise 4.10 (Optional exercise for those familiar with characteristic). Let k
be a field of characteristic 2. Consider the action of Z/2 on the two dimen-
sional vector space V with basis e1 , e2 given by
π (ι)(e1 ) := e1 ,
π (ι)(e2 ) := e1 + e2 .
(1) Verify that (π, V ) is a representation. Hint: You will need to use
char (k ) = 2.
(2) Check that Span(e1 ) is a subrepresentation, so V is reducible.
(3) Check that Span(e1 ) is the only subrepresentation, so V is not com-
pletely reducible. Hint: Show that for any v ∈ V − Span(e1 ), v and
π (ι)(v) are independent and use Lemma 2.16.
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 29

Remark 4.11. Theorem 4.5 will be psychologically useful for us, as it lets us
think of any representation as a sum of irreducible constituents. As we shall
see next, these irreducible constituents (and their multiplicities) are in fact
uniquely determined.
30 AARON LANDESMAN

5. S CHUR ’ S L EMMA
Our next main result is proving isotypic decomposition. In order to show
this, we will need Schur’s lemma, which we prove in this section. This
is one of the most important results toward setting up the basic theory of
representations of finite groups. Recall that a field k is algebraically closed if
every monic polynomial with coefficients in k has a root. (Again, feel free to
assume k = C if it is helpful.) Here is the statement for Schur’s lemma.
Theorem 5.1 (Schur’s lemma). If (π, V ) and (ρ, W ) are two G-representations
over an algebraically closed field,
(
1 if π ≃ ρ
dim Hom(π, ρ) =
0 if π ̸≃ ρ.
To prove Schur’s lemma, we will need two lemmas.
Lemma 5.2. Let T : (π, V ) → (ρ, W ) be a nonzero map of representations.
(1) If (π, V ) is irreducible, T is injective.
(2) If (ρ, W ) is irreducible, T is surjective.
(3) If (π, V ) and (ρ, W ) are both irreducible, T is an isomorphism.
Proof. We prove the parts in order.
(1) Consider ker T ⊂ V. Since V is irreducible, and ker T is a subrepre-
sentation by Exercise 2.15, we either have ker T = V or ker T = 0. The
former cannot occur because T ̸= 0. So, ker V = 0 and T is injective.
(2) Consider im T ⊂ W. Since W is irreducible, and im T is a subrepre-
sentation by Exercise 2.15, either im T ⊂ W = 0 or im T = W. But we
cannot have im T = 0 because T ̸= 0, so im T = W and T is surjective.
(3) This follows from the first two parts.
□
Lemma 5.3. Suppose k is algebraically closed and V is a k vector space with (π, V )
a finite dimensional irreducible G-representation. Then, any map of representations
T : (π, V ) → (π, V ) is necessarily multiplication by a scalar. That is, T = c · id
for c ∈ k.
Proof. Let T be some such map. Note that T has an eigenvalue since eigenval-
ues are the same as roots of the characteristic polynomial, and by assumption
k is algebraically closed so the characteristic polynomial has a root in k. (If
you are pretending k = C, this is just saying that every polynomial over C
has a root, which is the fundamental theorem of algebra.)
Let λ denote the resulting eigenvalue and x the corresponding eigenvector,
so Tx = λx. Let
W := {w ∈ V : Tw = λw} .
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 31

Observe that W is nonzero since 0 ̸= x ∈ W (and by definition of eigenvector,

x ̸= 0). To conclude, it suffices to show W = V, because that will imply
Tv = λv for all v ∈ V so T = λ · id.
Because V is irreducible, in order to show W = V, it suffices to show W
is a subrepresentation. To check this, we just need to know that for g ∈ G,
T (W ) ⊂ W. But indeed, for any w ∈ W, Tw = λw ∈ Span(w) ⊂ W, as
desired. □
Using the above two results, we can easily prove Schur’s lemma.
Proof of Theorem 5.1. From Lemma 5.2, we know that if ρ ̸≃ π then the only
map between ρ and π is 0. So, it suffices to show that if π ≃ ρ then,
dim Hom(π, ρ) = 1. This is precisely the content of Lemma 5.3 □
Exercise 5.4 (Irreducible representations of abelian groups). Let G be an
abelian group and (π, V ) an irreducible representation over an algebraically
closed field k. For this exercise, you are not allowed to use Desiderata 3.1,
and
(1) Show that π ( g) : (π, V ) → (π, V ) defines a map of representations.
Hint: You need to show π ( g) commutes with π (h) for any h ∈ G.
(2) Show that for every g ∈ G, there is some nonzero c ∈ k such that
π ( g) = c · id Hint: Schur’s lemma!
(3) Conclude that V is 1-dimensional.
If you are working over C, skip the following exercise.
Exercise 5.5 (Optional exercise for those familiar with algebraically closed
fields). Let G be an abelian group and (ρ, V ) an irreducible representation.
Show that if k is not algebraically closed then V may have dimension more
than 1 via the following example: Take k = R, G = Z/3 and let ρ be the
representation on the 2-dimensional vector space R2 so that the generator of
Z/3 acts by rotation by 2π/3. Show that this representation is irreducible.
32 AARON LANDESMAN

6. I SOTYPIC D ECOMPOSITION
We next introduce a notion of isotypic decomposition of a representation.
This essentially says that a representation breaks into irreducibles in an
almost unique way.
First, we introduce notation for repeated direct sums:
Definition 6.1. For (ρ, W ) a G-representation, define
(ρ, W )⊕n := (ρ, W ) ⊕ · · · ⊕ (ρ, W ) .
| {z }
n
We shall often denote (ρ, W ) simply as ρ, in which case we let ρ⊕n denote
(ρ, W )⊕n .
Definition 6.2. Let (π, V ) be a G-representation. An isotypic decomposition
for π is an isomorphism (π, V ) ≃ in=1 (πi , Vi )⊕ni so that each (πi , Vi ) is
L

irreducible and for any i ̸= j, πi ̸≃ π j .

The main result is that isotypic decomposition is essentially unique:
Theorem 6.3. Suppose (π, V ) is a G-representation and (π, V ) ≃ in=1 (πi , Vi )⊕ni
L
⊕m j
and (π, V ) ≃ m
L
j=1 ( ρ j , Wj ) are two isotypic decompositions. Then isotypic
decomposition is unique in the following sense:
(1) m = n
(2) For each i there is a unique j so that (πi , Vi ) ≃ (ρ j , Wj ) and ni = m j .
Remark 6.4. Note that this does not say there is a unique isomorphism
between two isotypic decompositions. For example, if (π, V ) = (triv, C)⊕2
then any invertible 2 × 2 matrix will define an isomorphism between V
and itself. In general, isotypic decomposition says we can determine the
irreducible subrepresentations and their respective multiplicities.
Before proving Theorem 6.3, let’s deduce a quick but useful corollary.
Corollary 6.5. Suppose (π, V ) is a G-representation over a field with # ∤ char (k).
Then (π, V ) has a unique isotypic decomposition (where by unique, we mean unique
in the sense of Theorem 6.3).
Proof. The existence is precisely the content of Theorem 4.5. Uniqueness is
precisely Theorem 6.3. □
6.1. Proving uniqueness of isotypic decomposition. We next aim toward
proving Theorem 6.3. The following lemma is key.
Lemma 6.6. Let π ≃ in=1 πi and ρ ≃
L Lm
i =1 ρ j be two G-representations. Then
Hom (π, ρ) ≃ in=1 m
L L

j=1 Hom πi , ρ j .
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 33

Proof. We define maps both ways, and check that these define a bijection.
First, we define a map
n M
M m

f : Hom (π, ρ) → Hom πi , ρ j .
i =1 j =1

This is given by sending a map ϕ : π → ρ, to the tuple of composite maps

ϕ
ϕij : πi ,→ π −
→ ρ ↠ ρj.
Similarly, we define a map
n M
M m

g: Hom πi , ρ j → Hom (π, ρ)
i =1 j =1


By sending a tuple of maps ϕij 1≤i≤n,1≤ j≤m to the map ϕ defined as follows.
If v = ∑in=1 vi with vi in the vector space Vi on which πi acts, then
n m
ϕ(v) = ∑ ∑ ϕij (vi ).
i =1 j =1

Exercise 6.7. Verify that the maps f and g above are maps of G-representations
and are inverse of each other, completing the proof of Lemma 6.6.
□
From Lemma 6.6, we can easily deduce the following:
Lemma 6.8. If π and ρ1 , . . . , ρm are two irreducible G-representations with π not
⊕b j
isomorphic to ρ j for any j, Hom(π ⊕a , ⊕m
j =1 ρ j ) = 0.
Proof. Lemma 6.6 allows us to reduce to the case m = 1 and then further to
the case a = b1 = 1. This case is then settled by Lemma 5.2. □
Using Lemma 6.8, we can now prove Theorem 6.3.
Proof of Theorem 6.3. Pick some i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n. If there is no ρ j with πi ≃ ρ j ,
then by Lemma 6.8, any map
n m
M ⊕n M ⊕m j
(6.1) πi i → ρj
i =1 j =1

must be 0 on Vi , and hence cannot be an isomorphism. Therefore, there is

some j so that πi ≃ ρ j . Furthermore, j is unique because by definition of
isotypic decomposition, no two ρ j are isomorphic. By reasoning similarly
34 AARON LANDESMAN

with ρ j , we find that for each j there is a unique i with ρ j ≃ πi . Therefore,

there is a bijection between the set of πi and the set of ρ j , so m = n.
It only remains to show that when πi ≃ ρ j , ni = m j . We will show ni ≤ m j ,
and the reverse inequality will follow by symmetry (interchanging the roles
of the πi and ρ j ).
To conclude, we show ni ≤ m j . Composing the isomorphism (6.1) with
⊕n ⊕n
the inclusion πi i → in=1 πi i we obtain an injection
L

m
⊕n M ⊕mt
πi i → ρt .
t =1
⊕n
If πi ≃ ρ j , then by Lemma 6.8, we know the composite map πi i →
⊕mt
→ ρ⊕ ns
Lm
t =1 ρ t s must be 0 whenever for s ̸= j. Therefore, we even
⊕ ni ⊕m j
have an injection Vi → Wj . Therefore,
⊕ ni ⊕m j
ni · dim Vi = dim Vi ≤ dim Wj = m j · dim Wj .
Since Vi ≃ Wj , dim Vi = dim Wj , so ni · dim Vi ≤ m j · dim Vi which implies
ni ≤ m j as claimed. □
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 35

7. H OMS AND DUALS AND TENSORS , O H M Y !

In order to prove orthogonality of characters, we will need to introduce
several new constructions of representations from old ones. Namely homs,
duals, and tensors For each of homs duals and tensor products, we first
explain them in the context of linear algebra, and then upgrade them to
representation theoretic constructions.

7.1. Homs of representations. We next define the notions of duals, tensor

products, and homs in the setting of linear algebra.
Definition 7.1 (homs). Let V and W be two vector spaces. Then Hom(V, W )
denotes the set of linear maps T : V → W. Then, Hom(V, W ) can be given
the structure of a vector space as follows: If T, S : V → W are linear maps and
c ∈ k, define ( T + S)(v) := T (v) + S(v) and define (c · T )(v) := c · ( T (v)).
Definition 7.2 (homs of representations). Let (π, V ) and (ρ, W ) be two
representations. This
can be given the structure of a G-representation
Homπ,ρ , Hom (V, W ) by declaring
Homπ,ρ ( g) : Hom(V, W ) → Hom(V, W )
T 7→ ρ( g) Tπ ( g−1 ).


Lemma 7.3. For (π, V ) and (ρ, W ) two representations, the object Homπ,ρ , Hom (V, W )
constructed in Definition 7.2 is indeed a G-representation.
Proof. The crux of the matter is to check that for g, h ∈ G, we have Homπ,ρ ( g) ◦
Homπ,ρ (h) = Homπ,ρ ( gh). Indeed,


(Homπ,ρ ( g) ◦ Homπ,ρ (h)) T = Homπ,ρ ( g) Homπ,ρ (h) T
 
−1
= Homπ,ρ ( g) ρ(h) Tπ (h )
= ρ( g)ρ(h) Tπ (h−1 )π ( g−1 )
= ρ( gh) Tπ (( gh)−1 )
= Homπ,ρ ( gh) T.
□

7.2. Duals of representations.

Definition 7.4 (Duals). For V a k-vector space, let V ∨ , the dual of V, denote
the set of linear maps V → k. Note that V ∨ = Hom(V, k ), so this can be
given the structure of a vector space as in Definition 7.1.
36 AARON LANDESMAN

Exercise 7.5. If e1 , . . . , en is a basis for V then we can form a dual basis

e1∨ , . . . , en∨ for V ∨ defined by
ei∨ : V → k
e j 7→ δij ,
where δij = 1 if i = j and 0 if i ̸= j. Check this is a basis for V ∨ . In particular,
conclude dim V ∨ = dim V. Hint: Show any linear map V → k is determined
by where it sends the basis elements e1 , . . . , en . Show that a linear map V → k
can be expressed uniquely as a linear combination of the ei∨ .
Definition 7.6 (Duals of representations). For (π, V ) a G-representation, let
(π ∨ , V ∨ ) denote the dual representation of π, which is defined as
π ∨ , V ∨ := (Homπ,triv , Hom (V, C))

using the notation from Definition 7.2.

Exercise 7.7. Verify that for (π, V ) a representation, and g ∈ G, ξ ∈ V ∨ , v ∈
V, we have (π ∨ ( g)ξ )(v) = ξ (π ( g−1 )v). Hint: Thinking of ξ as a map
ξ : V → k, use that Homπ,triv ( g)(ξ ) = triv( g) ◦ ξ ◦ π ( g−1 ).
Exercise 7.8. Let (π, C) be the representation of Z/3 = e, x, x2 with x


acting by ω, for ω 3 = 1, ω ̸= 1. Compute (π ∨ , C∨ ). Hint: We know (π ∨ , C∨ )

is a 1-dimensional representation of Z/3, and it is determined by whether
π ∨ ( x ) = 1, ω, or ω 2 .
Remark 7.9. We will see later in Lemma 8.11 that over the complex numbers,
the dual representation essentially corresponds to taking the complex conju-
gate. Technically, Lemma 8.11 only makes a statement about the character of
the dual representation being the conjugate of the character of the represen-
tation. This is true more generally on the level of representations (not just on
characters). If you’re interested, try to define what is meant by the conjugate
of a complex representation, and show that the conjugate representation is
isomorphic to the dual representation.
7.3. Tensors of representations.
Definition 7.10 (Tensors). For V and W two finite dimensional k-vector
spaces, let e1 , . . . , en be a basis of V and f 1 , . . . , f m be a basis of W. Then the
tensor product of V and W, denoted V ⊗k W (often  denoted V ⊗ W when
k is understood) is the k-vector space with basis ei ⊗ f j 1≤i≤n,1≤ j≤m . For
v = ∑i ai ei ∈ V, w = ∑ j b j f j ∈ W let v ⊗ w ∈ V ⊗ W denote the simple
tensor given by
v ⊗ w = ∑ a i · b j ei ⊗ f j .


i,j
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 37

Remark 7.11. Here the symbols ei ⊗ f j are merely formal symbols to keep
track of indexing, and V ⊗k W is a vector space of dimension dim V · dim W.
If one thinks of direct sum of vector spaces as adding vector spaces, one may
think of tensor product as multiplying them.
Remark 7.12. One can alternatively define the tensor product of V and W
as the vector space generated by all pairs v ⊗ w for v ∈ V, w ∈ W, subject to
the bilinearity relations that
(v + v′ ) ⊗ w = v ⊗ w + v′ ⊗ w,
v ⊗ (w + w′ ) = v ⊗ w + v ⊗ w′ ,
( av) ⊗ w = a (v ⊗ w) = v ⊗ ( aw).
One issue with this is that it is not obvious from this definition that this is
finite dimensional. The way to prove it is finite dimensional is to show it
agrees with the definition given in Definition 7.10. There is a further (in
many ways “better”) definition given in terms of a universal property, which
we do not go into here.
Exercise 7.13. For V any k-vector space, verify V ≃ V ⊗k k with the isomor-
phism given by v 7→ v ⊗ 1.
Example 7.14. Consider the vector space V ⊗k W where V has basis e1 , e2 and
W has basis f 1 , f 2 . Then, V ⊗ W is a 4-dimensional vector space with basis
e1 ⊗ f 1 , e2 ⊗ f 1 , e1 ⊗ f 2 , e2 ⊗ f 2 . In particular, viewing C as a 2-dimensional
vector space over R with basis {1, i }, conclude that C ⊗R C has basis given
by 1 ⊗ 1, 1 ⊗ i, i ⊗ 1, i ⊗ i.
Exercise 7.15 (Not all tensors are simple). Consider the vector space V ⊗k W
where V has basis e1 , e2 and W has basis f 1 , f 2 . Show that the element
e1 ⊗ f 2 + e2 ⊗ f 1 ∈ V ⊗k W cannot be expressed as a simple tensor a ⊗ b for
a ∈ V, b ∈ W. Hint: Expand a general element of the form ( ae1 + be2 ) ⊗
( c f 1 + d f 2 ).
Exercise 7.16. Show that for vector spaces U, V, and W, a linear map T :
V ⊗k W → U is uniquely determined by its values on simple tensors. That is
T is determined by its values on elements of the form v ⊗ w. That is, show
that if we have two such maps T and S where T (v ⊗ w) = S(v ⊗ w) for all
simple tensors v ⊗ w then T = S.
Exercise 7.17. For V, W two finite dimensional vector spaces, show
(1) dim Hom (V, W ) = dim V · dim W,
(2) dim V ∨ = dim V,
(3) dim V ⊗ W = dim V · dim W,
(4) dim V ∨ ⊗ W = dim Hom(V, W ).
38 AARON LANDESMAN

Definition 7.18 (Tensors of representations). For (π, V ) and (ρ, W ) two G-

representations, Define the tensor representation (π ⊗ ρ, V ⊗ W ) by
(π ⊗ ρ)( g) : V ⊗ W → V ⊗ W
v ⊗ w 7→ π ( g)v ⊗ ρ( g)w.
Example 7.19. Let G = Z/2 and consider the representation (sgn, k ) as
defined in Example 1.11. This is the unique nontrivial representation of Z/2.
When one tensors two 1-dimensional representations, one multiplies the
corresponding characters. In particular, we claim that the representation
sgn ⊗ sgn is isomorphic to the trivial representation because −1 · −1 =
1, 1 · 1 = 1. That is, we have an isomorphism
ϕ : (triv, k ) ≃ (sgn ⊗ sgn, k ⊗ k )
given by sending a 7→ a ⊗ 1 for a ∈ k. We have seen in Exercise 7.13 that
this defines an isomorphism of vector spaces, so we only need to check
this is a map of representations. That is, we need to check that for v ∈ k,
ϕ ◦ triv( g)v = ((sgn ⊗ sgn)( g) ◦ ϕ)v. As always, this holds for g = id
tautologically, so we only need to check it in the case g is the nontrivial
element of Z/2. Indeed, in this case, we have ϕ ◦ triv( g)v = ϕ(v) = v ⊗ 1.
So, we really just need to check ((sgn ⊗ sgn)( g) ◦ ϕ)v = v ⊗ 1. Indeed,
((sgn ⊗ sgn)( g) ◦ ϕ)v = (sgn ⊗ sgn) ( g)(v ⊗ 1)
= (−v) ⊗ (−1)
= (−1)2 · (v ⊗ 1)
= v ⊗ 1.
Remark 7.20. Example 7.19 illustrates a general procedure for computing
tensors of a representation with a 1-dimensional representation. The rea-
son sgn ⊗ sgn ≃ triv is because (−1) · (−1) = 1. In general, the tensor
product of two 1-dimensional representations acts as the product of the two
1-dimensional representations. The situation is similar when only one of
the representations is 1-dimensional (you multiply the higher dimensional
representation by the scalar coming from the 1-dimensional representation).
Exercise 7.21. For (π, V ) a G-representation, verify that that there is an
isomorphism of representations (π, V ) ≃ (π ⊗ triv, V ⊗k k ) defined on the
underlying vector spaces by sending v 7→ v ⊗ 1.
7.4. Relations among dual, tensor, and hom. Having defined dual, tensor,
and hom, both as vector spaces and representations, we next explain how
they relate to each other. Let’s start with their relation within linear algebra
and then upgrade it to a statement in representation theory.
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 39

Lemma 7.22. For V and W k-vector spaces, the map

ϕ : V ∨ ⊗ W → Hom (V, W )
ξ ⊗ w 7→ (v 7→ ξ (v) · w) .

is an isomorphism.

Proof. The map ϕ is a map between two vector spaces of the same dimension
by Exercise 7.17(4). So, to show it is an isomorphism, it suffices to show it is
injective.
Let e1 , . . . , en denote a basis for V and let e1∨ , . . . , en∨ denote the dual basis
given by ei∨ (e j ) := δij , see Exercise 7.5. Here δij = 1 if i = j and 0 if i ̸= j. Let
f 1 , . . . , f m be a basis for W. Then, observe that ϕ is given by
! !
ϕ ∑ aij ei∨ ⊗ f j = v 7→ ∑ aij ei∨ (v) f j .
i,j i,j

To show ϕ is injective, we only need to check that if not all aij are 0, then
the map v 7→ ∑i,j aij ei∨ (v) f j is nonzero. Indeed, if some akℓ is nonzero, then
ek 7→ ∑i,j aij ei∨ (ek ) f j = ∑ j akj f j ̸= 0 since the f j form a basis. Hence, the linear
transformation takes ek to something nonzero, so is nonzero. □

We now give a representation theoretic upgrade of the previous lemma.

Lemma 7.23. If (π, V ) and (ρ, W ) are two G-representations, then the map ϕ from
Lemma 7.22 gives is an isomorphism of G-representations

π ∨ ⊗ ρ, V ∨ ⊗ W ≃ Homπ,ρ , Hom (V, W ) .

Proof. We know from Lemma 7.22 that the underlying vector spaces are
isomorphic via the map ϕ. So it suffices to show this map ϕ is in fact a map
of representations. This is now a routine calculation. For g ∈ G we need to
check (ϕ ◦ (π ∨ ⊗ ρ))( g) = Homπ,ρ ( g) ◦ ϕ. That is, we need the following
diagram to commute:

(π ∨ ⊗ρ)( g)
V∨ ⊗ W V∨ ⊗ W
(7.1) ϕ ϕ
Homπ,ρ ( g)
Hom(V, W ) Hom(V, W ).
40 AARON LANDESMAN

Indeed,
(ϕ ◦ (π ∨ ) ⊗ ρ( g))(ξ ⊗ w) = ϕ(π ∨ ⊗ ρ( g)(ξ ⊗ w))
= ϕ π ∨ ( g)(ξ ) ⊗ ρ( g)(w)

= x 7→ (π ∨ ( g)(ξ ))( x ) ⊗ ρ( g)w .

On the other hand, we also see

Homπ,ρ ( g) ◦ ϕ(ξ ⊗ w) = Homπ,ρ ( g) ( x 7→ ξ ( x ) ⊗ w)
= ρ ( g ) ◦ ( x 7 → ξ ( x ) ρ ( g ) w ) ◦ π ( g −1 )
= ( x 7 → ξ ( x ) ρ ( g ) w ) ◦ π ( g −1 )
 
= x 7 → ξ ( π ( g −1 ) x ) ρ ( g ) w
= x 7→ (π ∨ ( g)(ξ ))( x )ρ( g)w


Exercise 7.7.
Therefore,
(ϕ ◦ (π ∨ ) ⊗ ρ( g)) = Homπ,ρ ( g) ◦ ϕ
□
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 41

8. O RTHOGONALITY OF C HARACTERS
In this section, we work over the field C. We will assume this in what
follows without comment
Recall from Definition 1.18 that if (π, V ) is a complex G-representation
then χπ : G → C is the function sending g 7→ tr (π ( g)). Let x denote the
complex conjugate of x ∈ C. The main result is the following:
Theorem 8.1. Suppose (π, V ) and (ρ, W ) are two irreducible complex G-representations.
Then
(
#G if π ≃ ρ
∑ χπ ( g) · χρ ( g) = 0 if π ̸≃ ρ
g∈ G

The idea of the proof will be to realize ∑ g∈G χπ · χρ as the character of the
representation Homπ,ρ , to reduce it to the Proposition 8.6. In order to state
Proposition 8.6, we need the following definition:
Definition 8.2. For (π, V ) a G-representation, the G-invariants, denoted V G ,
are defined as
V G := {v ∈ V : π ( g)v = v for all g ∈ G } .
In other words, V G is the set of G-invariant vectors in V.
Exercise 8.3. Verify that V G ⊂ V is a subspace.
Definition 8.4. For (π, V ) and (ρ, W ) two G-representations, let Hom(π, ρ)
denote the vector space of maps or representations.
Exercise 8.5. Suppose
(π, V ) and (ρ, W ) are two G-representations and let
Homπ,ρ , Hom(V, W ) be the corresponding hom representation. Show that
the G-invariants of Homπ,ρ on the vector space Hom(V, W ) are exactly the
maps of G-representations Hom(π, ρ).
Proposition 8.6. For (π, V ) an irreducible G-representation over C,
∑ χπ ( g) = #G · dim V G .
g∈ G

8.1. Reducing Theorem 8.1 to Proposition 8.6. Let’s first see why Proposi-
tion 8.6 implies Theorem 8.1.
For this, we will need to understand how characters behave with respect
to tensor products and duals.
Lemma 8.7. For (π, V ) and (ρ, W ) two representations,
χπ ⊗ρ ( g ) = χπ ( g ) · χρ ( g )
42 AARON LANDESMAN

Proof. Choosing a basis ei for V and f j for W, we see that ei ⊗ f j is a basis for
j
V ⊗ W. Therefore, if π ( g)(ei ) = ∑k aik ek and ρ( g)( f j ) = ∑ℓ bℓ f ℓ , it follows
from by the definition of the tensor of two representations that
((π ⊗ ρ)( g))(ei ⊗ f j ) = ∑ aik bℓ (ek ⊗ f ℓ ).
j

k,ℓ
In particular, the diagonal element of the matrix corresponding to π ⊗ ρ
j
acting on the basis vector ei ⊗ f j is aii b j . It follows that

∑ aii bj
j
tr((π ⊗ ρ)( g)) =
i,j
! !
∑ aii ∑ bj
j
=
i j
= tr π ( g) · tr ρ( g)
as desired. □
Exercise 8.8 (Important exercise). For (π, V ) a representation, show χπ ∨ ( g) =
χπ ( g−1 ). Hint: Let ei be a basis for V and ei∨ be the dual basis for V ∨ (meaning
ei∨ (e j ) = δij ).
(1) Check that π ∨ ( g−1 )(ei∨ ) is the functional sending
 
∨ −1
e j 7 → ei χ π ( g ) e j .
V ∨
(2) Verify tr π ( g) = ∑dim
i =1 ei ( π ( g ) ei )
(3) Use the previous two parts to deduce the result.
Exercise 8.9. For (π, V ) a representation, show that every eigenvalue of π ( g)
has complex norm 1. Hint: Use that G is finite.
Exercise 8.10. Verify that if M is a matrix of finite order over C, then M is
diagonalizable. Hint: Say Mn = id. Then the characteristic polynomial of
M divides x n − 1, and use that the latter splits as a product of distinct linear
factors over C to conclude that V has a basis of eigenvectors for M, so M is
diagonalizable.
Lemma 8.11. For (π, V ) a representation, we have χπ ( g) = χπ ( g−1 ).
Proof. By Exercise 8.10, π ( g) is diagonalizable. Say its eigenvalues are
λ1 , . . . , λn . Then the eigenvalues of π ( g−1 ) are λ11 , . . . , λ1n . By Exercise 8.9,
(using that x = x −1 for x ∈ C of norm 1), we obtain
1
= λi .
λi
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 43

It follows that the eigenvalues of π ( g−1 ) are λ1 , . . . , λn so

n n
tr π ( g−1 ) = ∑ λi = ∑ λi = tr π ( g)
i =1 i =1
□
We can combine the above observations to show the following:
Corollary 8.12. For (π, V ) and (ρ, W ) two representations, we have
χHomπ,ρ = χπ · χρ
Proof. Indeed,
χHomπ,ρ ( g) = χπ ∨ ⊗ρ ( g) Lemma 7.23
= χπ ∨ ( g) · χρ ( g) Lemma 8.7
= χπ ∨ ( g) · χρ ( g) Lemma 8.7
= χ π ( g −1 ) · χ ρ ( g ) Exercise 8.8
= χπ ( g) · χρ ( g) Lemma 8.11.
□
We’re finally ready to show why Proposition 8.6 implies Theorem 8.1.
Proof that Proposition 8.6 implies Theorem 8.1. Let (π, V ) and (ρ, W ) be as in
Theorem 8.1. Apply Proposition 8.6 to the representation Hom(π, ρ). We
find
∑ χρ ( g)χπ ( g) = ∑ χHom(π,ρ) ( g) Corollary 8.12
g∈ G g∈ G

= #G · dim Hom(V, W )G Proposition 8.6

= #G · dim Hom (π, ρ) Exercise 8.5
(
#G if π ≃ ρ
= Lemma 5.2.
0 if π ̸≃ ρ
□
8.2. Projection operators. We next want to prove Proposition 8.6. For this,
we first review some linear algebra involving projection operators.
Definition 8.13. Let V be a vector space and W ⊂ V a subspace. A map
T : V → V is a projection onto W if T |W = id and T (V ) ⊂ W.
Exercise 8.14. Show that T : V → V is a projection onto im T if and only if
T ◦ T = T, viewed as linear maps V → V.
44 AARON LANDESMAN

Exercise 8.15. If T : V → V is a projection operator onto W, show tr( T ) =

dim W. Hint: Write T as a block matrix with blocks corresponding to W and
a complement of W. Show one of the diagonal blocks is id and the other is 0.
The point of introducing projection operators is to prove the following,
which will be used to relate the trace of the averaging operator to dim V G in
the statement of Proposition 8.6 by Exercise 8.15.
1
Lemma 8.16. Let (π, V ) be a representation. The averaging map Avπ := #G ∑ g∈ G π ( g ) :
V → V is a projection onto V G .
Proof. First, if v ∈ V G then then
1
Avπ (v) =
#G ∑ π ( g)v
g∈ G
1
=
#G ∑v
g∈ G
1
= #Gv
#G
= v,
so Avπ |V G = id. In particular, we see V G ⊂ im Avπ .
So, to show Avπ is a projection operator, we only need to check V G ⊃
im Avπ . To this end, let v ∈ im Avπ . We want to show v ∈ V G , meaning
that for any h ∈ G, π (h)v = v. By the assumption v ∈ im Avπ , we can write
1
v = #G ∑ g∈G π ( g)w for some w ∈ V. Then, we see
1
π (h)v = π (h)
#G ∑ π ( g)w
g∈ G
1
=
#G ∑ π (h)π ( g)w
g∈ G
1
=
#G ∑ π (hg)w
g∈ G
1
#G t∑
= π (t)w setting t := hg
∈G
= v.
□
8.3. Proving Proposition 8.6. We are now equipped to prove Proposition 8.6
which will also complete the proof of Theorem 8.1.
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 45

1
Proof of Proposition 8.6. By Lemma 8.16, we know Avπ = #G ∑ g∈G π ( g) is
a projection onto V . It follows from Exercise 8.15 that tr Avπ = dim V G .
G

Therefore,
dim V G = tr Avπ
!
1
= tr
#G ∑ π ( g)
g∈ G
1
=
#G ∑ tr π ( g)
g∈ G
1
=
#G ∑ χπ ( g)
g∈ G

as we wished to show. □
46 AARON LANDESMAN

9. O RTHOGONALITY OF CHARACTER TABLES

We discuss how the rows of a character table are, in an appropriate sense,
orthogonal. We then discuss how the columns are also orthogonal. Again,
in this section we work over C. We state and prove this now, but the proof
depends on knowing that the number of conjugacy classes equals the number
of irreducible representations, as shown later in Corollary 11.6.
Definition 9.1. Let Irrep( G ) denote the set of all irreducible complex repre-
sentations of G, up to isomorphism.
Theorem 9.2 (Orthogonality of character tables). For G a group, the rows of the
character table are orthogonal in the sense that, for π, ρ ∈ Irrep( G ),
(
#G if π ≃ ρ
∑ #cχπ (c)χρ (c) = 0 if π ̸≃ ρ
c∈Conj( G )

(where χπ (c) denotes the value of χπ on a conjugacy class, well defined by Lemma 1.24).
The columns of of the character table are orthogonal in the sense that for c, d any two
conjugacy classes
(
#G
if c = d
∑ χ π ( c ) χ π ( d ) = #c
0 if c ̸= d
π ∈Irrep( G )

Proof assuming Corollary 11.6. The orthogonality claim on the rows is the con-
tent of Theorem 9.2.
It remains to prove the column orthogonality. We deduce this from row
orthogonality via a clever trick of changing the order of matrix multiplica-
tion. Let A denote the matrix indexed by pairs (π, c) ∈ Irrep( G ) × Conj( G )
defined by
√
#c
Aπ,c := √ χπ (c).
#G
Let A denote the entry-wise conjugate matrix (so Aπ,c = Aπ,c ).
Exercise 9.3. Verify that column orthogonality is precisely the statement that
A · At = id, where for M a matrix, Mt denotes the transpose of M.
To conclude column orthogonality, we need the following elementary fact
from linear algebra.
Exercise 9.4. For M, N two n × n matrices with MN = id, verify that N M =
id as well. Hint: Observe that M ( N M − id) = MN M − M = 0. Use that
M : V → V is bijective to conclude N M − id = 0.
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 47

So, knowing A · At = id, it follows from Exercise 9.4 that At · A = id. Here
we are using that A is a square matrix, which follows since the number of
conjugacy classes equals the number of irreps (proved later in Corollary 11.6).
However, expanding out this product, we see that multiplying the row of At
indexed by a conjugacy class c containing g and the column of A indexed by
a conjugacy class d containing h, we have that
√ √
#c #d
( At · A)c,d = ∑ √#G √#G χπ ( g)χπ (h).
π ∈Irrep( G )

On the other hand, since At · A = id, it follows that the right hand side
expression is 0 if c ̸= d and 1 if c = d. In the latter case, we obtain
#c
1= ∑ #G χπ ( g)χπ (h).
π ∈Irrep( G )

Therefore,
#G
#c
= ∑ χ π ( g ) χ π ( h ),
π ∈Irrep( G )

as claimed. □
48 AARON LANDESMAN

10. T HE S UM OF S QUARES F ORMULA

In this section, we work over C, so in particular we may apply Schur’s
lemma, Maschke’s theorem, and orthogonality of characters. The main goal
is to prove that the sum of the squares of the dimensions of all irreducible
representations of G is equal to #G. Along the way, we will need to introduce
the inner product between characters and the regular representation.
Theorem 10.1 (Sum of Squares Formula). For G any finite group,

∑ (dim ρ)2 = #G.

ρ∈Irrep( G )

Remark 10.2. Note that this follows immediately from Theorem 9.2 applied
to the column corresponding to the conjugacy class of the identity, since
dim ρ = χρ (e). However, this proof relies on the fact the the number of
conjugacy classes equals the number of irreducible representations, which
takes quite some work as we will later see. We now give an alternate proof,
as it gives us the opportunity to introduce the regular representation and see
more representation theory techniques in action.
Exercise 10.3. Assuming Theorem 10.1, show that there are only finitely
many isomorphism classes of irreducible representations.
√ Further verify that
if (π, V ) is an irreducible G-representation, dim π ≤ #G with equality if
and only if #G = 1.
10.1. The inner product on characters. We define an “inner product” on
characters of representations. For now this is just notation as we have not
yet described the space on which it is an inner product. It will turn out that
characters are actually a basis for the space of class functions, to be defined
later in Definition 11.1.
Definition 10.4. For (π, V ) , (ρ, W ) two complex representations, define
1
⟨χπ , χρ ⟩ :=
#G ∑ χ π ( g ) χ ρ ( g ).
g∈ G

Lemma 10.5. If (π, V ) and (ρ, W ) are irreducible then

(
1 if ρ ≃ π
⟨χπ , χρ ⟩ =
0 if ρ ̸≃ π
Furthermore, the number above is equal to dim Hom (π, ρ).
Proof. The first claim is simply a rephrasing of the statement of Theorem 8.1.
The second claim follows from Schur’s lemma Theorem 5.1. □
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 49

We wish to generalize Lemma 10.5 which computes the dimension of maps

of representations to arbitrary representations, instead of just irreducible
ones. For this, we will need the following result on how characters commute
with direct sums:
Ln
Exercise 10.6. Verify that for π ≃ i =1 π i , we have
n
χπ = ∑ χ πi .
i =1
Hint: Recall Exercise 2.24 which showed this in the case n = 2.
Proposition 10.7. For (π, V ) , (ρ, W ) two complex G-representations (not neces-
sarily irreducible) we have
⟨χπ , χρ ⟩ = dim Hom(π, ρ).
Proof. We have already proven this holds in the case ρ and π are irreducible
in Lemma 10.5. L
In general, byLMaschke’s theorem Theorem 4.5, we can write
ρ and π as π ≃ in=1 πi , ρ ≃ m j=1 ρ j . for πi , ρ j all irreducible representations.
Then, by Lemma 6.6, we find
n M
M m

Hom (π, ρ) = Hom πi , ρ j .
i =1 j =1

Taking dimensions of both sides we find

 
n M
M m

dim Hom (π, ρ) = dim  Hom πi , ρ j .
i =1 j =1
n m
∑ ∑ dim Hom


= πi , ρ j
i =1 j =1
n m
= ∑ ∑ ⟨ χ πi , χ ρ j ⟩ Lemma 10.5
i =1 j =1
n m
= ⟨ ∑ χ πi , ∑ χ ρ j ⟩
i =1 j =1
= ⟨χ⊕in=1 πi , χ⊕mj=1 ρ j ⟩ Exercise 10.6
= ⟨ χ π , χ ρ ⟩.
□
The following corollary is crucial for proving Theorem 10.1. Note this is
essentially Desiderata 3.1[Multiplicity].
50 AARON LANDESMAN

n
Corollary 10.8. Let (π, V ) be a representation and π ≃ ⊕in=1 πi i an isotypic
decomposition. Then
⟨ χ πi , χ π ⟩ = n i .
Proof. We know from Proposition 10.7 that
⟨χπi , χπ ⟩ = dim Hom (πi , π ) .
Therefore,
⟨χπi , χπ ⟩ = dim Hom (πi , π )
 
n
M ⊕n j
= dim Hom πi , πj 
j =1
⊕n j
 
= dim ⊕in=1 Hom πi , π j Lemma 6.6
n
⊕n j
 
= ∑ dim Hom π i , π j
j =1
n
∑ n j · dim Hom


= πi , π j Lemma 6.6
j =1
n
= ∑ n j · δij Theorem 5.1
j =1
= ni .
□
10.2. The Regular Representation. We will apply the above inner product
of Definition 10.4 to deduce Theorem 10.1. We will apply it to the regular
representation, which we now define. It may be helpful to note that you
have already encountered the regular representation for Z/n in Exercise 4.7.

Definition 10.9. For G a group define the regular representation

 (Reg( G ), V )
as follows: Take V to be a vector space with basis e g g∈G (so dim V = #G).
Let Reg( G ) act on V by (Reg( G )(h))(e g ) := ehg .
Exercise 10.10 (Easy Exercise). Verify Reg( G ) is indeed a G-representation.
Theorem 10.11. We have an isotypic decomposition of Reg( G ) given by
(10.1) Reg( G ) ≃ ⊕π ∈Irrep(G) π ⊕ dim π .
Before proving Theorem 10.11, let’s see why it implies Theorem 10.1.
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 51

Theorem 10.11 implies Theorem 10.1. Simply compute dimensions of both sides
of Equation 10.1. By construction dim Reg( G ) = #G. On the other hand,
 
dim ⊕π ∈Irrep(G) π ⊕ dim π = ∑ dim(π ⊕ dim π )
π ∈Irrep G

= ∑ (dim π )2 .
π ∈Irrep G

Therefore, #G = ∑π ∈Irrep G (dim π )2 , as desired. □

It remains only to prove Theorem 10.11. For this, we will need the fol-
lowing concrete description of the character of the regular representation.

Lemma 10.12. We have

(
#G if g = id
χReg(G) ( g) =
0 if g ̸= id
Proof. Choose the  basis of the vector space underlying the regular represen-
tation given by e g g∈G . Then, since (Reg( G )(h))(e g ) = e gh , observe that
tr Reg( G )(h) is precisely { g ∈ G : gh = g} (make sure you understand why
for yourself!). But if gh = g then necessarily h = id. So, this number is 0 if
h ̸= id. If h = id, then Reg( G )(id) = id. Since the vector space underlying
Reg( G ) is #G dimensional, we obtain tr Reg( G )(id) = #G. □
Proof of Theorem 10.11. By Corollary 10.8, it suffices to prove that for (π, V )
any irreducible representation, we have
⟨χReg(G) , χπ ⟩ = dim πi .
To see this, recall that for any representation π, χπ (id) = dim π, and so
1
#G g∑
⟨χReg(G) , χπ ⟩ = χReg(G) ( g) · χπ ( g)
∈G
!
1
= χReg(G) (id) · χπ (id) + ∑ χReg(G) ( g) · χπ ( g)
#G g̸=id
!
1
= #G · dim π + ∑ 0 · χπ ( g) Lemma 10.12
#G g̸=id
1
= (#G · dim π )
#G
= dim π.
□
52 AARON LANDESMAN

11. T HE NUMBER OF IRREDUCIBLE REPRESENTATIONS

Throughout this section, we work over C. In this section, among other
things, we show that the number of irreducible representations is equal to
the number of conjugacy classes. In order to do this, we will need to define a
notion of class function, which are functions constant on conjugacy classes.
It will be evident that the dimension of the space of class functions is equal to
the number of conjugacy classes. We will show that characters of irreducible
representations form a basis for the space of class functions, and therefore
the number of irreducible representations equals the number of conjugacy
classes.
Definition 11.1. A class function is a map of sets f : G → C so that f ( g) =
f (h) if g and h are conjugate in G. Let Class( G ) denote the set of class
functions on G.
Remark 11.2. By Lemma 1.24 we see that for any G-representation (ρ, V ),
the character χρ ∈ Class( G ).
Remark 11.3. Because addition and scalar multiplication preserves class
functions, Class( G ) can be given the structure of a C vector space. Explicitly,
if f and h ∈ Class( G ), a ∈ C and g ∈ G, then ( f + h)( g) := f ( g) + h( g) and
( a · f )( g) = a · ( f ( g)).
Exercise 11.4. For c ∈ Conj( G ) a conjugacy class, define
fc : G → C
(
1 if g ∈ c
g 7→
0 if g ∈
/ c.
Show the set of functions { f c }c∈Conj G form a basis for Class( G ). Conclude
dim Class( G ) = # Conj( G ).
As mentioned above, the main result we will show in this section is the
following:
Theorem 11.5. For G a finite group, the set of class functions {χπ }π ∈Irrep(G) form
a basis for Class( G ).
Proof. Since a set is a basis if and only if it is independent and a spanning set,
this follows from Lemma 11.10 and Proposition 11.11 below. □
Let’s deduce our motivating consequence.
Corollary 11.6. For G a finite group,
# Irrep( G ) = # Conj( G ).
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 53

Proof. By Theorem 11.5, the set of characters or irreducible representations

form a basis for Class( G ). Therefore, dim Class( G ) = # Irrep( G ).
However, by Exercise 11.4, we know dim Class( G ) = # Conj( G ). Hence,
# Irrep( G ) = dim Class( G ) = # Conj( G ). □

11.1. Proving characters are independent. We prove Theorem 11.5 by show-

ing characters of irreducible representations are independent and span
Class( G ). Let’s start by showing they are independent. For this, we be-
gin by upgrading the temporarily defined pairing in Definition 10.4 to a
bona fide pairing on Class( G ).

Definition 11.7. Define an inner product on the space of class functions as

follows: If f , h ∈ Class( G ) define the pairing

1
⟨ f , h⟩ :=
#G ∑ f ( g ) h ( g ).
g∈ G

Remark 11.8. Note that in particular if we take f = χπ , h = χρ , then ⟨ f , h⟩ de-

fined as in Definition 11.7 agrees with ⟨χπ , χρ ⟩ as defined in Definition 10.4.

Exercise 11.9 (Properties of the inner product on class functions). For f , g, h ∈

Class( G ) and a ∈ C, check the following properties of the inner product on
class functions (usually a map V × V → C is called an inner product on V if
it satisfies these properties):

(1) ⟨ f , g + h⟩ = ⟨ f , h⟩ + ⟨ f , g⟩
(2) ⟨ f + g, h⟩ = ⟨ f , h⟩ + ⟨ g, h⟩
(3) ⟨ a f , h⟩ = a⟨ f , h⟩
(4) ⟨ f , ah⟩ = a⟨ f , h⟩
(5) ⟨ f , f ⟩ ∈ R≥0
(6) ⟨ f , f ⟩ = 0 ⇐⇒ f = 0.

Lemma 11.10. The set of class functions {χπ }π ∈Irrep(G) are independent.

Proof. Suppose there are some constants aπ ∈ C so that ∑π ∈Irrep(G) aπ χπ = 0.

We want to show that aπ = 0 for all π ∈ Irrep( G ). In order to pick out
the coefficient aρ , we take the inner product with χρ . More precisely, for
54 AARON LANDESMAN

ρ ∈ Irrep( G ),
0 = ⟨0, χρ ⟩
* +
= ∑ aπ χπ , χρ
π ∈Irrep( G )

= ∑ aπ ⟨χπ , χρ ⟩ Exercise 11.9

π ∈Irrep( G )

= ∑ aπ δπρ Lemma 10.5

π ∈Irrep( G )
= aρ .
So aπ = 0 for all π ∈ Irrep( G ), as we wanted to show. □
11.2. Proving characters form a basis for class functions. In order to prove
the set of characters of irreps form a basis for the space of class functions, we
only need to show they span all class functions.
Proposition 11.11. The set of class functions {χπ }π ∈Irrep(G) span the space of all
class functions
Assuming Proposition 11.13. Suppose f : G → C is some class function. To
see that f lies in the span of the χπ . We are free to modify it by linear
combinations of the χπ . Define fe := f − ∑π ∈Irrep(G) ⟨ f , χπ ⟩χπ . We claim
⟨ fe, χπ ⟩ = 0 for all π ∈ IrrepG . Once we verify this, it will follow from
Proposition 11.13 below that fe = 0 and therefore
f = ∑ ⟨ f , χπ ⟩χπ ∈ Span (χπ ) .
π ∈Irrep( G )

So, conditional on Proposition 11.13, we only need to check ⟨ fe, χπ ⟩ = 0.

Exercise 11.12. Verify this, completing the proof. Hint: expand out the
definition of fe and use Exercise 11.9.
□
To complete the proof of Theorem 11.5, we have reduced to showing the
following:
Proposition 11.13. If f is a class function so that ⟨ f , χπ ⟩ = 0 for all π ∈ Irrep( G )
then f = 0.
Proof. The proof of this is a bit tricky, so we subdivide it into steps. For (π, V )
a G-representation, we consider the T f ,π := ∑ g∈G f ( g)π ( g−1 ) : V → V. The
motivation for considering this is that it is closely related to the inner product
⟨ f , χπ ⟩, which we are assuming is 0.
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 55

11.2.1. Step 1: T f ,π is a map of representations. We first claim T f ,π : (π, V ) →

(π, V ) is a map of representations. That is, we want to check
π (h)
V V
(11.1) T f ,π T f ,π
π (h)
V V
commutes.
This follows from the following computation:
!
π (h) T f ,π = π (h) ∑ f ( g ) π ( g −1 )
g∈ G

= ∑ f ( g)π (hg−1 )
g∈ G
   −1 
= ∑ f (h −1 −1
αh)π h h αh setting g := h−1 αh
α∈ G
= ∑ f (α)π (hh−1 α−1 h) since f is a class function
α∈ G
= ∑ f ( α ) π ( α −1 h )
α∈ G
!
= ∑ f ( α ) π ( α −1 ) π (h)
α∈ G
= T f ,π ◦ π (h)

11.2.2. Step 2: T f ,π = 0 for π irreducible. We saw in the previous step T f ,π

defines a map of representations. If π is irreducible, it follows from Schur’s
lemma Theorem 5.1 that T f ,π must be a · id for some scalar a ∈ C. Therefore,
it only remains to prove a = 0. Since tr T f ,π = tr(c · id) = dim π · a, it suffices
to show tr T f ,π = 0. Indeed, by our assumption on f ,
!
tr T f ,π = tr ∑ f ( g ) π ( g −1 )
g∈ G

= ∑ f ( g) tr π ( g−1 )
g∈ G
= ⟨ f , χπ ⟩
=0
56 AARON LANDESMAN

11.2.3. Step 3: T f ,π = 0 for all representations π. By Maschke’s theorem The-

π ≃ in=1 πi for πi irreducible representations. It
L
orem 4.5, we can write Ln
follows that T f ,π = i=1 T f ,πi . Here, if Ti : Vi → Vi are linear maps,
n
M M M
Ti : Vi → Vi
i =1 i i
denotes the “block diagonal” linear map defined by
!
n
M
Ti (v1 , . . . , vn ) = ( T1 (v1 ), . . . , Tn (vn )) .
i =1
It follows from the previous step that each T f ,πi = 0 and hence T f ,π = 0.
11.2.4. Step 4: Concluding the proof. We apply the previous step in the case
that π = Reg( G ). We have T f ,Reg(G) = 0, meaning that for V the underlying

vector space of Reg( G ) with basis e g g∈G , the function

∑ f ( g ) π ( g −1 ) : V → V
g∈ G

is the 0 map. We wish to show this means f ( g) = 0 for all g ∈ G. Indeed,

!
0= ∑ f ( g ) π ( g −1 ) (eid )
g∈ G

= ∑ f ( g ) e g −1 .
g∈ G

Since the set {e g−1 } g∈G form a basis of V, and ∑ g∈G f ( g)e g−1 is a dependence
relation between these basis elements, we must have f ( g) = 0 for all g ∈ G,
as desired. □
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 57

12. D IMENSIONS OF I RREPS DIVIDE THE ORDER OF THE G ROUP

In this section, we work over C. Via a series of exercises, we prove that the
dimension of any irreducible representation divides the order of the group.
This section assumes familiarity with the notion of integral extensions of
rings and algebraic integers, or at least the willingness to take on faith that a
sum and product of integral elements is integral. For the remainder of this
section, we fix a group G.
The main result is the following, whose proof is concluded below in
Exercise 12.10.
Theorem 12.1. Let ρ be an irreducible complex representation of G. Then dim ρ |
#G.
To prove this, we will need the notion a ring element being integral. We
now recall this.
Definition 12.2. Let R → S be a map of rings. An element s ∈ S is integral
over R if s is a root of some monic polynomial ∑in=1 ri xi with ri ∈ R (where
monic means rn = 1). We say S is integral over R if every s ∈ S is integral
over R.
We now state the main result on integral elements which we will need, but
do not prove it.
Theorem 12.3. If R → S is map of rings and a, b ∈ S are integral then so are a + b
and a · b.
We now outline how to prove Theorem 12.1 using Theorem 12.3.
Exercise 12.4. Fix an irreducible complex representation (ρ, V ) of G. The
purpose of this exercise is to show χρ ( g) is an integral over Z.
(1) Show that all eigenvalues of ρ( g) are integral over Z. Hint: Use
Exercise 8.10, that ρ( g) is a diagonalizable matrix. (Really, you only
need that ρ( g) is conjugate to an upper triangular matrix, and in fact
every matrix over C is conjugate to an upper triangular matrix.)
(2) Conclude using Theorem 12.3 that χρ ( g) is an integral over Z for
every g ∈ G.
Exercise 12.5. Let (ρ, V ) be an irreducible complex G-representation. The
purpose of this exercise is to show that if c ⊂ G is a conjugacy class and
g ∈ c, then #cχρ ( g)/χρ (1) is integral over Z.
(1) Show that every linear combination of elements ρ( g) for g ∈ G is inte-
gral over Z. Here the map R → S of Definition 12.2 is the map from
the integers to dim ρ × dim ρ matrices with integer entries, sending
n 7→ n · idV .
58 AARON LANDESMAN

(2) Let c ⊂ G be a conjugacy class. Show that ∑ g∈c ρ( g) commutes with

ρ(h) for all h ∈ G.
(3) Use Schur’s lemma to show
#c · χρ ( g)
∑ ρ( g) = χρ (1) · idV .
g∈c

(4) Conclude that #c · χρ ( g)/χρ (1) is integral over Z.

Exercise 12.6. Show that #c · χρ ( g)χρ ( g)/χρ (1) is integral over Z for any
g ∈ c. Hint: Use Exercise 12.4, Exercise 12.5, and χρ = χρ∨ .
Exercise 12.7. Show that
1
∑ #cχρ (c)χρ (c)
χρ (1) c∈Conj (G)
is integral over Z.
Exercise 12.8. Show that χ 1(1) #G is integral over Z. Hint: Use Exercise 12.7
ρ
and Theorem 9.2 (orthogonality of character tables).
Exercise 12.9. Show that any x ∈ Q which is integral over Z in fact lies in Z.
Hint: If x = a/b in reduced form satisfies some monic polynomial of degree
more than 1, expand the polynomial to show there are no primes dividing b.
Exercise 12.10. Prove Theorem 12.1 by showing #G
χ ρ (1)
is both integral over Z
and a rational number, hence an integer.
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 59

A PPENDIX A. D EFINITION AND CONSTRUCTIONS OF FIELDS

To this end, we first define fields. After defining fields, if we have one field
K, we give a way to construct many fields from K by adjoining elements.
A.1. The definition of a field. A field is a special type of ring. So, we first
define a ring:
Definition A.1. A commutative ring with unit is a set R together with two
operations (+, ·) satisfying the following properties:
(1) Associativity: a + (b + c) = ( a + b) + c, a · (b · c) = ( a · b) · c
(2) Commutativity: a + b = b + a, a · b = b · a
(3) Additive identity: there exists 0 ∈ R so that a + 0 = a
(4) Multiplicative identity: there exists 1 ̸= 0 ∈ R so that 1 · a = a
(5) Additive inverses: For every a ∈ R, there is a additive inverse, de-
noted − a satisfying a + (− a) = 0
(6) Distributivity of multiplication over addition: a · (b + c) = ( a · b) +
( a · c) .
Remark A.2. Any mention of “ring” in what follows implicitly means “com-
mutative ring with unit.” There will be no non-commutative rings or rings
without units.
Definition A.3. A field is a ring K such that every nonzero element has a
multiplicative inverse. That is, for each a ∈ K with a ̸= 0, there is some
a−1 ∈ K so that a · a−1 = 1.
Definition A.4. A finite field is simply a field whose underlying set is finite.
Example A.5. Given any prime number p, the set Z/pZ forms a field under
addition and multiplication. This field is denoted F p . Nearly all the axioms
are immediate, except possibly for the existence of multiplicative inverses.
Exercise A.6. Verify that every nonzero element has a multiplicative inverse
in two ways:
(1) Use the Euclidean algorithm to show that for any a < p there exists
some b with ab ≡ 1 mod p and conclude that b is an inverse for a.
Hint: Use that gcd( a, p) = 1.
(2) Show that a p−1 = 1, so a p−2 is an inverse for a. This is also known
as “Fermat’s Little theorem,” not to be confused with “Fermat’s Last
theorem,” which is much more difficult. Hint: Show that the powers
of any element form a subgroup of (Z/pZ)× := Z/pZ − {0} under
multiplication. Use Lagrange’s theorem (i.e., the order of a subgroup
divides the order of the ambient group) to deduce that this subgroup
generated by a has order dividing #(Z/pZ)× = p − 1. Conclude that
am = 1 for some m dividing p − 1 and hence a p−1 = 1.
60 AARON LANDESMAN

A.2. Constructing field extensions by adjoining elements. We now ex-

plain how to construct extensions of fields by adjoining elements. Here is a
prototypical example:
√ 
Example A.7. Consider the field Q 2 . How should we interpret this?
The elements of this field are of the form
√  n √ o
Q 2 = a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Q .
Multiplication works by
 √  √  √
a + b 2 c + d 2 = ( ac + 2bd) + ( ad + bc) 2.
√
Here is another perspective on this field: What is 2? It is simply a root of
the polynomial x2 − 2. Therefore, we could instead consider the field
Q[ x ] / ( x 2 − 2),
where this means the ring where we adjoin a root of the polynomial x2 − 2.
Concretely, Q[ x ] means polynomials with coefficients in Q, and the notation
Q[ x ]/( x2 − 2) means that in any polynomial f ( x ), we can replace x2 by 2. So
for example, if we had the polynomial x3 + 2x2 + 3 this would be considered
equivalent to ( x2 ) · x + 2 · ( x2 ) + 3 = 2x + 4 + 3 = 2x + 7. In this way, we
can replace any polynomial
√ with a polynomial of degree 1 of the form a + bx.
√ x with 2 gives the isomorphism of this ring with the above
Identifying
field Q 2 .

Exercise A.8. Describe the elements of the fields K as in Example A.7 for K
one of the following fields
√ 
(1) K = Q 3 ,
(2) K = Q 7 1/5


,
(3) K = Q (ζ 3 ), for ζ 3 a primitive cube root of unity.
In each of the above cases, write K = Q[ x ]/ f ( x ) for an appropriate polyno-
mial f . In each of the above cases, what is the dimension of K over Q, when
K is viewed as a Q vector space?
Definition A.9. Let K be a field. Define the polynomial ring
( )
n
K [ x ] := ∑ ai x i : ai ∈ K .
i =1
For f ∈ K [ x ], define
K [ x ]/( f ) := K [ x ]/ ∼
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 61

where ∼ is the equivalence relation defined by g ∼ h if f | g − h.

Exercise A.10. Show that K [ x ]/( x ) ≃ K, where the map is given by sending
a polynomial to its constant coefficient.
Lemma A.11. Let K be a field and let f ∈ K [ x ] be a monic irreducible polynomial.
Then K [ x ]/( f ) is a field.
Proof. Note that K [ x ]/( f ) is a ring as it inherits multiplication and addition
and all the resulting properties of a ring from K [ x ]. (Check this!) Therefore,
it suffices to check that if f is monic and irreducible, then every element has
an inverse. In other words, given any g ∈ K [ x ]/( f ), we need to show there
is some h with gh = 1. We can consider g ∈ K [ x ] as a polynomial of degree
less than f . Since f is irreducible, and deg g < deg f , it follows that the two
polynomials share no common factors. Then, by the Euclidean algorithm
for polynomials (if you have only seen the Euclidean algorithm over the
integers, check that the natural analog to the Euclidean algorithm for the
integers works equally well in polynomial rings over arbitrary fields, where
the remainder is then a polynomial of degree less than the polynomial you
are dividing by) we obtain some h, k ∈ K [ x ] with gh + f k = 1 as elements of
K [ x ]. It follows that gh ∼ 1 in K [ x ]/( f ) because gh − 1 = f k in K [ x ]. □
Exercise A.12. Let K be a field and f ∈ K [ x ] a monic irreducible polynomial.
Suppose L = K [ x ]/( f ). Show that dimK L = deg f , where deg f denotes the
degree of the polynomial f and dimK L denotes the dimension of L as a K
vector space.
Example A.13. Consider the field F2 [ x ]/( x2 + x + 1). We claim this is a
finite field of order 4. Indeed, this holds because the polynomial x2 + x + 1
is irreducible. To check this, we only need to check it has no linear factors.
It has a linear factor if and only if x2 + x + 1 has a root in F2 . But, when we
evaluate it at 0 we get 1 mod 2 and when we evaluate it at 1, we get 1 mod 2.
So it has no roots, and the claim follows from Lemma A.11.
p +1
Exercise A.14. For any p > 2, show that there are exactly 2 elements
x ∈ F p with x = y2 for some y ∈ F p . We call such x squares. Conclude that
there is some x ∈ F p which is not a square whenever p > 2. Hint: Show that
if x = y2 then we also have x = (−y)2 and further that there y and −y are
the only two elements of F p squaring to x.
Example A.15. Let p > 2 be a prime and let ε ∈ F p be an element which is
not a square (which exists by Exercise A.14). Then,
F p [ x ]/( x2 − ε)
62 AARON LANDESMAN

is a finite field of order p2 . It is order p2 because it is a two dimensional

vector space over F p spanned by the basis 1 and x. It is a field because x2 − ε
is irreducible in F p [ x ]. Indeed, to see this, note that if it were not irreducible,
it would factor as a product of two linear factors, which means it would
have a root. But, if it had a root, there would be some y ∈ F p so that y2 = ε.
However, we chose ε not to be a square, and so no root exists.
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 63

A PPENDIX B. A QUICK INTRO TO FIELD THEORY

In this section, we discuss maps of fields and the characteristic of a field.

B.1. Maps of fields.

Definition B.1. Given two fields K and L, a map ϕ : K → L is a map
of sets sending 1 7→ 1, 0 7→ 0 such that ϕ( a +K b) = ϕ( a) + L ϕ(b) and
ϕ ( a · K b ) = ϕ ( a ) · L ϕ ( b ).
Remark B.2. Sometimes, a map of fields is referred to as a homomorphism or
extension. Whenever we have a map of fields, it is required to be compatible
with the addition and multiplication operations, as defined above. If we do
not wish to require such compatibility, we will call the map “a map of sets”
Remark B.3. We shall typically drop the subscript +K , ·K on addition and
multiplication when it is clear from context.
Exercise B.4. Verify from the definition of map that
ϕ ( a −1 ) = ϕ ( a ) −1
and
ϕ(− a) = −ϕ( a).
We next prove that maps of fields are injective. If you have not worked
much with the notion of injectivity before, you may want to try the following
exercise first.
Exercise B.5. Show that a map of rings is injective (using the definition that
f : R → S is injective if f ( a) = f (b) implies a = b) if and only if the only
element mapping to 0 is 0. Hint: Consider f ( a − b).
Lemma B.6. Any map of fields is injective.
Proof. By Exercise B.5 it suffices to show that any c ̸= 0 does not satisfy
ϕ(c) = 0. Suppose there is some such c. But note that 1 = ϕ(1) = ϕ(cc−1 ) =
ϕ(c)ϕ(c−1 ) = 0ϕ(c−1 ) = 0, a contradiction. Therefore, every nonzero ele-
ment does not map to 0 and the map is injective. □
Remark B.7. Because of Lemma B.6, a map of fields is also typically called
an extension of fields or a field extension.
Remark B.8. The property that maps of fields are injective is very special to
fields. Indeed, it is not true for groups. For example, the map Z → {1} is
not injective!
64 AARON LANDESMAN

Remark B.9. Using Lemma B.6, whenever we have a map of fields ϕ :

K → L, we can consider L as a vector space over K. The map K × L → L
corresponding to scalar multiplication is given by
K×L→ L
( a, b) 7→ ϕ( a) · b
B.2. Characteristic of a field.
Definition B.10. Let K be a field. If there is some n so that
(B.1) n := 1| + 1 +{z· · · + 1}
n

is equal to 0 in K, the the minimal such n is defined to be the characteris-

tic of K, denoted char (K ). If no such n ∈ Z≥0 exists, then we say K has
characteristic 0.
Example B.11. The rational numbers Q has characteristic 0, but the field F p
has characteristic p.
Exercise B.12 (Important exercise). Let p be a prime number and suppose K
is a field of characteristic p. Show that for any x, y ∈ K, we have

( x + y) p = x p + y p .
Hint: Expand the left hand side using binomial coefficients, and show that p
divides nearly all of the binomial coefficients.
B.3. Basic properties of characteristic.
Lemma B.13. The characteristic of any field is either 0 or prime.
Proof. Note that the characteristic cannot be 1 because 1 ̸= 0. So, we have to
show that the characteristic is never composite.
Let n be a composite number with n = f g for f , g > 1 two factors of n.
Exercise B.14. Suppose a, b ∈ K with ab = 0. Then show either a = 0 or
b = 0.
By the above exercise, if n = f g = 0, then either f = 0 or g = 0. Say f = 0.
But then, we obtain that f < n, and so K does not have characteristic n. □
Definition B.15. For K a field, we say a subset K ′ ⊂ K is a subfield if it is a
field and the inclusion K ′ ⊂ K is a map of fields (meaning 1 7→ 1, 0 7→ 0 and
the multiplication and addition are compatible).
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 65

Exercise B.16. Verify similarly that any field of characteristic 0 contains Q as

a subfield. Hint: Define a map of fields
ϕ: Q → K
a
7→ ab−1 .
b
Use that b ∈ K is nonzero by the assumption that K has characteristic 0 to
show this is well defined.
Lemma B.17. Any field K of characteristic p > 0 (for p a prime) contains F p as a
subfield.
Proof. Inside K, consider the subset {0, 1, 2, . . . , p − 1}. These form p distinct
elements because char (K ) = p. By definition, of n = 1| + 1 +{z· · · + 1}, the
n
elements 0, 1, . . . , p − 1 satisfy the same addition and multiplication rules as
F p ≃ (Z/pZ). Therefore, when we restrict the multiplication and addition
from K to {0, 1, 2, . . . , p − 1}, we realize F p as this subfield. □
66 AARON LANDESMAN

A PPENDIX C. A LGEBRAIC CLOSURES

In this section, we discuss “algebraic closures.”
Definition C.1. An extension of fields ϕ : K → L is finite if ϕ makes L into a
finite dimensional vector space over K. An extension of fields ϕ : K → L is
algebraic if for every a ∈ L, there is a finite extension K → L a with L a ⊂ L a
subfield containing a.
It is not too difficult to show algebraic closures exists, but to jump to the
interesting stuff, we will defer it for later:
Definition C.2. A field K is algebraically closed if any finite field extension
K → L is an isomorphism.
Exercise C.3. Show that the real numbers are not algebraically closed. Show
that the rational numbers are not algebraically closed.
Lemma C.4. Let K be a field. The following are equivalent.
(1) K is algebraically closed.
(2) Every monic irreducible polynomial over K has a root.
(3) Every monic irreducible polynomial over K factors as a product of linear
polynomials.
Proof. For (1) =⇒ (2), we suppose K is algebraically closed and show
every monic irreducible polynomial over K has a root. Let f be any monic
irreducible polynomial over K. Then, K [ x ]/( f ) is a field extension of K.
Because K is algebraically closed, the natural map K → K [ x ]/( f ) is an
isomorphism. Therefore, dimK K [ x ]/( f ) = 1 and so f has degree 1 by
Exercise A.12 (which says deg f = dimK K [ x ]/( f )), and hence has a root.
Next, if (2) holds, one can prove (3) by induction on the degree of the
polynomial.
Finally, for (3) =⇒ (1), suppose K is not algebraically closed. We want
to show there is some irreducible polynomial over K which does not factor
completely. Let L be a finite extension of K with the inclusion K → L not an
isomorphism. Since K → L is an injection it is not a surjection, so we may
take some y ∈ L \ K. We claim there is some monic irreducible polynomial
f ∈ K [ x ] with f (y) = 0. Indeed, this is the content of the following exercise.
Exercise C.5. Let K → L be an algebraic extension. Show that any element
x ∈ L satisfies some monic irreducible polynomial f ( x ) = x n + k n−1 x n−1 +
· · · + k0 , for k i ∈ K. Hint: By definition of an algebraic extension, show
that the powers of x satisfy some linear dependence relation, and obtain the
monic irreducible polynomial from this relation.
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 67

Note that since y ∈ / K, the polynomial f with f (y) = 0 has degree more
than 1. Since f is irreducible and has degree more than 1, f does not have a
root in K, as we wanted to show. □
Exercise C.6. Show that the complex numbers are algebraically closed (you
may assume that every polynomial over the complex numbers has a root).
Definition C.7. A field extension K → K is an algebraic closure if
(1) K → K is algebraic and
(2) K is algebraically closed.
Exercise C.8. Let K → L be an algebraic extension and let L denote an
algebraic closure of L. Show that L is also an algebraic closure of K.
Theorem C.9 (Existence of algebraic closures). Let K be a field.
(1) K has an algebraic closure.
(2) Any two algebraic closures of K are isomorphic as field extensions (meaning
′
that for two algebraic closures K, K , with K as a subfield via the maps
′ ′
ϕ : K → K, ϕ′ : K → K , there is an isomorphism f : K → K so that
f ◦ ϕ = ϕ′ ).

A PPENDIX D. E XISTENCE OF ALGEBRAIC CLOSURES

We guide the reader through a proof of the existence of algebraic closures
in series of exercises.
We first prove the existence of an algebraic closure Theorem C.9(1), and
then show it is unique up to (non-unique) isomorphism. The key to proving
the existence of an algebraic closure will be Zorn’s lemma, which we now
recall:
Lemma D.1. Suppose I is a partially ordered set. Suppose any totally ordered
subset I ′ ⊂ I has a maximum element, i.e., there is some i ∈ I with i ≥ j for all
j ∈ I ′ . Then I contains a maximal element, i.e., there is some i ∈ I so that for any
j ∈ I, j ̸> i.
Remark D.2. Zorn’s lemma is not a lemma in the conventional sense because
it is equivalent to the axiom of choice. Therefore, we will not prove it, but
rather take it as an axiom.
We next aim to prove existence of algebraic closures. Logically, if you’d
like, you can skip directly to Exercise D.5. However, it may help your
understanding of that exercise if you do the prior exercises first.
Exercise D.3. We now prove some basic properties about cardinalities of
field extensions.
68 AARON LANDESMAN

(1) Show that if L is an algebraic extension of a finite field K, then | L| ≤

|Z|. Here |S| denotes the set-theoretic cardinality of a set S.
(2) Show that if L is an algebraic extension of an infinite field K, then
| L| = |K |. Hint: Show that K has the same cardinality as K [ x ] and
defined a map of sets L → K [ x ] by sending an element to its minimal
polynomial. Show that there are only finitely many elements with a
given minimal polynomial and deduce |K | = | L|.
(3) Conclude that for any infinite field K, if T is a set with | T | > |K | then
for any algebraic extension L of K, we have | T | > | L|.
(4) Conclude that for any field K if T is an infinite set with | T | > |K |,
then | T | ≥ | L| for any algebraic extension L of K. (By the above, the
only interesting case is the case that K is finite.)
Exercise D.4. Assume K is an infinite field. Using Exercise D.3, solve a
slightly simplified version of Exercise D.5 with the modification that S is any
set so that |S| > |K | (so that there is no intermediate set T in the picture).
Therefore, the addition of T is only needed to deal with finite fields.
Exercise D.5 (Difficult exercise). Use Zorn’s lemma to show an algebraic
closure of a field K exists as follows: Let T be an infinite set with | T | > |K |
and let S be a set with |S| > | T |.
(1) Consider the partially ordered set
R := {( L, ϕ) : L is an algebraic extension of K and ϕ : L ,→ S is a subset }
Check that one can define a partial ordering on R by declaring
( L1 , ϕ1 ) ≤ ( L2 , ϕ2 ) if i : L1 → L2 is an algebraic extension, and
ϕ2 ◦ i = ϕ1 .
(2) Use Zorn’s lemma, Lemma D.1, to show that R has a maximal element,
call it ( M, ϕ).
(3) Show that M is algebraically closed by showing that if i : M → N
is any algebraic extension then there is a map ψ : N → S with
ψ ◦ i ( x ) = ϕ( x ). Hint: Use that | N | ≤ | M| ≤ | T | < S and |S − M | =
| S | > | N − M |.
Exercise D.6. Suppose we have an algebraic extension K ⊂ L and K ⊂ K
with K algebraically closed. Show that there is a map of extensions L → K in
the following steps:
(1) Consider the partially ordered set I of pairs ( M, ϕ) with K ⊂ M ⊂ L
and ϕ : M → K a map of fields. Check that the relation
( M1 , ϕ1 ) ≤ ( M2 , ϕ2 )
if M1 ⊂ M2 and ϕ2 | M1 = ϕ1 defines a partial ordering on such pairs
( M, ϕ).
 NOTES ON REPRESENTATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS 69

(2) Show that any totally ordered subset I ′ ⊂ I corresponding to a

collection {( Mi , ϕi )}i∈ I ′ has a maximum element given by taking
(∪i Mi , ∪i ϕi ), with ∪i ϕi interpreted suitably.
(3) Using Zorn’s lemma obtain a maximal element ( M, ϕ) of I.
(4) Verify that the maximum element ( M, ϕ) has M = L and conclude
there is a map L → K Hint: Suppose L ̸= M. Then there is some
x ∈ L − M. Show that x satisfies some minimal polynomial over
L. Deduce there is a map M( x ) → K restricting to the given map
ϕ : M → K, and hence ( M, ϕ) was not maximal.
Exercise D.7. Prove Theorem C.9(2) using Exercise D.6 as follows:
(1) Show that for any two algebraic closures K1 , K2 of the same field K
there is an injective map between ϕ : K1 → K2 .
(2) Show that the injective map ϕ is an algebraic extension.
(3) Conclude that the map produced K1 → K2 is an isomorphism from
the definition of algebraic closure.