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Koh Khee Meng
Dong Fengniing
Tay Eng Guan

Introduction to
Graph Theory
Solutions Manual

World Scientific
Introduction to
Graph Theory
Solutions Manual
This page intentionally left blank
 Introduction to
Graph Theory
Solutions Manual

Koh Khee Meng

National University of Singapore, Singapore

Dong Fengming
Tay Eng Guan
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

World Scientific
NEW JERSEY • LONDON . SINGAPORE . BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEJ • CHENNAI
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

INTRODUCTION TO GRAPH THEORY

Solutions Manual
Copyright © 2007 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval
system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher.

For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to
photocopy is not required from the publisher.

ISBN-13 978-981-277-175-9 (pbk)

ISBN-10 981-277-175-1 (pbk)

Printed in Singapore.
 Preface

Discrete Mathematics is a branch of mathematics dealing with finite or

countable processes and elements. Graph theory is an area of Discrete
Mathematics which studies configurations (called graphs) consisting of a
set of nodes (called vertices) interconnecting by lines (called edges). From
humble beginnings and almost recreational type problems, Graph Theory
has found its calling in the modern world of complex systems and especially
of the computer. Graph Theory and its applications can be found not
only in other branches of mathematics, but also in scientific disciplines
such as engineering, computer science, operational research, management
sciences and the life sciences. Since computers require discrete formulation
of problems, Graph Theory has become an essential and powerful tool for
engineers and applied scientists, in particular, in the area of designing and
analyzing algorithms for various problems which range from designing the
itineraries for a shipping company to sequencing the human genome in life
sciences.
Graph Theory shows its versatility in the most surprising of areas. Re-
cently, the connectivity of the World Wide Web and the number of links
needed to move from one webpage to another has been remarkably mod-
eled with graphs, thus opening the real world internet connectivity to more
rigorous studies. These studies form part of research in the phenomena
of the property of a ‘small world’ even in huge systems such as the afore-
mentioned internet and global human relationships (in the so-called ‘Six
Degrees of Separation’).
This book is intended as a companion to our earlier book Introduction
to Graph Theory (World Scientific, 2006). Here, we present worked solu-
tions to all the exercise problems in the earlier book. Such a collection of
solutions is perhaps the first of its kind. We believe that the student who

v
vi Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

has worked on the problems himself will find the solutions presented here
useful as a check and as a model for rigorous mathematical writing. For
ease of reference, each chapter begins with a recapitulation of some of the
important concepts and/or formulae from the earlier book.
We would like to thank Prof. G.L. Chia, Ms Goh Chee Ying, Dr Jin
Xian’an, Dr Ng Kah Loon, Prof. Y.H. Peng, Dr Roger Poh, Ms Ren
Haizhen, Mr Soh Chin Ann, Dr Tan Ban Pin, Dr Tay Tiong Seng and
Dr K.L. Teo for reading the draft and for checking through the solutions -
any mistakes that remain are ours alone.

Koh Khee Meng

Dong Fengming
Tay Eng Guan
April 2007
 Notation

N= {1, 2, 3, · · · }
|S|
n
= the number of elements in the finite set S
n!
r = the number of r-element subsets of an n-element set = r!(n−r)!
B\A= {x ∈ B|x ∈ / A}, where A and B are sets

Si = {x|x ∈ Si for some i ∈ I}, where Si is a set for each i ∈ I
i∈I
(⇒) proof of the implication “if P then Q” in the statement “P if and
only if Q”
(⇐) proof of the implication “if Q then P” in the statement “P if and
only if Q”
[Necessity] proof of the implication “if P then Q” in the statement “P if and
only if Q”
[Sufficiency] proof of the implication “if Q then P” in the statement “P if and
only if Q”

In what follows, G and H are multigraphs, and D is a digraph.

V (G) : the vertex set of G
E(G) : the edge set of G
v(G) : the number of vertices in G or the order of G
e(G) : the number of edges in G or the size of G
V (D) : the vertex set of D
E(D) : the arc set of D
v(D) : the number of vertices in D or the order of D
e(D) : the number of arcs in D
x→y: x is adjacent to y, where x, y are vertices in D
x → y : x is not adjacent to y, where x, y are vertices in D
G∼=H : G is isomorphic to H
A(G) : the adjacency matrix of G

vii
 viii Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

G : the complement of G
[A] : the subgraph of G induced by A, where A ⊆ V (G)
e(A, B) : the number of edges in G having an end in A and the other in B,
where A, B ⊆ V (G)
G − v : the subgraph of G obtained by removing v and all edges incident
with v from G, where v ∈ V (G)
G − e : the subgraph of G obtained by removing e from G, where e ∈ E(G)
G − F : the subgraph of G obtained by removing all edges in F from G,
where F ⊆ E(G)
G − A : the subgraph of G obtained by removing each vertex in A together
with the edges incident with vertices in A from G, where A ⊆ V (G)
G + xy : the graph obtained by adding a new edge xy to G, where x, y ∈
V (G) and xy ∈ / E(G)
NG (u) : the set of vertices v such that uv ∈ E(G)
N(u) = NG (u)

N(S) = N(u), where S ⊆ V (G)
u∈S
d(v) = d G(v) : the degree of v in G, where v ∈ V (G)
id(v) : the indegree of v in D, where v ∈ V (D)
od(v) : the outdegree of v in D, where v ∈ V (D)
d(u, v) : the distance between u and v in G, where u, v ∈ V (G)
d(u, v) : the distance from u to v in D, where u, v ∈ V (D)
c(G) : the number of components in G
δ(G) : the minimum degree of G
∆(G) : the maximum degree of G
χ(G) : the chromatic number of G
α(G) : the independence number of G
G+H : the join of G and H
G∪H : the disjoint union of G and H
kG : the disjoint union of k copies of G
G(D) : the underlying graph of D
nG(H) : the number of subgraphs in G which are isomorphic to H
Cn : the cycle of order n
Kn : the complete graph of order n
Nn : the null graph or empty graph of order n
Pn : the path of order n
Wn : the wheel of order n, Wn = Cn−1 + K1
K(p, q) : the complete bipartite graph with a bipartition (X, Y ) such that
|X| = p and |Y | = q
 Contents

Preface v
Notation vii
1. Fundamental Concepts and Basic Results 1
Exercise 1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Exercise 1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Exercise 1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2. Isomorphisms, Subgraphs and the Complement of a Graph 29

Exercise 2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Exercise 2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Exercise 2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3. Bipartite Graphs and Trees 73

Exercise 3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Exercise 3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Exercise 3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

4. Vertex-colourings of Graphs 99
Exercise 4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Exercise 4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Exercise 4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Exercise 4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Exercise 4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

ix
x Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

5. Matchings in Bipartite Graphs 143

Exercise 5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Exercise 5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Exercise 5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

6. Eulerian Multigraphs and Hamiltonian Graphs 173

Exercise 6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Exercise 6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Exercise 6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Exercise 6.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

7. Digraphs and Tournaments 209

Exercise 7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Exercise 7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Exercise 7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Exercise 7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Books Recommended 249

Index 251
 Chapter 1

Fundamental Concepts and Basic

Results

Theorem 1.1 Let G be a multigraph with V (G) = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn }. Then

n

d(vi ) = 2e(G).
i=1

Corollary 1.2 The number of odd vertices in any multigraph is even.

Exercise 1.2
Problem 1. Let G be the multigraph representing the following diagram.
Determine V (G), E(G), v(G) and e(G). Is G a simple graph?

w m

x
y

u v z

Solution. V (G) = {m, n, u, v, w, x, y, z},

E(G) = {my, uv, uw, ux, vx, vy, wx, xz, yz}, v(G) = 8 and e(G) = 9.

Yes, G is a simple graph. 

1
2 Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

Problem 2. Draw the graph G modeling the flight connectivity between

twelve capital cities with the following vertex set V (G) and edge set E(G).

V (G) = {Asuncion, Beijing, Canberra, Dili, Havana, Kuala Lumpur,

London, Nairobi, Phnom Penh, Singapore, Wellington,
Zagreb}.
E(G) = {Asuncion-Havana, Asuncion-London, Beijing-Canberra,
Beijing-Kuala Lumpur, Beijing-London, Beijing-Phnom Penh,
Beijing-Singapore, Canberra-Dili, Dili-Kuala Lumpur,
Dili-Singapore, Havana-London, Havana-Nairobi,
Kuala Lumpur-London, Kuala Lumpur-Phnom Penh,
Kuala Lumpur-Singapore, Kuala Lumpur-Wellington,
London-Nairobi, London-Singapore, London-Wellington,
London-Zagreb, Phnom Penh-Singapore, Singapore-Wellington}.

(Note that you may use ‘A’ to represent ‘Asuncion’, ‘B’ to represent
‘Beijing’, ‘C’ to represent ‘Canberra’, etc.)

Solution.

A
Z

S D


 Exercise 1.2 3

Problem 3. Define a graph G such that V (G) = {2, 3, 4, 5, 11, 12, 13, 14}
and two vertices ‘s’ and ‘t’ are adjacent if and only if gcd{s, t} = 1. Draw
a diagram of G and find its size e(G).

Solution.

13 4

11

e(G) = 21. 

Problem 4. The diagram below is a map of the road system in a town.

Draw a multigraph to model the road system, using a vertex to represent a
junction and an edge to represent a road joining two junctions.

Diagram for Problem 4

4 Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

Solution.

Problem 5. Let G be a graph with V (G) = {1, 2, · · · , 10}, such that two
numbers ‘i’ and ‘j’ in V (G) are adjacent if and only if |i − j| ≤ 3. Draw
the graph G and determine e(G).

Solution.

1 2

10

9 4

7 6

e(G) = 24. 
 Exercise 1.2 5

Problem 6. Let G be a graph with V (G) = {1, 2, · · · , 10}, such that two
numbers ‘i’ and ‘j’ in V (G) are adjacent if and only if i + j is a multiple
of 4. Draw the graph G and determine e(G).

Solution.
1 2

9 4

7 6

e(G) = 10. 

Problem 7. Let G be a graph with V (G) = {1, 2, · · · , 10}, such that two
numbers ‘i’ and ‘j’ in V (G) are adjacent if and only if i × j is a multiple
of 10. Draw the graph G and determine e(G).

Solution.
1 2

9 4

7 6

e(G) = 13. 
6 Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

Problem 8. Find the adjacency matrix of the following graph G.

v1

v2 v5

v3 v4

Solution.
⎛ ⎞
0 1 1 1 1
⎜1 0 1 0 0⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜1 1 0 1 0⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝1 0 1 0 1⎠
1 0 0 1 0


Problem 9. The adjacency matrix of a multigraph G is shown below:

⎛ ⎞
0 1 0 2 3
⎜1 0 1 2 2⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜0 1 0 1 1⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝2 2 1 0 1⎠
3 2 1 1 0
Draw a diagram of G.

Solution.

v1

v5 v2

v4 v3


 Exercise 1.2 7

Problem 10. Four teams of three specialist soldiers each (a scout, a sig-
naler and a sniper) are to be sent into enemy territory. However, some of
the soldiers cannot work well with some others. The following table shows
the soldiers, their specializations and who they cannot work with.
Soldier Specialization Cannot cooperate with
1 Scout 5, 7, 10
2 Scout −
3 Scout 5, 6, 8, 9, 11
4 Scout 8, 12
5 Signaler 1, 3, 9
6 Signaler 3, 10, 11
7 Signaler 1, 9, 12
8 Signaler 3, 4, 9, 10
9 Sniper 3, 5, 7, 8
10 Sniper 1, 6, 8
11 Sniper 3, 6
12 Sniper 4, 7
(i) Draw a multigraph to model the situation so that we may see how to
form 3-man teams such that each specialization is represented and every
member of the team can work with every other. State clearly what the
vertices represent and under what condition(s) two vertices are joined by
an edge.
(ii) Can you form four 3-man teams such that each specialization is repre-
sented and all members of the team can work with one another?

Solution. (i) Vertex i represents soldier i. Two vertices are joined by an

edge if the two corresponding soldiers can cooperate with each other and
are not of the same specialization.

3 4

1 5

1 6

10 7

9 8
8 Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

(ii) From the graph, one possible arrangement is

{1, 6, 9}, {2, 8, 12}, {3, 7, 10}, {4, 5, 11}.


Exercise 1.3

Problem 1. In the following multigraph G, find

(i) the size of G,

(ii) the degree of each vertex,

(iii) the sum d(v),
v∈V (G)

(iv) the number of odd vertices,

(v) ∆(G), and
(vi) δ(G).

a e g

b
w y

c x z

Is your answer for (iii) double your answer for (i)? Is your answer for
(iv) an even number?

Solution. (i) e(G) = 13.

(ii) d(a) = 5, d(b) = 3, d(c) = 5, d(e) = 6, d(g) = 2, d(w) = 0, d(x) = 1,
d(y) = 3, d(z) = 1.

(iii) d(v) = 5 + 3 + 5 + 6 + 2 + 0 + 1 + 3 + 1 = 26.
v∈V (G)
(iv) There are 6 odd vertices (namely, a, b, c, x, y, z).
(v) ∆(G) = 6.
(vi) δ(G) = 0.
 Exercise 1.3 9

Yes, the answer for (iii) is double that for (i); and the answer for (iv) is
an even number. 

Problem 2. Construct a multigraph of order 6 and size 7 in which every

vertex is odd.

Solution. A required multigraph is shown below.

Problem 3. Let G be a multigraph with V (G) = {v1, v2 , · · · , v n }. Prove

that the sum of all the entries in the ith row of the adjacency matrix A(G)
is the degree of the vertex v i for each i = 1, 2, · · · , n.

Solution. Given i, where 1 ≤ i ≤ n, the sum of the entries in the ith

row of A(G) is the sum of the numbers of edges joining vi to v j , where
j = 1, 2, · · · , n, which is thus the degree of vi in G. 

Problem 4. Let G be a graph of order 8 and size 15 in which each vertex

is of degree 3 or 5. How many vertices of degree 5 does G have? Construct
one such graph G.

Solution. Let x and y be the number of vertices in G of degree 3 and 5

respectively. Then x + y = 8 and 3x + 5y = 2 × 15 = 30. Solving the
equations yields (x, y) = (5, 3).
An example of G is shown below.
10 Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

Problem 5. Let H be a graph of order 10 such that 3 ≤ d(v) ≤ 5 for each

vertex v in H. Not every vertex is even. No two odd vertices are of the
same degree. What is the size of H?

Solution. Let x, y and z be the number of vertices in H of degree 3, 4 and

5 respectively. Since not every vertex is even, x + z ≥ 2. As no two odd
vertices are of the same degree, x = z = 1. Thus, (x, y, z) = (1, 8, 1), and
so e(H) = (3 + 4 × 8 + 5)/2 = 20. 

Problem 6. Let G be a graph of order 14 and size 30 in which every vertex

is of degree 4 or 5. How many vertices of degree 5 does G have? Construct
one such graph G.

Solution. Let x and y be the number of vertices in G of degree 4 and 5

respectively. Then x + y = 14 and 4x + 5y = 2 × 30 = 60. Solving the
equations yields (x, y) = (10, 4). Thus, G has 4 vertices of degree 5.
An example of G is shown below.

Problem 7. Does there exist a multigraph G of order 8 such that δ(G) = 0

while ∆(G) = 7? What if ‘multigraph G’ is replaced by ‘graph G’?

Solution. ‘Yes’ for multigraph G. An example is shown below.

 Exercise 1.3 11

‘No’ for graph G. Since if there is a vertex v in G with d(v) = 7, then v is

adjacent to the remaining 7 vertices in G, and so δ(G) ≥ 1. 

Problem 8. Characterize the 1-regular graphs.

Solution. A graph is 1-regular if and only if it is of even order and is the

disjoint union of some K2’s (see below).

...

...

Problem 9. Draw all regular graphs of order n, where 2 ≤ n ≤ 6.

Solution. All null graphs Nn and complete graphs K n, where 2 ≤ n ≤ 6,

are candidates. The remaining ones are shown below.

n= 4 :

n= 5 :

n= 6 :


12 Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

Problem 10.

(i) Does there exist a graph G of order 5 such that δ(G) = 1 and ∆(G) =
4?
(ii) Does there exist a graph G of order 5 which has two vertices of degree
4 and δ(G) = 1?

Solution. (i) Yes. An example is shown below.

(ii) No. Suppose G were such a graph having the vertices u and v of degree
4. As v(G) = 5, each of the other vertices must be adjacent to both u and
v, and so δ(G) ≥ 2. 

Problem 11. Let H be a graph of order 8 and size 13 with δ(H) = 2 and
∆(H) = 4. Denote by ni the number of vertices in H of degree i, where
i = 2, 3, 4. Assume that n3 ≥ 1. Find all possible answers for (n 2 , n3 , n4 ).
For each of your answers, construct a corresponding graph.

Solution. We have n2 + n3 + n4 = 8 and by Theorem 1.1,

2n 2 + 3n 3 + 4n 4 = 26.

It follows from the above that n3 + 2n4 = 10. As n3 ≥ 1, by Corollary 1.2,

n3 = 2, 4 or 6.
When n3 = 2, we have (n2, n 3, n4 ) = (2, 2, 4), and a corresponding
graph is shown below:

When n3 = 4, we have (n2 , n3, n 4) = (1, 4, 3), and a corresponding graph

is shown below:
 Exercise 1.3 13

When n 3 = 6, we have n4 = 2, and so n2 = 0, which is not possible as

δ(H) = 2. 

Problem 12. Suppose G is a k-regular graph of order n and size m, where

k ≥ 0, m ≥ 0 and n ≥ 1. Find a relation linking k, n and m. Justify your
answer.


Solution. By Theorem 1.1, kn = d(x) = 2m. 
x∈V (G)

Problem 13. Does there exist a 3-regular graph with eight vertices? Does
there exist a 3-regular graph with nine vertices?

Solution. Yes, a 3-regular graph of order 8 is shown below.

'

\V
\r7
No, there does not exist any 3-regular graph of order 9 by Corollary 1.2 (or
the result of Problem 12). 

Problem 14. Construct a cubic (i.e., 3-regular) graph of order 12. What
is its size? Does there exist a cubic graph of order 11? Why?

Solution. A cubic graph of order 12 is shown below.

14 Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

Its size is (3 × 12)/2 = 18 (see Problem 12).

By Corollary 1.2 (or the result of Problem 12), there does not exist any
cubic graph of order 11. 

Problem 15. Let H be a k-regular graph of order n. If e(H) = 10, find

all possible values for k and n; and for each case, construct one such graph
H.

Solution. By the result of Problem 12, kn = 20. As k ≤ n − 1,

(k, n) = (1, 20), (2, 10) or (4, 5).
An example of H for each case is shown below:

Problem 16. (+) Let G be a 3-regular graph with e(G) = 2v(G) − 3.

Determine the values of v(G) and e(G). Construct all such graphs G.

Solution. Let n = v(G) and m = e(G). By the assumption and Theorem

1.1, we have: 3n = 2m = 2(2n − 3), which implies that (n, m) = (6, 9).
There are only two such G as shown below.


 Exercise 1.3 15

Problem 17. Find all integers n such that 100 ≤ e(Kn ) ≤ 200.

Solution. As e(Kn ) = n(n−1)/2, we have 200 ≤ n(n−1) ≤ 400. It follows

that 15 ≤ n ≤ 20. 

Problem 18. (+) Let G be a multigraph of order 13 in which each vertex

is of degree 7 or 8. Show that G contains at least eight vertices of degree
7 or at least seven vertices of degree 8.

Solution. Suppose that the conclusion is false. Then G contains at most

seven vertices of degree 7 and at most six vertices of degree 8. Since
v(G) = 13, G contains exactly seven vertices of degree 7. This is, however,
impossible by Corollary 1.2. 

Problem 19. (+) Let G be a graph of order n in which there exist no three
vertices u, v and w such that uv, vw and wu are all edges in G. Show that
n ≥ δ(G) + ∆(G).

Solution. Let x be a vertex in G such that d(x) = ∆(G). Pick a vertex y

in N(x). By assumption,
n ≥ 1 + ∆(G) + (d(y) − 1) = ∆(G) + d(y) ≥ ∆(G) + δ(G).


Problem 20. (+) There were n (≥ 2) persons at a party and, as usually

happens, some shook hands with others. No one shook hands with the same
person more than once. Show that there are at least two persons in the
party who had the same number of handshakes.

Solution. Model the situation as a graph G of order n, where the vertices

are the persons, and two vertices are adjacent if and only if the two corre-
sponding persons shook hands. By assumption, G is a simple graph. The
problem is equivalent to showing that there exist two vertices u, v in G such
that d(u) = d(v).
It is clear that 0 ≤ d(x) ≤ n − 1 for each vertex x in G. If the above
statement is false, then there exist two vertices y and z in G such that
d(y) = 0 and d(z) = n − 1, which however is impossible. 
16 Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

Problem 21. The preceding problem says that in any graph of order n ≥ 2,
there exist two vertices having the same degree. Is the result still valid for
multigraphs?

Solution. No! A multigraph in which no two vertices have the same degree
is shown below.

Problem 22. (+) Mr. and Mrs. Samy attended an exclusive party where
in addition to themselves, there were only another 3 couples. As usually
happens, some shook hands with others. No one shook hands with the same
person more than once and no one shook hands with his/her spouse. After
all the handshakes had been done, Mr. Samy asked each person, including
his wife, how many hands he/she had shaken. To everyone’s amusement,
each one gave a different answer. How many hands did Mrs. Samy shake?

Solution. Model the situation by a graph G with 8 vertices for 8 persons,

and defining ‘adjacency’ for ‘handshaking’. By assumption, 0 ≤ d(v) ≤ 6
for each v in G, and each of ‘0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6’ is the degree of some vertex.
Let v1 be such that d(v1 ) = 6 and N(v1) = {v 2, v3 , · · · , v7 }, say. Then
d(v8 ) = 0, and v1 and v8 are spouses (see below).

v1 v8

v2
v7

v3 v6
v4 v5

Let v2 be such that d(v2 ) = 5 and N (v 2) = {v 1 , v3 , v 4, v5 , v 6}, say. Then

d(v7 ) = 1 and v2 and v 7 are spouses (see below).
 17

e 1.3
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Exe

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18 Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

if their distance in the plane is ‘1’. What is the largest possible value that
each d(p i) can have? By the assumption that the distance between any 2
points is at least one, it follows that d(p i) ≤ 6 (see the figure below).

60o
pi

Thus, by Theorem 1.1,

n

2e(G) = d(pi ) ≤ 6n,
i=1

and so e(G) ≤ 3n, as was to be shown. 

Exercise 1.4

Problem 1. Consider the following graph H.

v e4 x

e1 e7
u e3 e9 e6 z
e2
e8
w e5 y

(a) Which of the following sequences represents a u − z walk in H?

(i) ue2we5xe7 z
(ii) ue 1ve 5ye 8z
(iii) ue 1ve3we3 ve4 xe7 z
(b) Find a u − z trail in H that is not a path.
(c) Find all u − z paths in H which pass through e 9 .
 Exercise 1.4 19

Solution. (a) Only the sequence (iii) represents a u − z walk in H.

(b) The sequence “uvxywxz” is a u − z trail that is not a path.
(c) All such paths are: uvwxz, uvwxyz, uwxz, uwxyz, uvxwyz. 

Problem 2. Consider the following multigraph G:

v
u w

e1 e2

x
V
y z

(a) Find d(t, v), d(t, y), d(x, w) and d(u, z).
(b) For k = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, find a cycle of length k in G.
(c) Find a circuit of length 6 in G that is not a cycle.
(d) Find a circuit of length 8 in G that does not contain t.
(e) Find a circuit of length 9 in G that contains t and v.

Solution.

(a) d(t, v) = 2, d(t, y) = 3, d(x, w) = 2 and d(u, z) = 3.

(b) ve 1ye 2v is a cycle of length 2,
uvxu is a cycle of length 3,
utwvu is a cycle of length 4,
xvwzyx is a cycle of length 5,
uvwzyxu is a cycle of length 6 and
uvxyzwtu is a cycle of length 7.
(c) tuve1 ye2 vwt is a circuit of length 6 that is not a cycle.
(d) uvwzye1 ve2 yxu is a circuit of length 8 that does not contain ‘t’.
(e) utwzye 1 ve2yxvu is a circuit of length 9 that contains both ‘t’ and ‘v’. 
20 Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

Problem 3. Is the following graph H disconnected? If it is so, find its

number of components.

Solution. Yes, H is disconnected, and it has 5 components. 

Problem 4. Let G be a graph with V (G) = {1, 2, · · · , n}, where n ≥ 5, such

that two numbers i and j in V (G) are adjacent if and only if |i − j| = 5.
How many components does G have?

Solution. By definition, the graph G is depicted as follows:

1 6 11
...

2 7 12
...

3 8 13
...

4 9 14
...

5 10 15
...

Thus, G has 5 components. 

 Exercise 1.4 21

Problem 5. (+) Show that any u − v walk in a graph contains a u − v

path.

Solution. Let P be a u − v walk. We may assume that u = v. If no

vertex in P is repeated, then P is a path, and we are through. Assume
that a vertex x is repeated in P as shown below (it is possible that x = u
or x = v):
u···x
P :   ·
· · x ·
··v .
(a) (b) (c)

Then P can be cut short by deleting the section (b) internally resulting in
a shorter u − v walk P  as shown below:
P : u · · · x ·
 ··v .
(a) (c)

This procedure is repeatedly applied until no vertex in the resulting u − v

walk is repeated, and in this case, the resulting u −v walk is a desired path.


Problem 6. (+) Show that any circuit in a graph contains a cycle.

Solution. Let Q be a circuit of length at least 2. If no vertex in Q is

repeated, then Q is a cycle, and we are through. Assume that a vertex x
is repeated in Q as shown below:
P :u ··· x
  ·
· · x ·
··u.
(a) (b) (c)

Then Q can be cut short by deleting the section (b) internally resulting
in a shorter circuit Q0 as shown below:
Q  : u
· · · x ·
··u.
(a) (c)

This procedure is repeatedly applied until no vertex in the resulting

circuit is repeated, and in this case, the resulting circuit is a desired cycle.

22 Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

Problem 7. (+) Show that any graph G with δ(G) ≥ k contains a path of
length k.

Solution. Let P = v0v 1 · · · vr be a longest path (of length r) in G. By

assumption, d(v 0) ≥ k, and so v0 has at least k neighbors. Note that all
these neighbors must be contained in P ; for if there is a neighbor (say, w)
of v0 not in P , then we would have a path of the form: wv0 v1 · · · vr , which
is of length r + 1, contradicting the fact that P is a longest path. Thus,
N(v0 ) ⊆ {v1 , · · · , vr}, and so r ≥ |N (v0)| = d(v 0 ) ≥ k, as required. 

Problem 8. (+) Let G be a graph of order n ≥ 2 such that δ(G) ≥ 12 (n−1).

Show that d(u, v) ≤ 2 for any two vertices u, v in G.

Solution. Let u, v be any two distinct vertices u, v in G. If u and v are

adjacent, then d(u, v) = 1. Assume that u and v are not adjacent. Consider
N(u) and N(v). We claim that N (u) ∩ N(v) = ∅.
Suppose that N (u) ∩ N(v) = ∅. Then, as {u, v} ∪ N (u) ∪ N(v) ⊆ V (G)
and δ(G) ≥ (n − 1)/2, we have:
n ≥ 2 + |N(u)| + |N(v)| = 2 + d(u) + d(v) ≥ 2 + 2δ(G) ≥ n + 1,
which is impossible.
Thus, N (u) ∩ N (v) = ∅, as claimed. Let w ∈ N(u) ∩ N(v). Then uwv
is a u − v path of length 2, and so d(u, v) = 2.
We thus conclude that d(u, v) ≤ 2, for any two vertices u, v in G. 

Problem
n−1 9. (+) Let G be a graph of order n and size m such that m >
2 . Show that G is connected.

Solution. Suppose on the contrary that G is disconnected. Let G1 be a

component of order k(1 ≤ k ≤ n − 1) in G, and let G2 be the remaining
part of G, which is of order n − k. Then
     
n−1 k n−k
< m = e(G1) + e(G2 ) ≤ + ,
2 2 2
which implies that
(n − 1)(n − 2) < k(k − 1) + (n − k)(n − k − 1)
or (k − (n − 1))(k − 1) > 0. As k ≥ 1, it follows that k − (n − 1) > 0, i.e.
k > n − 1, a contradiction.
We thus conclude that G is connected if the condition holds. 
 Exercise 1.4 23

n−1  10. For n ≥ 2, construct a disconnected graph of order n and

Problem
size 2 .

Solution. The graph with 2 components, namely, K1 and Kn−1 , is the

candidate. 

Problem 11. Let G be a disconnected graph of order 5. What is the largest

possible value for e(G)? If G is a disconnected graph of order n ≥ 2, what
is the largest possible value for e(G)? Construct one such extremal graph
of order n.

Solution. If G isa disconnected

 graph of order n ≥ 2, the largest possible
n−1
value for e(G) is 2 .
To justify this, we note that  disconnected graph K1 ∪ Kn−1 has
 n−1the
order n and its size equal to 2 , and by Problem 9 above, n−1 there is no
disconnected graph of order n having its size greater than 2 . 

Problem 12. (+) Let G be a graph of order n ≥ 2 and u, v be two non-

adjacent vertices in G such that d(u) + d(v) ≥ n + r − 2. Show that u and
v have at least r common neighbours.

Solution. Our aim is to show that |N(u) ∩ N (v)| ≥ r. By the Principle of

Inclusion and Exclusion, we have

|N(u) ∩ N(v)| = |N(u)| + |N(v)| − |N (u) ∪ N(v)|

= d(u) + d(v) − |N( u) ∪ N(v)|.

As u and v are non-adjacent, N(u) ∪ N (v) ⊆ V (G)\{u, v}. Thus,

|N(u) ∩ N(v)| = d(u) + d(v) − |N(u) ∪ N(v)|

≥ d(u) + d(v) − |V (G)\{u, v}|
≥ n + r − 2 − (n − 2) (by assumption)
= r,

as was shown.

Problem 13. (+) Let G be a connected graph that is not complete. Show
that there exist three vertices x, y, z in G such that x and y, y and z are
adjacent, but x and z are not adjacent in G.
24 Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

Solution. As G is not complete, let u and v be two non-adjacent vertices

in G. As G is connected, let uab · · · v be a shortest u − v path in G (note
that it is possible that b = v). Now let x = u, y = a and z = b. As uab · · · v
is a shortest u − v path, it follows that x and z are not adjacent in G. 
Problem 14. (+) Let G be a graph of order n and size m such that ∆(G) =
n − 2 and d(u, v) ≤ 2 for any two vertices u, v in G. Show that m ≥ 2n − 4.

Solution. Let x be a vertex in G such that d(x) = ∆(G) = n − 2 with

N(x) = {y1 , y2, · · · , yn−2 } as shown below:

y1 y2 yn-2

Clearly, the (n − 2) xyi’s are edges in G. As G is of order n, let z be the

remaining vertex in G. Note that z and x are not adjacent.
Since d(z, x) = 2 by assumption, z must be adjacent to some yi ’s. With-
out loss of generality, we may assume that z is adjacent to y1 , y2 , · · · , y k ,
where 1 ≤ k ≤ n − 2 and k is the largest index such that z is adjacent to
yk .
Now, for each j (if any) with k + 1 ≤ j ≤ n − 2, as d(z, yj ) = 2 (z and
yj are not adjacent now), there must be a new edge joining yj with some
yi in {y1, y 2 , · · · , yk }.
Summing up, the number of edges in G is at least
(n − 2) + k + ((n − 2) − k) = 2n − 4.
That is, m ≥ 2(n − 2), as required. 
Problem 15. Let G be a graph such that N (x) ∪ N (y) = V (G) for every
pair of vertices x, y in G. What can be said of G?

Solution. The graph G must be a complete graph. We justify it as follows.

Suppose that G is not complete. Then there exist two non-adjacent vertices
u and v in G. In this case, u is not contained in N(u)∪N (v); which, however,
contradicts the assumption that N(u) ∪ N(v) = V (G). 
 Exercise 1.4 25

Problem 16. (+) Let H be a graph of order n ≥ 2. Suppose that H

contains two distinct vertices u, v such that (i) N(u) ∪ N (v) = V (H) and
(ii) N (u) ∩ N(v) is non-empty.
What is the least possible value of e(H)?

Solution. The least possible size of H is ‘n’ (note that the given conditions
imply that n ≥ 3). The justification is as follows.
Firstly, the following graph of order n satisfying the given conditions
contains exactly ‘n’ edges:

u v

n -3 vertices

Now we show that every graph H satisfying the given conditions must have
at least n edges.
The vertices u and v must be adjacent; for if not, then u is not in
N(u) ∪ N(v), and so N (u) ∪ N(v) = V (H), violating the condition (i).
By (ii), there exists a vertex, say w, in N(u)∩N (v), and so w is adjacent
to both u and v.
By (i) again, each of the (n − 3) vertices other than u, v and w must be
adjacent to either u or v.
Summing up, H contains at least 1 +2 + (n−3) edges; that is, e(H) ≥ n,
as required. 

Problem 17. Suppose G is a disconnected graph which contains exactly

two odd vertices u and v. Must u and v be in the same component of G?
Why?

Solution. Yes, the two odd vertices u and v must be in the same component
of G. Otherwise, let H be the component of G containing u but not v; then
H is a graph containing exactly one odd vertex, contradicting Corollary
1.2. 
26 Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

Problem 18. (∗) Show that any two longest paths in a connected graph
have a vertex in common.

Solution. Let P and Q be two longest paths (of length k each, say) in a
connected graph G, and suppose on the contrary that they have no vertex
in common. As G is connected, there exist a vertex u in P and a vertex v
in Q which are joined by a path R, say. Without loss of generality, we may
assume (see the figure below) that (i) this u − v path R contains no vertex
in P or Q other than u and v, (ii) the length of the subpath (a) in P is
greater than or equal to that of (b) and (iii) the length of the subpath (d)
in Q is greater than or equal to that of (c).

(a) u ( b)
P: ... ...

R
...

Q: ... ...
v (d )
(c)

With this, however, we observe that the path consisting of the subpath (a)
in P , the u − v path R and the subpath (d) in Q is of length greater than
k, a contradiction. 

Problem 19. (+) Show that a graph G is connected if and only if for any
partition of V (G) into two non-empty sets A and B, there is an edge in G
joining a vertex in A and a vertex in B.

Solution. [Necessity] Suppose on the contrary that there is a partition

(A, B) of V (G) for which there is no edge in G joining a vertex in A and a
vertex in B. It is then clear that no vertex in A can be joined to any vertex
in B by a path. Thus G is disconnected, a contradiction.
[Sufficiency] Suppose on the contrary that G is disconnected. Let H be a
component of G and R the remaining part of G. Then (V (H), V (R)) forms
a partition of V (G) for which there is no edge in G joining a vertex in V (H)
and a vertex in V (R) (note that both V (H) and V (R) are non-empty), a
contradiction. 
 Exercise 1.4 27

Problem 20. (∗) Suppose G is a connected graph with k edges. Prove that
it is possible to label the edges 1, 2, · · · , k in such a way that at each vertex
which belongs to two or more edges (i.e. which is of degree at least two),
the greatest common divisor of the integers labeling those edges is 1 (32nd
IMO, 1991/4). (Recall that the greatest common divisor of the positive
integers x1 , x 2, · · · , xn is the maximum positive integer that divides each of
x1, x2 , · · · , x n .)

Proof. Starting at an arbitrary vertex, say v0 , in G, we walk along dis-

tinct edges in G to produce a maximal trail (no edge is repeated), say of
length s, and label the edges along the trail 1, 2, · · · , s (see the example
below).

v0 1
>
/\

4 2
\/

If there are edges not yet labeled, as G is connected, one of them is

incident with a vertex, say v r, which has been visited. Starting at v r , we
walk along distinct unlabelled edges in G to produce another maximal trail,
say of length p, and label the edges along the trail s + 1, s + 2, · · · , s + p
(see the diagram below).

v0 1 rd 5 >

4 2 6
N/

3 7

We repeat the above procedure until all edges in G are labeled (see the
diagram below).
28 Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

1 5
v0 4 10
A
2 6 9
4
>
3 7 8

We now show that for each vertex v with d(v) ≥ 2 in G, the gcd of the
labels of the edges incident with v is 1. If v = v0 , the situation is clear
as the first edge incident with it is labeled 1. Assume that v = v0 . Let e
be the edge with which we first visit v via a trail. As d(v) ≥ 2, along the
same trail, we leave v with a new edge, say f. By the above procedure,
the labels of e and f are consecutive numbers, say t and t + 1, and so the
corresponding gcd (that is, gcd{t, t + 1, · · · }) is 1. 
 Chapter 2

Isomorphisms, Subgraphs and the

Complement of a Graph

Result (1). If G ∼
= H, then v(G) = v(H) and e(G) = e(H).

Result (2). If G ∼= H, then G and H have the same degree sequence, in

non-increasing order.

Result (3). Let G and H be graphs such that G ∼= H. Then for any graph
R, nG (R) = nH (R).
 
Result (4). For any graph G of order n, e(G) + e(G) = e(K n ) = n2 .

Result (5). Let G be a graph. If G is disconnected, then G is connected.

Result (6). Let G be a self-complementary graph. Then

(i) G is connected and
(ii) v(G) = 4k or v(G) = 4k + 1 for some integer k.

29
 30 Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

Exercise 2.2
Problem 1. Draw all non-isomorphic graphs of order n with 1 ≤ n ≤ 4.

Solution.

n= 1

n=2
: i
n= 3

n= 4

Problem 2.

(i) Draw all non-isomorphic graphs of order 5 and size 3.

(ii) Draw all non-isomorphic graphs of order 5 and size 7.

Solution. (i)

(ii)


 Exercise 2.2 31

Problem 3. Determine if the following two graphs are isomorphic.

Solution.
No, since the degree sequences (4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 2, 2) and (4, 4, 4, 3, 3, 3, 3) are
not the same.

4 4

4 3 4 3
2 2 3 3

4 4 4 4

Problem 4. Determine if the following two graphs are isomorphic.

Solution. Yes. As shown below, let

V (G) = {1, 2, · · · , 10} and V (H) = {1 , 2 , · · · , 10 }.

It can be checked that the mapping f : V (G) −→ V (H), such that f(i) = i
for all i = 1, 2, · · · , 10, is an isomorphism from G to H.
32 Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

6'
1 8' 9'

6
G: 5 10 2 H: 10' 7'
7 1'
9 8
5' 2'
4 3 4' 3'

Problem 5. The following two graphs G and H are isomorphic. List all
the isomorphisms from G to H.

a
w
G: b H:
x
c d e z
u v

f y

Solution. There are six isomorphisms gi, i = 1, 2, · · · , 6, from G to H:

gi(a) = u, g i(b) = v, gi (f) = z, i = 1, 2, · · · , 6,

g1 (c) = w, g1 (d) = x, g1 (e) = y,

g2 (c) = w, g2 (d) = y, g 2 (e) = x,

g3 (c) = x, g3 (d) = w, g3 (e) = y,

g4 (c) = x, g4 (d) = y, g4(e) = w,

g5 (c) = y, g5 (d) = w, g5 (e) = x,

g6 (c) = y, g6 (d) = x, g6(e) = w.


 Exercise 2.2 33

Problem 6. (∗) Prove, by definition of an isomorphism, that the relation

‘ ∼
=’ is reflexive, symmetric and transitive among the family of graphs; that
is, the properties listed in Question 2.1.3.

Solution. (i) G ∼ = G since the identity mapping is one-to-one and onto,

and clearly preserves adjacency.
(ii) Suppose G ∼
= H. Then there exists a one-to-one and onto mapping
f from V (G) to V (H) which preserves adjacency. Clearly, f −1 is a one-
to-one and onto mapping from V (H) to V (G) which preserves adjacency.
Thus, H ∼ = G.
(iii) Suppose G ∼
= H and H ∼ = J. Then there exist one-to-one and
onto mappings, f from V (G) to V (H) and g from V (H) to V (J), which
preserve adjacency. Now, the composite mapping g ◦ f is a one-to-one and
onto mapping from V (G) to V (J) which preserves adjacency. Thus, G ∼
= J.


Problem 7. Let f be an isomorphism from a graph G to a graph H and

w a vertex in G. Show that the degree of w in G is equal to the degree of
f(w) in H.

Solution. Let the set of vertices adjacent to w in G be {v1 , v2 , · · · , vk }.

Then the set of vertices adjacent to f (w) in H is {f(v1), f (v2 ), · · · , f (v k )}.
Hence
d(w) = |{v1, v2 , · · · , vk }| = k = |{f (v 1), f (v2 ), · · · , f (v k )}| = d(f (w)).


Problem 8. A given graph G of order 5 contains at least two vertices of

degree 4.
(i) Assume that not all vertices in G are even. Find all possible degree
sequences of G, in non-increasing order; and for each case, construct
all such G which are not isomorphic.
(ii) Assume that all vertices in G are even. Find all possible degree se-
quences of G, in non-increasing order; and for each case, construct all
such G which are not isomorphic.

Solution. (i) Since there are at least two vertices of degree 4, the other
three vertices must have degree at least 2. Since not all vertices are even
34 Introduction to Graph Theory, Solutions Manual

and we know that there must be an even number of odd vertices, there are
exactly two vertices of degree 3.
Thus, the possible degree sequences are (4, 4, 4, 3, 3) and (4, 4, 3, 3, 2). Their
graphs are shown below.

(4, 4, 4, 3, 3) (4, 4, 3, 3, 2)

(ii) Since there are at least two vertices of degree 4, the other three
vertices must have degree at least 2. Since all vertices are even, if there
is among these three vertices, one of degree 4, then all the vertices are of
degree 4. Otherwise, all the other three vertices are of degree 2.
Thus, the possible degree sequences are (4, 4, 4, 4, 4) and (4, 4, 2, 2, 2). Their
graphs are shown below.

(4, 4, 4, 4, 4) (4, 4, 2, 2, 2)

Problem 9. Let H be a graph of order 5 which contains more odd vertices

than even. Find all possible degree sequences of H in non-increasing order;
and for each case, construct all such H which are not isomorphic.

Solution. The possible degree sequences are

(1, 1, 1, 1, 0), (2, 1, 1, 1, 1), (3, 1, 1, 1, 0), (3, 2, 1, 1, 1), (3, 3, 2, 1, 1),

(3, 3, 3, 2, 1), (3, 3, 3, 3, 0), (3, 3, 3, 3, 2), (4, 1, 1, 1, 1) and (4, 3, 3, 3, 3).
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along the base of the overhanging hills, crossed the mouth of Wady
Kelt, and struck the carriage road leading from Jericho to Jerusalem.
Deep, dark, and forbidding is the great cleft in the hills which, since
the days of the learned and acute Robinson, has been by many
identified with the brook Cherith, where Elijah hid from Jezebel’s
wrath, and was miraculously supplied with food. The probabilities
are, however, that the old Gileadite turned not southward, but
eastward. In the ravines of his own native highlands there must have
been many retired spots known to him in youth, where he might foil
the most earnest search by strangers. The great grim mountain
Karantal, whether the scene of Christ’s Temptation or not, has yet a
Christian history of deep interest. The caverns in his frowning sides
have been the haunts of Christian hermits from early days. Even yet,
at times, a devotee takes refuge there from the vain world. On Mount
Tabor, at a Feast of the Transfiguration, I met an Austrian monk who
told me he had spent six years in solitary meditation and prayer in a
cave in the Jordan Valley.
Now, as we ascend the winding path along the steep mountain
sides, we pause for one last look over the plain and the sea and the
dark heights beyond, whence came Israel’s hosts of old to possess
the land. There, beneath us, where the plain is lost in green, stood
the ancient Jericho, where the worshippers from the east of Jordan
were wont to assemble ere going up in company to the great feasts.
Doubtless these very hills have echoed to the voice of psalms, as
the pilgrims marched up the steep ascents. So was it our privilege to
turn our faces towards Zion, planting our feet in their footsteps—the
footsteps of the tribes of God who went up thither. Very heartily could
we wake the echoes again with their old song, “Pray for the peace of
Jerusalem,” as we pressed upward to realise a long-cherished
dream in the vision of the Holy City.
Thus may we all press up the steeps of life, Zion’s love in our hearts,
her songs upon our lips, until with joy the pilgrims’ eyes behold, amid
the light and splendour of the Eternal City, the face of the great King!
THE END
Printed by R. & R. Clark, Limited, Edinburgh.
 FOOTNOTE:
[1] For inscriptions copied here and in other places on a
later journey, see Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly
for 1895.
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:
Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.
Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been
standardized.
Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARAB AND
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