EXAMPLE #16

A regenerative gas turbine power plant is shown in the

figure. Air enters the compressor at 1 bar, 27oC and is
compressed to 4 bar. The isentropic efficiency of the
compressor is 80%, and the regenerator effectiveness
is 90%. All the power developed by the high-pressure
turbine is used to run the compressor and the low-
pressure turbine provides the net power output of 97
kW. Each turbine has an isentropic efficiency of 87%
and the temperature at the inlet to the high-pressure
turbine is 1200 K. Determine
(a) the mass flow rate of air into the compressor,

(b) the thermal efficiency, and

(c) the temperature of the air at the exit of the

regenerator.
 EXAMPLE #17
Air enters the compressor of a gas turbine at 100 kPa, 300 K, and a volumetric flow
rate of 5 m3/s. The air is compressed in two stages to 1200 kPa, with intercooling
to 300 K between the stages at a pressure of 350 kPa. The turbine inlet
temperature is 1400 K and the expansion occurs in two stages, with reheat to 1340
K between the stages at a pressure of 350 kPa. The compressor and turbine stage
efficiencies are 87 and 85%, respectively.
Determine:
(a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
(b) the back work ratio.
(c) the net power developed, in kW.
 5 7
𝑄ሶ in, 1 𝑄ሶ in, 2 T
6
6s 8
4 5 6 4 8s
7 8 4s
Compressor 1 Compressor 2
2
Combustor 1 Combustor 2 2s
3
1
2
Intercooler 3 Turbine 1 Turbine 2
S
1

𝑄ሶ out
11-9 Gas Refrigeration Systems
Vapor refrigeration systems : vapor/liquid is the working fluid, phase change occurs.
Gas refrigeration systems: Gas is the working fluid to achieve very low temp.

Brayton refrigeration cycle - Reversed Brayton power cycle

Qin Qout
3 T 2
T
2 Wt 3
Wc
4 Wt 1
Wc

1 Qout 4 Qin
S S

Power cycle Refrigeration Cycle

1→2: Compressor,
wc=h2-h1
2→3: Heat exchanger,
qout=h2-h3
3→4: Turbine,
wt=h3-h4
4→1: Heat exchanger ,
qin=h1-h4
𝑞in
COPR = β =
wnet

h1−h4
=
h2−h1 −(h3−h4)
 EXAMPLE #18

Air enters the compressor of an ideal Brayton refrigeration cycle at 100 kPa,
270 K. The compressor pressure ratio is 3, and the temperature at the turbine
inlet is 310 K. Determine
(a) the net work input, per unit mass of air flow, in kJ/kg.
(b) the refrigeration capacity, per unit mass of air flow, in kJ/kg.
(c) the coefficient of performance.
(d) the coefficient of performance of a reversible refrigeration cycle
operating between thermal reservoirs at Tc = 270 K and Th = 310 K,
respectively.

Reconsider the above problem, but include in the analysis that the compressor
and turbine have isentropic efficiencies of 85 and 88%, respectively.
Determine the coefficient of performance for the modified cycle.
 Chapter 8 Exergy Analysis
Exergy or Availability (measurement of work potential)
Electrical – higher potential for use
Energy
Thermal – lower potential for use
Same quantity, different quality
H.E.
Thermal energy Work Electricity
ηth<100%
The energy conservation law (1st law) describes the quantity of the energy, not quality.
This chapter introduces a method can be used to measure the quality of the energy.
This information can be used in the design of thermal systems and guide efforts to
reduce the source of inefficiency in existing systems.
The method introduced in this chapter can be used to measure the irreversibility of the
system.
Introduction of Exergy

Exergy: maximum theoretical work obtainable as they interact to environment.

Energy is conserved. Exergy is not conserved
In order to improve energy resource utilization, we should reduce exergy losses in the
system.

Environment and surroundings:

Surroundings – refers to everything not included in the system
Environment – some portion of the surroundings, in which the intensive properties of
each phase are uniform and do not change significantly as a result of any process
under consideration.
The environment is regarded as free of irreversibility

Near surroundings

System

To, Po, stationary environment

Internal irreversibility: within the system

External irreversibility: the immediate(near) surroundings
Environment: No irreversibility
Dead state
System and environment are in equilibrium: T=T0, P=P0, KE=0, PE=0
No possible spontaneous change and Exergy = 0 at dead state

Evaluation of exergy (Exergy of a system)

Exergy for a closed system
The max useful work that the system could produce while exchanging heat only with the
environment at T0,
The end state of the system is its dead state.
1st Law: Qin– Wout = ΔE = U0- Ei, E = U+KE + PE
Max work Reversible process
𝛿𝑄
∵ ΔS = ∫ ( )b + Sgen ∴Qin = T0 (S0-Si) ∴ (Wout)Rev = (Ei – U0) + T0(S0-Si)
𝑇

i – initial state, 0 – final state (dead state)

Work done pushing back the environment at P0(∀0 - ∀i)
(Wmax)useful = (Ei – U0) + T0(S0-Si) – P0(∀0- ∀i) = (Ei – U0) + P0(∀i- ∀0) – T0(Si-S0)

Exergy (X):
X = (U – U0)+ P0(∀- ∀0) – T0(S-S0) + KE+PE ( X ≥ 0)
X=0 at dead state since U= U0, ∀= ∀0, S=So, KE = 0, PE=0
X>0 at any state other than the dead state
T0
T
System
Q1
Q1
H.E. T=T0, X=0
H.E. W W
Q2
Q2 System
T0 T
T>T0, X>0 T<T0, X>0
If the system is at any state other than the dead state the system would be able to
change its conditions spontaneously toward the dead state, this tendency would
cease when the dead state was reached.

Spontaneous process (irreversible): X

System T T>T0, X>0 Heat transfer T

Q
Until T=To
T0 X until X=0

T0
T<T0, X>0 Heat transfer T
Q
Until T=T0
System T
X until X=0
Exergy can be destroyed by irreversibilities

Exergy change from State 1 → State 2

X2 - X1 = (E2 – E1) + P0 (∀2 - ∀1) – T0(S2-S1), E = U+ KE + PE

ΔX = ΔU + Δ(KE) + Δ(PE) + P0 Δ∀ – T0 ΔS
Closed System Exergy Balance
2
E2-E1 = ‫׬‬1 𝛿𝑄 −𝑊 1st law – energy balance (1)
2 𝑆𝑄
S2- S1= ‫׬‬1 −𝜎 2nd law – entropy balance (2)
𝑇 𝑏

𝜎– entropy production (𝜎= Sgen)

Generate an expression for X2-X1 in terms of 𝛿Q and W for a process
2 2 𝛿𝑄
Eq. (1) – Eq. (2)T0 (E2-E1) – T0(S2-S1) = ‫׬‬1 𝛿𝑄 − To‫׬‬1 − W − T0𝑆gen
𝑇 𝑏

X2-X1 = (E2-E1) + P0(∀2 - ∀1) – T0(S2-S1)

2 2 𝑆𝑄
∴ X2-X1 = P0(∀2 - ∀1) + ‫׬‬1 𝛿𝑄 − To‫׬‬1 − W − T0𝑆gen
𝑇 𝑏

2 𝑇0
X2-X1= ‫׬‬1 1 − 𝛿𝑄 − [𝑊 − 𝑃0(∀2 - ∀1) ] – T0𝑆gen
𝑇𝑏

- Exergy balance equation for a closed system

 2 𝑇0
X2-X1= ‫׬‬1 1− 𝛿𝑄 − [𝑊 − 𝑃0(∀2 - ∀1) ] – T0𝑆gen
𝑇𝑏

Exergy Transfer:
2 𝑇0 𝑇0
‫׬‬1 1 − 𝛿𝑄 = 1 − 𝑄 if Tb=const
𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑏

Note: This is the magnitude of the work developed in a Carnot power cycle
operating between Tb and To, which is the max work
𝑇0
Tb>T0 ‫׬‬ 1− 𝛿𝑄 > 0 → X↑
Q > 0 (Qin) 𝑇𝑏
𝑇
Tb<T0 ‫׬‬ 1− 0 𝛿𝑄 < 0 → X ↓
𝑇𝑏
𝑇0
Tb>T0 ‫׬‬ 1− 𝛿𝑄 < 0 → X ↓
𝑇𝑏
Q < 0 (Qout) 𝑇
Tb<T0 ‫׬‬ 1− 0 𝛿𝑄 > 0 → X ↑
𝑇𝑏
 System Tb

Q1
Tb>T0 Qin to the system → Tb ↑ → W ↑ → X ↑

H.E. W
Qout from the system → Tb ↓ → W ↓ → X ↓
Q2
T0

T0
Q1 Tb<T0 Qin to the system → Tb ↑ → W ↓→ X ↓
H.E. W
Qout from the system → Tb ↓ → W ↑ → X ↑
Q2

System Tb

W>0 (Wout) → X↓ ∀2 > ∀1 → X ↑

[W – P0(∀2 - ∀1)]: -W P0(∀2 - ∀1)
(useful work) W<0 (Win) → X↑ ∀2 < ∀1 → X ↓
 >0 input >0 input
𝛿Q W
<0 output <0 output
2 𝑇0
‫׬‬1 1 − 𝛿𝑄 −Exergy transfer due to heat transfer
𝑇𝑏

W – P0(∀2 - ∀1) − Exergy transfer due to useful work

Xd = To𝑆gen− Exergy destruction due to irreversibility (it is also called Irreversibility)

∵𝑆gen≥ 0 ∴ Xd = To𝑆gen ≥ 0 = 0 reversible process

> 0 irreversible process

Note: X is a property of a system

Xd is not a property of a system
In rate form:
𝑑𝑋 𝑇
ሶ 0 𝑑∀) – To𝑆ሶ gen
= Σ(1 − 0) 𝑄ሶ j – (𝑊-P
𝑑𝑡 𝑇𝑗 𝑑𝑡

j- location on the boundary

For an isolated system ( No H.T. and No work): (ΔX)isol = - To𝑆gen

= 0 reversible process, i.e. X = constant
∴ (ΔX)isol ≤ 0
< 0 irreversible process, i.e. X ↓
This is the counterpart of the increase of entropy principle.

This can be regarded as an alternative statement of the 2nd law.

Irreversibility of the system
Internal irreversibility
System
2 𝑇0
(Xd)int = ‫׬‬1 1 − 𝛿𝑄 − [𝑊 − 𝑃𝑜(∀ - ∀0) ] – (X2-X1)
𝑇𝑏
Tb
Irreversibility of system + immediate surroundings:
Total irreversibility = Internal + External
(Xd)total = -[W - Po (∀ - ∀0)] – (X2-X1) ∵ Tb = T0 Environment

Immediate
Useful work
surroundings
(Xd)total = (X1-X2) – Wu
System
Wu – useful work

Tb = T0
 𝛿𝑄
ΔS = ‫׬‬ + Sgen
𝑇𝑏

2 𝑄𝑠𝑦𝑠
(Sgen)sys = (S2-S1) - ‫׬‬1 , (Xd)int = T0(Sgen)sys
𝑇𝑏

𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟
(Sgen)total = (S2-S1) + , (Xd)total =T0 (Sgen)total
𝑇0