AC SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

Introduction

Definition
❖ An oscillator is an electronic device which generates output without any ac input signal.
❖ An electronic oscillator is a circuit which converts dc energy into ac at a very high
frequency.
❖ It is an amplifier with positive feedback can be understood as an oscillator.
❖ Oscillators can also be considered as opposite to rectifiers that convert A.C. to D.C. as
these convert D.C. to A.C

Amplifier vs. Oscillator

An amplifier increases the signal strength of the input signal applied, whereas
an oscillator generates a signal without that input signal, but it requires dc for its operation.
This is the main difference between an amplifier and an oscillator.
Take a look at the following illustration. It clearly shows how an amplifier takes energy from D.C
power source and converts it into A.C energy at signal frequency. An oscillator produces an
oscillating A.C. signal on its own.

The frequency, waveform, and magnitude of A.C power generated by an amplifier, is controlled
by the A.C signal voltage applied at the input, whereas those for an oscillator are controlled by
the components in the circuit itself, which means no external controlling voltage is required.

Alternator vs. Oscillator

An alternator is a mechanical device that produces sinusoidal waves without any input. This A.C
generating machine is used to generate frequencies up to 1000Hz. The output frequency depends
on the number of poles and the speed of rotation of the armature.
The following points highlight the differences between an alternator and an oscillator −
✓ An alternator converts mechanical energy to A.C energy, whereas the oscillator
converts D.C. energy into A.C energy.
✓ An oscillator can produce higher frequencies of several MHz whereas an alternator
cannot.
 ✓ An alternator has rotating parts, whereas an electronic oscillator doesn’t It is easy
to change the frequency of oscillations in an oscillator than in an alternator.

Classification of Oscillators
Electronic oscillators are classified mainly into the following two categories −
• Sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output having a sine waveform
are called sinusoidal or harmonic oscillators. Such oscillators can provide output at
frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 1 GHz.
• Non-sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output having a square,
rectangular or saw-tooth waveform are called non-sinusoidal or relaxation oscillators.
Such oscillators can provide output at frequencies ranging from 0 Hz to 20 MHz

Sinusoidal Oscillators
Sinusoidal oscillators can be classified in the following categories −
1) Tuned Circuit Oscillators − These oscillators use a tuned-circuit consisting of
inductors (L) and capacitors (C) and are used to generate high-frequency signals.
Thus, they are also known as radio frequency R.F. oscillators. Such oscillators are
Hartley, Colpitts, Clapp-oscillators etc.
2) RC Oscillators − There oscillators use resistors and capacitors and are used to
generate low or audio-frequency signals. Thus, they are also known as audio-
frequency (A.F.) oscillators. Such oscillators are Phase –shift and Wein-bridge
oscillators.
3) Crystal Oscillators − These oscillators use quartz crystals and are used to generate
highly stabilized output signal with frequencies up to 10 MHz The Piezo oscillator
is an example of a crystal oscillator.
4) Negative-resistance Oscillator − These oscillators use negative-resistance
characteristic of the devices such as tunnel devices. A tuned diode oscillator is an
example of a negative-resistance oscillator.

Nature of Sinusoidal Oscillations

The nature of oscillations in a sinusoidal wave are generally of two types; They are;
1. Damped Oscillations.
2. Undamped Oscillations.

Damped Oscillations
The electrical oscillations whose amplitude goes on decreasing with time are called as Damped
Oscillations. The frequency of the damped oscillations may remain constant.

Nature of Sinusoidal Oscillations

The nature of oscillations in a sinusoidal wave are generally of two types; They are;
1. Damped Oscillations.
2. Undamped Oscillations.

Damped Oscillations
The electrical oscillations whose amplitude goes on decreasing with time are called as Damped
Oscillations. The frequency of the damped oscillations may remain constant depending upon the
circuit parameters.

Damped oscillations are generally produced by the oscillatory circuits that produce power losses
and doesn’t compensate if required.

Undamped Oscillations
The electrical oscillations whose amplitude remains constant with time are called as Undamped
Oscillations. The frequency of the Undamped oscillations remains constant.

Undamped oscillations are generally produced by the oscillatory circuits that produce no power
losses and follow compensation techniques if any power losses occur.
Why Oscillator Has a Positive Feedback
An amplifier with positive feedback produces its output to be in phase with the input and increases
the strength of the signal. Positive feedback is also called as degenerative feedback or direct
feedback. This kind of feedback makes a feedback amplifier, an oscillator.
The use of positive feedback results in a feedback amplifier having closed-loop gain greater than
the open-loop gain. It results in instability and operates as an oscillatory circuit. An oscillatory
circuit provides a constantly varying amplified output signal of any desired frequency.
 How Oscillator produces Oscillations

The Oscillatory Circuit

An oscillatory circuit produces electrical oscillations of a desired frequency. They are also known
as tank circuits.
A simple tank circuit comprises of an inductor L and a capacitor C both of which together
determine the oscillatory frequency of the circuit.
To understand the concept of oscillatory circuit, let us consider the following circuit. The
capacitor in this circuit is already charged using a dc source. In this situation, the upper plate of
the capacitor has excess of electrons whereas the lower plate has deficit of electrons. The capacitor
holds some electrostatic energy and there is a voltage across the capacitor.

When the switch S is closed, the capacitor discharges and the current flows through the inductor.
Due to the inductive effect, the current builds up slowly towards a maximum value. Once the
capacitor discharges completely, the magnetic field around the coil is maximum.

Now, let us move on to the next stage. Once the capacitor is discharged completely, the magnetic
field begins to collapse and produces a counter EMF according to Lenz’s law. The capacitor is
now charged with positive charge on the upper plate and negative charge on the lower plate.

Once the capacitor is fully charged, it starts to discharge to build up a magnetic field around the
coil, as shown in the following circuit diagram.
This continuation of charging and discharging results in alternating motion of electrons or
an oscillatory current. The interchange of energy between L and C produce
continuous oscillations.
In an ideal circuit, where there are no losses, the oscillations would continue indefinitely. In a
practical tank circuit, there occur losses such as resistive and radiation losses in the coil
and dielectric losses in the capacitor. These losses result in damped oscillations.

Frequency of Oscillations
The frequency of the oscillations produced by the tank circuit are determined by the components
of the tank circuit, the L and the C. The actual frequency of oscillations is the resonant
frequency (or natural frequency) of the tank circuit which is given by
fr=12πLC
√fr=12πLC

Capacitance of the capacitor

The frequency of oscillation fo is inversely proportional to the square root of the capacitance of a
capacitor. So, if the value of the capacitor used is large, the charge and discharge time periods
will be large. Hence the frequency will be lower.
Mathematically, the frequency,
fo∝1C
√fo∝1C

Self-Inductance of the coil

The frequency of the oscillation fo is proportional to the square root of the self-inductance of the
coil. If the value of the inductance is large, the opposition to change of current flow is greater and
hence the time required to complete each cycle will be longer, which means time period will be
longer and frequency will be lower.
Mathematically, the frequency,
fo∝1L−−√fo∝1L
Combining both the above equations,
fo∝1LC−−−√fo∝1LC
 fo=12πLC−−−√fo=12πLC
The above equation, though indicates the output frequency, matches the natural
frequency or resonance frequency of the tank circuit.

Practical Oscillator Circuit

A Practical Oscillator circuit consists of a tank circuit, a transistor amplifier, and a feedback
circuit. The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a practical oscillator.

1) Tank Circuit − The tank circuit consists of an inductance L connected in parallel

with capacitor C. The values of these two components determine the frequency of
the oscillator circuit and hence this is called as Frequency determining circuit.
2) Transistor Amplifier − The output of the tank circuit is connected to the amplifier
circuit so that the oscillations produced by the tank circuit are amplified here.
Hence the output of these oscillations are increased by the amplifier.
3) Feedback Circuit − The function of feedback circuit is to transfer a part of the
output energy to LC circuit in proper phase. This feedback is positive in oscillators
while negative in amplifiers.

Frequency Stability of an Oscillator

The frequency stability of an oscillator is a measure of its ability to maintain a constant frequency,
over a long-time interval. When operated over a longer period of time, the oscillator frequency
may have a drift from the previously set value either by increasing or by decreasing.
The change in oscillator frequency may arise due to the following factors −
• Operating point of the active device such as BJT or FET used should lie in the linear region
of the amplifier. Its deviation will affect the oscillator frequency.
• The temperature dependency of the performance of circuit components affects the
oscillator frequency.
The changes in d.c. supply voltage applied to the active device, shift the oscillator
 • frequency. This can be avoided if a regulated power supply is used.
• A change in output load may cause a change in the Q-factor of the tank circuit, thereby
causing a change in oscillator output frequency.
• The presence of inter element capacitances and stray capacitances affect the oscillator
output frequency and thus frequency stability.

Principle of Feedback Amplifier

A feedback amplifier generally consists of two parts. They are the amplifier and the feedback
circuit. The feedback circuit usually consists of resistors. The concept of feedback amplifier can
be understood from the following figure below.

From the above figure, the gain of the amplifier is represented as A. The gain of the amplifier is
the ratio of output voltage Vo to the input voltage Vi. The feedback network extracts a voltage
Vf = β Vo from the output Vo of the amplifier.
This voltage is added for positive feedback and subtracted for negative feedback, from the signal
voltage Vs.
So, for positive feedback,
Vi = Vs + Vf = Vs + β Vo
The quantity β = Vf/Vo is called as feedback ratio or feedback fraction.
The output Vo must be equal to the input voltage (Vs + βVo) multiplied by the gain A of the
amplifier.
Hence,
(Vs+βVo)A=Vo(Vs+βVo)A=Vo
Or
AVs+AβVo=VoAVs+AβVo=Vo
Or
AVs=Vo(1−Aβ)AVs=Vo(1−Aβ)
Therefore
VoVs=A1−AβVoVs=A1−Aβ
Let Af be the overall gain (gain with the feedback) of the amplifier. This is defined as the ratio of
output voltage Vo to the applied signal voltage Vs, i.e.,
Af=OutputVoltageInputSignalVoltage=VoVsAf=OutputVoltageInputSignalVoltage=VoVs
Rrom the above two equations, we can understand that, the equation of gain of the feedback
amplifier with positive feedback is given by
Af=A1−AβAf=A1−Aβ
Where Aβ is the feedback factor or the loop gain.
If Aβ = 1, Af = ∞. Thus the gain becomes infinity, i.e., there is output without any input. In another
words, the amplifier works as an Oscillator.
The condition Aβ = 1 is called as Barkhausen Criterion of oscillations. This is a very important
factor to be always kept in mind, in the concept of Oscillators.

Tuned circuit oscillators

These are the circuits that produce oscillations with the help of tuning circuits. The tuning
circuits consist of an inductance L and a capacitor C. These are also known as LC oscillators,
resonant circuit oscillators or tank circuit oscillators.

Types of Tuned Circuit Oscillators

Most of the oscillators used in radio transmitters and receivers are of LC oscillators type.
Depending upon the way the feedback is used in the circuit, the LC oscillators are divided as the
following types.
❖ Tuned-collector or Armstrong Oscillator − It uses inductive feedback from the collector
of a transistor to the base. The LC circuit is in the collector circuit of the transistor.
❖ Tuned base Oscillator − It uses inductive feedback. But the LC circuit is in the base circuit.
❖ Hartley Oscillator − It uses inductive feedback.
❖ Colpitts Oscillator − It uses capacitive feedback.
❖ Clapp Oscillator − It uses capacitive feedback.

i)Tuned Collector Oscillator

Tuned collector oscillators are called so, because the tuned circuit is placed in the collector of the
transistor amplifier. The combination of L and C form the tuned circuit or frequency determining
circuit.

Construction
The resistors R1, R2 and RE are used to provide d.c. bias to the transistor. The capacitors CE and
C are the by-pass capacitors. The secondary of the transformer provides a.c. feedback voltage that
appears across the base-emitter junction of R1 and R2 is at a.c. ground due to by-pass capacitor C.
In case, the capacitor was absent, a part of the voltage induced in the secondary of the transformer
would drop across R2 instead of completely going to the input of transistor.
As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift, another 180o phase shift is provided
by the transformer, which makes 360o phase shift between the input and output voltages. The
following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a tuned collector circuit.

Operation
Once the supply is given, the collector current starts increasing and charging of capacitor C takes
place. When the capacitor is fully charged, it discharges through the inductance L1. Now
oscillations are produced. These oscillations induce some voltage in the secondary winding L2.
The frequency of voltage induced in the secondary winding is same as that of the tank circuit and
its magnitude depends upon the number of turns in secondary winding and coupling between both
the windings.
The voltage across L2 is applied between base and emitter and appears in the amplified form in
the collector circuit, thus overcoming the losses in the tank circuit. The number of turns of L2 and
coupling between L1 and L2 are so adjusted that oscillations across L2 are amplified to a level just
sufficient to supply losses to the tank circuit.
Tuned collector oscillators are widely used as the local oscillator in radio receivers.
 ii)Tuned Base Oscillator
Tuned base oscillators are called so, because the tuned circuit is placed in the base of the transistor
amplifier. The combination of L and C form the tuned circuit or frequency determining circuit.

Construction
The resistors R1, R2 and RE are used to provide d.c. bias to the transistor. The parallel combination
of Re and Ce in the emitter circuit is the stabilizing circuit. CC is the blocking capacitor. The
capacitors CE and C are the by-pass capacitors. The primary coil L and the secondary coil L1 of
RF transformer provides the required feedback to collector and base circuits.
As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift, another 180o phase shift is provided
by the transformer, which makes 360o phase shift between the input and output voltages. The
following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a tuned base oscillator circuit.

Operation
When the circuit is switched on, the collector current starts rising. As the collector is connected
to the coil L1, that current creates some magnetic field around it. This induces a voltage in the
tuned circuit coil L. The feedback voltage produces an increase in emitterbase voltage and base
current. A further increase in collector current is thus achieved and the cycle continues until the
collector current becomes saturated. In the meanwhile, the capacitor is fully charged.
When the collector current reaches saturation level, there is no feedback voltage in L. As the
capacitor has been charged fully, it starts discharging through L. This decreases the emitter base
bias and hence IB and the collector current also decreases. By the time the collector current
reaches cutoff, the capacitor C is fully charged with opposite polarity. As the transistor now gets
off, the condenser C begins to discharge through L. This increases the emitter-base bias. As a
result, the collector current increases.
The cycle repeats so long as enough energy is supplied to meet the losses in L.C. circuit. The
frequency of oscillation is equal to the resonant frequency of L.C. circuit.

Drawback
The main drawback of tuned-base oscillator circuit is that, due to the low base-emitter resistance,
which appears in shunt with the tuned circuit, the tank circuit gets loaded. This reduces its Q
which in turn causes drift in oscillator frequency. Thus stability becomes poorer. Due to this
reason, the tuned circuit is not usually connected in base circuit.
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iii)Hartley Oscillator
A very popular local oscillator circuit that is mostly used in radio receivers is the Hartley
Oscillator circuit. The constructional details and operation of a Hartley oscillator are as discussed
below.

Construction
In the circuit diagram of a Hartley oscillator shown below, the resistors R1, R2 and Re provide
necessary bias condition for the circuit. The capacitor Ce provides a.c. ground thereby providing
any signal degeneration. This also provides temperature stabilization.
The capacitors Cc and Cb are employed to block d.c. and to provide an a.c. path. The radio
frequency choke (R.F.C) offers very high impedance to high frequency currents which means it
shorts for d.c. and opens for a.c. Hence it provides d.c. load for collector and keeps a.c. currents
out of d.c. supply source

Tank Circuit
The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which consists of the inductors
L1 and L2 along with a variable capacitor C. The junction of L1 and L2 are earthed. The coil L1 has
its one end connected to base via Cc and the other to emitter via Ce. So, L2 is in the output circuit.
Both the coils L1 and L2 are inductively coupled and together form an Auto-transformer.
The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a Hartley oscillator. The tank circuit
is shunt fed in this circuit. It can also be a series-fed.
Operation
When the collector supply is given, a transient current is produced in the oscillatory or tank circuit.
The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces a.c. voltage across L1.
The auto-transformer made by the inductive coupling of L1 and L2 helps in determining the
frequency and establishes the feedback. As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift,
another 180o phase shift is provided by the transformer, which makes 360o phase shift between
the input and output voltages.
This makes the feedback positive which is essential for the condition of oscillations. When
the loop gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater than one, oscillations are sustained in the circuit.

Frequency
The equation for frequency of Hartley oscillator is given as
f=12πLTC−−−−√f=12πLTC
LT=L1+L2+2MLT=L1+L2+2M
Here, LT is the total cumulatively coupled inductance; L1 and L2 represent inductances of 1st and
2nd coils; and M represents mutual inductance.
Mutual inductance is calculated when two windings are considered.

Advantages
The advantages of Hartley oscillator are
• Instead of using a large transformer, a single coil can be used as an auto-transformer.
• Frequency can be varied by employing either a variable capacitor or a variable inductor.
Less number of components are sufficient.
• The amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed frequency range.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Hartley oscillator are

• It cannot be a low frequency oscillator.

• Harmonic distortions are present.

Applications
The applications of Hartley oscillator are

• It is used to produce a sinewave of desired frequency.

• Mostly used as a local oscillator in radio receivers.
• It is also used as R.F. Oscillator.
iv)Colpitts Oscillator
A Colpitts oscillator looks just like the Hartley oscillator but the inductors and capacitors are
replaced with each other in the tank circuit. The constructional details and operation of a colpitts
oscillator are as discussed below.

Construction
Let us first take a look at the circuit diagram of a Colpitts oscillator.

The resistors R1, R2 and Re provide necessary bias condition for the circuit. The capacitor
Ce provides a.c. ground thereby providing any signal degeneration. This also provides
temperature stabilization.
The capacitors Cc and Cb are employed to block d.c. and to provide an a.c. path. The radio
frequency choke (R.F.C) offers very high impedance to high frequency currents which means it
shorts for d.c. and opens for a.c. Hence it provides d.c. load for collector and keeps a.c. currents
out of d.c. supply source.

Tank Circuit
The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which consists of variable
capacitors C1 and C2 along with an inductor L. The junction of C1 and C2 are earthed. The
capacitor C1 has its one end connected to base via Cc and the other to emitter via Ce. the voltage
developed across C1 provides the regenerative feedback required for the sustained oscillations.

Operation
When the collector supply is given, a transient current is produced in the oscillatory or tank circuit.
The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces a.c. voltage across C1 which are applied to the
base emitter junction and appear in the amplified form in the collector circuit and supply losses
to the tank circuit.
If terminal 1 is at positive potential with respect to terminal 3 at any instant, then terminal 2 will
be at negative potential with respect to 3 at that instant because terminal 3 is grounded. Therefore,
points 1 and 2 are out of phase by 180o.
As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift, it makes 360o phase shift between the
input and output voltages. Hence, feedback is properly phased to produce continuous Undamped
oscillations. When the loop gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater than one, oscillations are
sustained in the circuit.

Frequency
The equation for frequency of Colpitts oscillator is given as
f=12πLCT−−−−√f=12πLCT
CT is the total capacitance of C1 and C2 connected in series.
1CT=1C1+1C21CT=1C1+1C2
CT=C1×C2C1+C2CT=C1×C2C1+C2

Advantages
The advantages of Colpitts oscillator are as follows −

• Colpitts oscillator can generate sinusoidal signals of very high frequencies.

• It can withstand high and low temperatures.
• The frequency stability is high.
• Frequency can be varied by using both the variable capacitors.
• Less number of components are sufficient.
• The amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed frequency range.
The Colpitts oscillator is designed to eliminate the disadvantages of Hartley oscillator and is
known to have no specific disadvantages. Hence there are many applications of a colpitts
oscillator.

Applications
The applications of Colpitts oscillator are as follows −

• Colpitts oscillator can be used as High frequency sinewave generator.

• This can be used as a temperature sensor with some associated circuitry.
• Mostly used as a local oscillator in radio receivers.
• It is also used as R.F. Oscillator.
• It is also used in Mobile applications.
 • It has got many other commercial applications.
v)Clapp Oscillator

Another oscillator which is an advanced version of Colpitts oscillator is the Clapp Oscillator. This
circuit is designed by making a few changes to the Colpitts oscillator.
The circuit differs from the Colpitts oscillator only in one respect; it contains one additional
capacitor (C3) connected in series with the inductor. The addition of capacitor (C3) improves the
frequency stability and eliminates the effect of transistor parameters and stray capacitances.
The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a transistor Clapp oscillator.

The operation of Clapp oscillator circuit is in the same way as that of Colpitts oscillator. The
frequency of oscillator is given by the relation,
fo=12πL.C−−−−√fo=12πL.C
Were
C=11C1+1C2+1C3C=11C1+1C2+1C3
Usually, the value of C3 is much smaller than C1 and C2. As a result of this, C is approximately
equal to C3. Therefore, the frequency of oscillation,
fo=12πL.C3−−−−√fo=12πL.C3
It is understood that the Clapp oscillator is similar to the Colpitts oscillator, however they differ
in the way the inductances and capacitances are arranged. The frequency stability though is good,
can be variable in a Clapp oscillator.
A Clapp oscillator is sometimes preferred over a Colpitts oscillator for constructing a variable
frequency oscillator. The Clapp oscillators are used in receiver tuning circuits as a frequency
oscillator.