VIDYASAGAR

Pandit Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820–1891) was a prominent figure of the Bengal
Renaissance, known for his deep intellect and strong moral character. Historian Susobhan
Sarkar described him as having "the originality of a genius and the strength of a heroic
character," while Asok Sen referred to him as "a bonafide individual in a stage of malafide
modernization." Vidyasagar's life and work continue to be widely studied by scholars in
India and abroad.
Vidyasagar was unique among 19th-century Bengali intellectuals. While many confined
themselves to traditional studies or merely criticized society, he combined his deep
knowledge of the shastras with a modern understanding of English. Using his connections
with colonial rulers, he led significant social reform movements. However, unlike many
contemporaries who sought personal gains by pleasing the British, Vidyasagar maintained
his independence and integrity. This earned him respect even from the colonial rulers.
Despite his efforts, Vidyasagar faced significant challenges. His reforms, such as promoting
widow remarriage and improving women's education, often met resistance from
conservative society. As Asok Sen noted, Vidyasagar’s ideals often remained unfulfilled, and
his experiences were marked by failure and disappointment.

MOVEMENT FOR EDUCATIONAL REFORM

The educational scenario in Bengal prior to Vidyasagar
The spread of English education in colonial India brought significant changes to society but
also posed several challenges. The British administration viewed vernacular education with
contempt, considering it inferior. This negative attitude led to the decline of indigenous
schools, which had previously been the backbone of local education.
The English-educated elite, including prominent figures like Raja Rammohan Roy, Ishwar
Chandra Vidyasagar, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, and the followers of Henry Louis
Vivian Derozio (known as the Young Bengal group), played a key role in adopting modern
ideas. They discarded outdated traditions that restricted individual freedom. However, as
sociologist A.R. Desai pointed out, many among them misunderstood freedom as
unrestrained liberty. Without rational principles to guide their conduct, they often indulged
in excessive drinking or unhealthy lifestyles, failing to channel their education toward
meaningful societal progress.
Another significant consequence of English education was the growing disconnect between
the elites and the masses. Historian Acharya observed that these educated elites, despite
their potential, became alienated from the broader population. Focused on their class
interests, they were unable to rise above their privilege to drive substantial social or
educational reforms. While figures like Vidyasagar made tireless efforts for societal
progress, the broader elite often lacked the will to address the deeper needs of the people.
Although English education introduced modern ideas and opportunities, it also widened the
gap between the elites and the masses. The failure of many among the educated elite to
engage meaningfully with society left a legacy of unfulfilled promises, hindering the
potential for collective progress.
Vidyasagar's contribution to educational reform
Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, one of the most influential reformers of 19th-century
Bengal, made groundbreaking contributions to education. Born into a poor rural Brahmin
family, Vidyasagar’s exceptional academic brilliance allowed him to rise to prominence,
becoming part of the emerging Western-educated middle class. Despite his elevated status,
he remained deeply connected to his roots and championed education for the masses,
striving to make knowledge accessible to all, irrespective of class or gender.
Vidyasagar played a pivotal role in shaping educational policies in colonial India. He strongly
believed that vernacular education was essential to uplift the common people. In a letter to
the Council of Education on September 7, 1853, he wrote, "What we require is to extend the
benefit of education to the masses of the people. Let us establish a network of vernacular
schools, let us prepare a series of vernacular classbooks on useful and instructive subjects,
let us raise up a band of men qualified to undertake the responsible duty of teachers and
the object is accomplished."
Unlike many reformers who limited themselves to policy advocacy, Vidyasagar took
concrete steps to implement his vision. He authored several textbooks, including the iconic
*Barnaparichay* (Parts 1 & 2), which continue to introduce children to the basics of
learning. His other works, such as *Kathamala* (based on Aesop’s fables), *Bodhadaya*,
and *Jivan Charitra*, aimed to instill moral values, scientific knowledge, and rational
thinking among the masses. As Asok Sen noted, these books were instrumental not only in
educating the masses but also in shaping modern Bengali prose.
To promote vernacular education, Vidyasagar conducted a detailed survey of rural Bengal
from May 21 to June 11, 1858. His findings revealed widespread enthusiasm for education.
In Salkia, local gentlemen offered to donate land for a school. In Radhanagar and
Krishnanagar, people expressed eagerness to be educated in their mother tongue. Similarly,
in Khirpai, Sripur, Kamarpur, and Malaypur, people requested the establishment of
vernacular schools. Notably, in Panithar, the local elite offered to construct school buildings
and donate land to the government, making it an ideal location as per colonial regulations.
Despite this enthusiasm, Vidyasagar’s recommendations faced significant challenges. The
colonial administration required villagers to bear the costs of infrastructure, including land
and school buildings, which was unaffordable for most rural communities. This financial
burden hampered the establishment of many schools, despite the clear demand for
education.
Vidyasagar also made remarkable contributions to female education. While John Drinkwater
Bethune is credited with establishing the first girls’ school in Kolkata, Vidyasagar’s efforts
were indispensable in its success. He served as the honorary secretary of Bethune School
and used the *shastras* to argue that female education had scriptural sanction, effectively
countering religious orthodoxy. His advocacy helped pave the way for greater acceptance of
female education in a society steeped in tradition.
However, Vidyasagar faced considerable obstacles in his efforts. His ambitious plans to
establish model girls’ schools received only verbal assurances from the Lieutenant Governor,
and the Government of India ultimately refused financial support. His conflict with the
Director of Public Instruction over this issue led to his resignation in 1858.
Moreover, Vidyasagar’s attempt to teach Western science and rational thinking to the
masses in their native language encountered resistance. As Asok Sen observed, these efforts
failed because they did not align with the practical realities of the people’s daily lives. The
colonial economy and society under foreign rule lacked the structural support needed for a
widespread rational awakening.
Despite these setbacks, Vidyasagar’s contributions to education were transformative. He
turned the idea of mass education from a theoretical aspiration into a tangible goal. While
earlier members of the Bengali elite, such as Raja Radhakanto Deb, had discussed education
for the masses, Vidyasagar went further by integrating it into official policy and actively
working toward its realization.
Vidyasagar’s failure to gain approval for his plans to establish model girls’ schools may seem
like a shortcoming, but his relentless campaigns for female and vernacular education laid
the foundation for future progress. Without his efforts, education for the masses in India
might have remained an unattainable dream. The colonial regime had introduced an elitist
education system to serve its own interests, but Vidyasagar’s vision and tireless work
ensured that education for the common people became a central focus of reform.
His legacy is a testament to his unwavering commitment to societal reform. Vidyasagar’s
belief in the power of education to transform lives and uplift communities continues to
inspire generations, highlighting the enduring importance of his work in shaping modern
India. His contributions remind us that the path to progress often requires perseverance in
the face of immense challenges.
The Literacy Movement in Independent India: A Legacy of Vidyasagar’s educational
reforms
Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar is widely celebrated for his efforts in promoting basic
education, particularly through his iconic primer *Barnaparichay*, which continues to
introduce children to the world of learning. However, his contributions to higher education
are equally significant and deserve recognition.

Vidyasagar played a pioneering role in breaking the European monopoly on higher

education by establishing the Metropolitan Institution in Kolkata. This institution was
remarkable for being the first private college in India to be run, taught, and financed entirely
by Indians. It was a bold step toward creating an indigenous system of higher education that
was independent of European control.
In 1872, the Metropolitan Institution gained affiliation with Calcutta University to teach the
First Arts (FA) course. Later, in 1879, the affiliation was extended to include graduation-level
education. This achievement marked a significant milestone in the history of Indian
education, proving that Indians could manage and excel in higher education on their own.

Vidyasagar’s efforts in higher education laid the foundation for the inclusion of private
institutions in the educational landscape of India. His vision resonates with modern
government programs like the **Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA)**, which
aims to improve access, equity, and quality in higher education, and the **National
Education Policy (NEP) 2020**, which emphasizes holistic and inclusive education.

After Vidyasagar’s death, the Metropolitan Institution was renamed Vidyasagar College in
1917, honoring his legacy. Today, Vidyasagar College stands as a testament to his
groundbreaking efforts to empower Indians through education, from basic literacy to
advanced learning, ensuring that his vision for an educated and self-reliant society continues
to inspire generations.

MOVEMENTS FOR THE UPLIFTMENT OF WOMEN

Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was not only a great scholar but also a courageous social
reformer. His work went beyond academics as he used his intellect to challenge deep-
rooted customs and fight for social change. His efforts to uplift women in 19th-century
Bengal sparked significant resistance and societal upheaval.

In pre-British Indian society, women were considered inferior to men. As sociologist A.R.
Desai noted, this inequality was rooted in the social and economic structure of the time. A
woman’s lower status was determined at birth and further reinforced by religious laws.
European colonization disrupted India’s traditional, inward-looking society, as observed by
Aurobindo Poddar. This disruption led to internal tensions, often expressed as aggression
towards vulnerable groups, particularly married women.

Vidyasagar’s reforms focused on improving the lives of women who suffered under
oppressive practices. He led several significant movements:

1. Campaign Against Child Marriage (1850): Vidyasagar opposed the practice of marrying off
young girls, which robbed them of their childhood and often led to lifelong suffering.
2. Advocacy for Widow Remarriage (1855): He championed the cause of widows, who were
socially ostracized and condemned to a life of hardship. His efforts led to the Widow
Remarriage Act of 1856.

3. Opposition to Polygamy (1871-73): Vidyasagar fought against polygamy, a practice that

allowed men to marry multiple women, leaving many women neglected and mistreated.

Despite facing fierce opposition, Vidyasagar’s humanitarian efforts left a lasting impact on
Indian society, inspiring future generations to continue the fight for gender equality.
i. Campaign against Child Marriage
Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was a pioneering social reformer who fought against the
inhumane practice of child marriage in 19th-century India. His campaign was the first major
effort to free women from cruel, unhealthy, and oppressive traditions. In 1850, Vidyasagar
wrote an influential article titled *Balyavivaher Dosh* (*The Evils of Child Marriage*), where
he criticized the practice for its harmful effects on individuals and society. He argued that
child marriage deprived couples of true marital love and reduced life to a monotonous
household routine, with men as caretakers and women as housemaids.

Vidyasagar emphasized that child marriage:

1. Adversely affected the health and education of future mothers.
2. Increased the risk of early widowhood for young brides.
3. Prevented the mental and physical development needed for a healthy marital
relationship.

Unlike his later campaigns for widow remarriage, Vidyasagar did not use religious scriptures
to support his arguments. Instead, he held the *shastras* responsible for perpetuating the
practice. He appealed to society to abolish this "cruel custom," but his calls were largely
ignored during his lifetime.

Despite the lack of immediate success, Vidyasagar’s efforts raised awareness about child
marriage and inspired others to take action. In 1876, college students formed an association
called *Samadarshi*, pledging not to marry before the ages of 21 (for men) and 16 (for
women). Later, a writer named J. Sanyal published an article in *Bamabodhini Patrika*
highlighting the suffering of child brides, often at the hands of uneducated mothers-in-law.
Sanyal argued that educating children and giving them the freedom to choose their partners
was the only solution.
Prominent thinkers like Swami Vivekananda also condemned child marriage. He observed
that early marriages led to premature childbearing, causing many women to die young. He
believed that marrying later and fostering education would enable women to raise
healthier, more capable children who could contribute positively to the country.

The British government eventually acknowledged the need to address child marriage.
Although Vidyasagar did not succeed in getting a law passed during his lifetime, his efforts
paved the way for legislative reforms. After his death, the British enacted the Child Marriage
Restraint Act, making child marriage a criminal offense. This law was later strengthened by
the Indian government through the Child Marriage Prohibition Act of 2006, which made the
practice a non-bailable offense.

Vidyasagar’s advocacy created a lasting impact on Indian society, inspiring generations to

fight against child marriage. In modern times, the fight continues, often led by young girls
themselves. In West Bengal, girls like Roshnara Khatun, Jamuna Mudi, and Marufa Khatun
have resisted forced marriages, sometimes at great personal cost. For example, Roshnara
was set on fire by her stepmother for refusing to marry but was later honored by the
government on National Girl Child Day in 2014. These brave young women, who defied
societal norms and reported their families to the authorities, represent a progressive trend
in the fight against child marriage.

This growing rebellion among affected children is a testament to the awareness first raised
by Vidyasagar. His efforts laid the foundation for societal change, demonstrating that
education and collective action can challenge even the most entrenched traditions.
Vidyasagar’s legacy as a champion for women’s rights and education continues to inspire
the ongoing struggle for equality and justice in India.
ii. Vidyasagar's Movement for Widow –Marriage
However, the issue was being debated in intellectual circles. For instance, at Sobhabazar
Rajbati, Bhabanishankar Vidyaratna argued in favor of widow-marriage in a debate with
Brojonath Vidyaratna. Though Bhabanishankar won the debate, he later opposed
Vidyasagar when the latter campaigned for widow-marriage. Raja Srischandra of
Krishnanagar also organized a debate where pundits acknowledged that widow-marriage
was allowed by the shastras but were too afraid to speak publicly in favor of it, fearing
damage to their prestige. Despite the reluctance of religious leaders, society was beginning
to change, with growing support for widow-marriage.
In the 1840s and 1850s, several movements in favor of widow-marriage emerged. A group
of wealthy young men tried to celebrate a widow's marriage in 1845, though it failed. In
1851-52, the journal *Sambad Prabhakar* reported a clerk eloping with a widow, and young
radicals in Bengal, including those involved with the Brahmo Samaj, advocated for widow-
marriage in their publications, such as *Bengal Spectator* and *Tattabodhini Patrika*.
These events indicated that public opinion was slowly shifting in favor of widow-remarriage,
laying the foundation for Vidyasagar's campaign.
So why did Vidyasagar decide to make widow-marriage his life’s mission? Two personal
experiences deeply moved him and inspired him to take action. First, he was disturbed by
the remarriage of a respected professor at Sanskrit College. The professor married a young
girl shortly after his wife’s death. However, the professor soon died, leaving behind a child
widow, which made a lasting impact on Vidyasagar. He saw the tragedy of the child widow
and realized the harmful effects of such practices on women.
Second, Vidyasagar was personally affected by an incident that occurred in his own home in
Birshingha village. One day, while talking to his father, Vidyasagar’s mother came in,
weeping. She told him, “You have read enough of the shastras, but have you found any
sanctions for the miserable infant widows?” This emotional plea from his mother left a deep
impression on Vidyasagar and motivated him to take up the cause of widow-marriage. It
was his mother’s words that gave him the "moving inspiration" to dedicate his life to this
cause.
Vidyasagar’s campaign was not just an intellectual pursuit; it was a deeply personal mission
driven by his empathy for the suffering of widows and the injustices they faced in society.
His work for widow-marriage became one of the most important aspects of his legacy, and
though he faced much opposition, his efforts played a key role in changing the status of
widows in India.
How did Vidyasagar academically campaign in favour of widow- marriage?

Pandit Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar was deeply motivated by compassion for the suffering of
widows and an unyielding determination to fight for their rights. As Chakravarti remarked,
Vidyasagar’s life was guided by "the highest impulse," but he knew that mere impulse was
not enough to achieve his goals. In 19th-century Bengali Hindu society, widow-marriage was
fiercely opposed, and even respected pundits, who held great influence in society, hesitated
to support it, despite knowing that widow-marriage was permissible according to the
scriptures. Vidyasagar, however, was determined to break this societal norm.
To support his campaign for widow-marriage, Vidyasagar took a scholarly approach. He
delved into the Hindu scriptures, or shastras, and conducted thorough research to find
evidence that would support his arguments. His efforts led him to the *Parasara Samhita*,
which he believed to be the Dharmasastra for the Kali-Yuga, the current age. In the fourth
chapter of the *Parasara Samhita*, he found a passage that stated that a woman could
remarry in the event of her husband's death, absence, impotence, or degradation. This
provided a solid basis for Vidyasagar's arguments in favor of widow-marriage.
However, Vidyasagar didn’t stop there. He further explored the works of Vedavacharya,
who argued that when there was a conflict between the Veda, Smriti, and Purana, the Veda
should be considered the highest authority. Vidyasagar noted that while some texts
contradicted the *Parasara Samhita*, the *Parasara Samhita* was a Smriti and should,
therefore, be followed. By presenting these scholarly findings, Vidyasagar built a strong case
for widow-marriage, challenging the deeply ingrained social norms and fighting for the
rights of widows.
Vidyasagar's humanitarian appeal
Pandit Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar urged his opponents to consider the humanitarian aspect
of widowhood. He pointed out the severe hardships faced by widows, especially those who
lost their husbands at a young age. He emphasized that many widows, unable to live a life of
chastity, resorted to prostitution and other disgraceful acts, which brought shame to their
families. Vidyasagar argued that allowing widow-marriage would end these unbearable
torments and prevent such disgrace, benefiting both widows and their families.
However, his views were met with strong opposition from the pundits. A heated debate
ensued, with books being published either in support or against widow-marriage.
Vidyasagar responded to his critics by expressing regret over their mockery and insults, but
he also pointed out that the subject he raised was too important to be dismissed.
In defending his stance, Vidyasagar again referred to the scriptures. He quoted various
ancient texts, including the *Manu Smriti*, *Vishnu Smriti*, *Yajnavalkya*, and
*Vashistha*, all of which acknowledged that remarriage for a widow was allowed under
certain circumstances, such as the death, impotence, insanity, or degradation of her
husband. By doing so, Vidyasagar reinforced his argument with religious authority, hoping
to change public opinion and secure the right of widow-marriage.
Impact on contemporary society.
Vidyasagar's vigorous campaign for widow-marriage divided Bengali society into two
factions: pro-widow-marriage and anti-widow-marriage. He collected 1,000 signatures
urging the British government to enact a law allowing widow-marriage. However, while
56,000 opposed the bill, only 5,000 supported it.
The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act Bill (Act XV of 1856).
Vidyasagar's campaign for widow-marriage led to the passing of the Hindu Widow
Remarriage Act in 1856. The Act, introduced by J.P. Grant, Law Member of the Governor
General’s Council, legalized widow-marriage and made several important provisions to
protect the rights of widows.
1. Legalizing Widow-Marriage: The Act declared that marriages of Hindu widows would be
legally valid, and any children born from such marriages would be legitimate, even if the
woman had been previously married to someone who was deceased. This provision
overcame previous customs and interpretations of Hindu law that had prohibited widow-
marriage.
2. Widow’s Right to Property: The Act specified that a widow would lose her right to her
deceased husband's property once she remarried.
3. Guardianship of Children: Upon the remarriage of a widow, a male relative of her
deceased husband could petition the court to appoint a guardian for the children in place of
the widow.
4. Inheritance Rights: The Act also protected the widow’s inheritance rights. A widow who
remarried would retain her rights to any property she was entitled to from her first
marriage.
5. Marriage Ceremonies: The ceremonies for widow remarriage were to have the same legal
effect as those for first marriages.
6. Consent for Minor Widows: If a widow was a minor, she needed the consent of her father
or next male relative before remarrying.
This Act was a significant step forward in securing the rights of widows and promoting social
reform.
Widow remarriages after passage of the Act
After the Hindu Widow Remarriage Act was passed, Vidyasagar worked to organize widow
marriages. In December 1856, Satish Chandra Vidyaratna made history by becoming the first
person to marry a widow. Following this, widow marriages were held across Bengal,
including in small towns and villages. Vidyasagar spent a significant amount of money on
these marriages, even supporting families affected by the social backlash. One estimate
suggests he spent Rs. 82,000 on 60 marriages. While some sections of society strongly
opposed these marriages, others, including the Brahmos, supported Vidyasagar's efforts.
Brahmo Samaj& Widow remarriage
The Brahmo Samaj, led by Sasipada Banerjee and others, supported and organized widow
marriages, often without parental approval. These marriages were sometimes seen as
"stolen" from the parents, as noted by Sitanath Tattwabhushan in *Social Reform in
Bengal*. To address the legal issues surrounding these marriages, the Civil Marriage Act was
introduced in 1872, helping to legitimize widow remarriages and provide legal recognition
to such unions.
Criticism of the Act
Vidyasagar fought tirelessly for the rights of widows to remarry, aiming to bring justice to
their suffering. However, despite the passage of the Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, the
actual outcomes for widows were not as beneficial as expected. The Act did permit widow
marriages, but it imposed several harsh conditions that created confusion and difficulties for
widows, undermining the very justice Vidyasagar hoped to achieve.
One of the key issues was the confusion around property rights. According to Article 2 of the
Act, a widow would lose her property rights in her deceased husband’s family if she
remarried. However, Article 5 stated that the widow would not forfeit her property rights,
creating a contradiction that left the legal position unclear. This inconsistency made it
difficult for widows to understand their legal standing, adding to their vulnerability.
Furthermore, Article 3 of the Act stated that a widow who remarried would lose the rights
to her children. This provision added insult to the already difficult lives of widows, who
often faced severe social stigma and hardship. Instead of offering protection, the Act placed
further burdens on them.
It is unclear whether Vidyasagar fully studied the Act, but if he had, he might have found
that it was heavily biased against women. The Act, in its tone and content, reflected the
prevailing attitudes of both pre-1857 Bengali Hindu society and the colonial regime, which
often treated women as inferior and less human. At the time, the influential *Calcutta
Review* journal also criticized the Hindu Widow Remarriage Act Bill for several reasons.
They pointed out that the bill failed to define what constituted a valid widow remarriage,
and it did not specify the appropriate age for remarriage. It also raised concerns about
whether a widow could remarry at her discretion, whether she could marry a man with
other wives, or whether she could marry someone of a different caste.
Another major criticism was the property rights issue. The Act’s provision that a widow
would forfeit her property rights upon remarriage was seen as a punishment for women
who chose to remarry. The *Calcutta Review* also pointed out the contradiction in the Act,
stating that if a widow renounced her religion, her rights were not affected, but if she
remained Hindu, she would lose her rights.
From these discussions, it becomes clear that the Act was rushed through and poorly
drafted. Instead of improving the situation for widows, it added layers of legal and social
difficulties, making their lives even more humiliating. Vidyasagar, who had hoped for a law
that would truly uplift widows, would have been deeply disappointed by the shortcomings
of the Act. J.P. Grant, who moved the bill, should have been more careful in its drafting,
ensuring that it provided real protection and justice for widows, rather than compounding
their suffering.
Evaluation of Vidyasagar's campaign for widow-marriage
Vidyasagar’s campaign for widow-marriage in 19th century colonial India was a significant
effort to challenge the rigid social structures and improve the lives of Hindu widows.
Widows at the time were subjected to social exclusion, forced into lifelong celibacy, and
often ostracized. Vidyasagar, recognizing the cruelty of this tradition, believed that widow-
marriage could restore their dignity and provide them with a chance to lead a better life.
Vidyasagar’s approach was unique in that he appealed not only to humanitarian values but
also to Hindu scriptures. He found support for widow-marriage in the *Parasara Samhita*,
an ancient Hindu text that he interpreted as permitting the remarriage of widows.
Vidyasagar argued that the Hindu tradition itself allowed widow-marriage, and therefore, it
should be legalized. However, this interpretation was contested by many orthodox scholars.
The *Calcutta Review* countered that other authoritative texts, such as the *Raghunandan
Digest* and *Prayaschita Bibhaka*, prohibited widow-marriage. They argued that the
references to widow-marriage in the *Parasara Samhita* were outdated and not applicable
to contemporary society.
Despite these challenges, Vidyasagar’s efforts led to the passage of the Hindu Widow
Remarriage Act in 1856. This landmark legislation legalized widow-marriage in British India,
allowing widows to remarry without facing the stigma that had previously surrounded them.
However, the Act had significant limitations. While it legalized widow-marriage, it imposed
legal restrictions that placed widows at a disadvantage. For example, the Act stated that a
widow would lose her rights to her deceased husband’s property upon remarriage, and she
would forfeit custody of her children. These provisions created a confusing and unjust legal
situation for widows, as they could lose their inheritance and parental rights simply by
remarrying.
Moreover, the Act did not address the social prejudice against widow-marriage that was
prevalent in society, especially among the upper castes. While widow-marriage was more
common in lower-caste communities, the higher castes remained resistant to the reform.
Vidyasagar’s focus on widow-marriage, though significant, did not address broader issues
such as women’s rights within marriage or their ability to choose partners or seek divorce.
Thus, while Vidyasagar’s efforts were groundbreaking, they did not challenge the larger
social structures that oppressed women.
Vidyasagar’s personal involvement in the campaign was intense and costly. He personally
funded several widow-marriages, even going into debt to support the cause. According to
estimates, he spent around Rs. 82,000 to fund 60 widow-marriages, a substantial sum at the
time. However, despite his dedication, Vidyasagar faced significant opposition and criticism.
Many of his contemporaries, including prominent figures like Bankimchandra
Chattopadhyay, strongly opposed his efforts. Vidyasagar was ridiculed and personally
attacked, and his work was undermined by those who sought to preserve traditional social
norms.
His disillusionment with the lack of support from his fellow countrymen is evident in a letter
he wrote to Durgacharan Banerjee, the father of Surendra Nath Banerjee. In the letter,
Vidyasagar expressed regret for having invested so much time, energy, and money into the
widow-marriage cause. He lamented that, instead of support, he faced ridicule and
indifference. Despite his success in getting the Hindu Widow Remarriage Act passed,
Vidyasagar felt morally and emotionally defeated by the lack of solidarity among his fellow
reformers and the public’s indifference to the plight of widows.
Vidyasagar’s campaign for widow-marriage, however, was a crucial step in challenging the
oppressive social norms of his time. His efforts helped raise awareness about the injustices
faced by widows and paved the way for future reforms. The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act
represented a shift in the British colonial government’s approach to social reform, but it was
far from a complete victory for widow rights. Widow-marriages remained rare among the
higher castes, and social prejudice against widows persisted.
Looking back, Vidyasagar’s efforts were groundbreaking in the context of his time. His
campaign for widow-marriage was part of a larger movement for social reform in colonial
India and represented a challenge to the deeply entrenched caste and gender hierarchies of
society. Vidyasagar’s reliance on Hindu scriptures to support his cause was a strategic move
to appeal to religious authorities and gain legitimacy for his reform. However, this also
highlighted the limitations of relying on religious texts to challenge social practices. The
scriptures themselves were often contradictory, and Vidyasagar’s reliance on them to
support widow-marriage reveals the complexities of reforming a society so deeply rooted in
religious tradition.
While Vidyasagar’s reforms did not achieve all their objectives, they were an important part
of the broader struggle for women’s rights in India. His campaign highlighted the deep
injustices faced by widows and brought attention to the need for social change. His efforts,
alongside those of other reformers like Raja Rammohun Roy, who had earlier worked to
abolish the practice of *sati* (the burning of widows), laid the foundation for future social
reforms in India.
In conclusion, Vidyasagar’s campaign for widow-marriage was a courageous and significant
effort to improve the lives of widows in colonial India. His work, though met with resistance
and limited success, was a critical step in the larger movement for women’s rights and social
reform. His legacy is a testament to his commitment to justice and his determination to
challenge entrenched social norms, even in the face of great personal and social opposition.
While the Hindu Widow Remarriage Act did not completely address the problems faced by
widows, it represented a major breakthrough in the fight for women’s rights in India and
marked the beginning of a larger reform movement that would continue for decades to
come.
iii Vidyasagar's Movement against Polygamy (1871-73)
Vidyasagar's movement against polygamy was another important effort to improve the
condition of women in 19th century Bengal. Polygamy, the practice of having multiple
wives, was widely accepted in certain sections of society, especially among the upper castes.
Vidyasagar, however, saw it as a social evil that exploited women and led to inequality. In
his work *Bahuvivaha Rohita Ucitkina Prastav*, Vidyasagar argued for the abolition of
polygamy, emphasizing that it harmed the dignity and well-being of women.
Before Vidyasagar's movement, some reform-minded individuals had already recognized the
problem of polygamy. Many petitions were submitted to the British government calling for
its abolition. In 1855, Vidyasagar himself submitted a petition to the government demanding
the end of polygamy. The following year, the Maharaja of Burdwan also submitted a
petition, gathering 21,000 signatures in support of the cause. However, opposition to this
movement was strong. Raja Radhakanta Deb, a prominent figure, led a group that
submitted a petition with 1,638 signatures against the abolition of polygamy.
In 1866, the Bengal government sought permission from the British authorities to introduce
a bill in the Provincial Council to restrict polygamy. However, the Governor-General rejected
the proposal, claiming that the general public was not opposed to polygamy. Vidyasagar,
along with other reformers, continued to advocate for change, hoping that education and
social pressure would encourage people, especially the Koolin Brahmins, to adopt
monogamy.
Despite Vidyasagar's efforts, society at large was resistant to the idea of abolishing
polygamy. As a result, no law was passed to ban the practice during the colonial period. It
was only after India gained independence that the government took steps to address the
issue of polygamy. The Hindu Code Bill of 1949, which was hotly debated, aimed to establish
monogamy as the legal norm. Although there was some opposition, especially from those
who saw polygamy as a part of traditional Hindu society, the government ultimately passed
the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955. This Act outlawed bigamy, declaring that a second marriage
was void if the first wife was still alive. Sections 494 and 495 of the Indian Penal Code were
applied to enforce this law.
In hindsight, Kapadia (1982) observed that polygamy was not only a social evil but also
created financial and emotional strain, leading to jealousy and quarrels within families. By
the time of India's independence, there was widespread recognition that polygamy harmed
family life and well-being. If the colonial government had listened to Vidyasagar's
arguments, the practice of polygamy could have been abolished much earlier, saving
countless women from its harmful effects.

CONCLUSION
Asok Sen, in the preface to his book *Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and His Elusive Milestones*,
claimed that Vidyasagar's ideals saw little fulfillment in society. This raises the question: was
Vidyasagar a failure as a social reformer? Scholars like Asok Sen argue that Vidyasagar’s
reforms mainly affected upper-caste Hindus, while the lower castes and Muslims were
largely unaffected by his efforts. Vidyasagar worked on four key reforms: education, the
status of women, and the abolition of child marriage, polygamy, and widowhood
restrictions.
In education, Vidyasagar made significant strides. He aimed to spread basic education by
opening schools in rural areas and pushed for indigenous private efforts to bring higher
education to the masses. One of his major contributions was the establishment of the
Metropolitan Institution, which aimed to provide quality education to students, regardless
of their social background. Despite facing opposition from the government, such as Mr. J.
Sutcliffe, the then Principal of Presidency College, who opposed the Metropolitan
Institution's affiliation, Vidyasagar succeeded. Eventually, the institution was granted
affiliation up to the graduate level, which was the highest level at that time.
However, Vidyasagar’s reform efforts for women's rights faced significant resistance. His
campaigns against child marriage, for widow remarriage, and against polygamy were met
with lukewarm responses, and sometimes even strong opposition from society. The only
success he had was the passing of the Hindu Widow Remarriage Act of 1856, but after 1857,
the colonial government stopped supporting progressive reforms, despite Vidyasagar's
continued efforts. Issues like child marriage and polygamy were left unaddressed until after
India gained independence.
Vidyasagar’s influence, however, cannot be measured solely by his immediate success. On
his 200th birth anniversary, it is more important to recognize his long-term impact on Indian
society. Two major reforms introduced by the Indian government—the abolition of child
marriage and polygamy—owe much to Vidyasagar’s efforts. His work brought attention to
the oppression of women, a neglected issue in Indian society at the time.
Vidyasagar also influenced the Indian education system. He was one of the first to
recommend the use of the mother tongue in education, a concept later adopted by
Rabindranath Tagore. Even today, educationists like Anand Kumar advocate for teaching in
the mother tongue, a practice that Vidyasagar pioneered.
However, some problems in the education system that Vidyasagar criticized in 1855 still
persist. The *Calcutta Review* of that time criticized the education system for focusing on
rote learning and not encouraging critical thinking. Despite numerous educational reforms
since India's independence, this issue remains unresolved.
In conclusion, while Vidyasagar may not have achieved all his goals in his lifetime, his
contributions continue to shape modern India. His advocacy for women's rights, education,
and social reform laid the groundwork for many of the changes that came later, and his
influence is still felt today.