Mathematics

Matrices

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Table of Content

1. Definition.
2. Order of a matrix.
3. Equality of matrices.
4. Types of matrices.
5. Addition and subtraction of matrices.
6. Scalar multiplication of matrices.
7. Multiplication of matrices.
8. Positive integral powers of a matrix.
9. Matrix polynomial.
10. Transpose of a matrix.
11. determinants of a matrix.
12. Special types of matrices.
13. Adjoint of a square matrix.
14. Inverse of a matrix.
15. Elementary transformation or Elementary operations of
a matrix.
16. Elementary matrix.
17. Rank of matrix.
18. Echelon form of a matrix.
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19. System of simultaneous linear equations.
20. Solution of a non-homogeneous system of linear
equations.
21. Cayley-Hamilton theorem.
22. Geometrical transformations.
23. Matrices of rotations of axes.

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1. Definition.

A rectangular arrangement of numbers (which may be real or complex numbers) in rows and columns, is
called a matrix. This arrangement is enclosed by small ( ) or big [ ] brackets. The numbers are called the
elements of the matrix or entries in the matrix. A matrix is represented by capital letters A, B, C etc. and
its elements by small letters a, b, c, x, y etc. The following are some examples of matrices:
a 
1 4  2  i 3 2 
A  , B  , C  [1, 4, 9] , D   g , E  [l]
2 3   1  3  i  5
 h 

2. Order of a Matrix.

A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m×n or simply m×n matrix (read as 'an
m by n matrix). A matrix A of order m×n is usually written in the following manner

 a11 a12 a13 ...a1 j ...a1n 

a a 22 a 23 ...a 2 j ...a 2 n 
 21
 ..... ..... ..... ..... .....  i  1, 2,.....m
A  or A  [a ij ]m n , where
 a i1 ai2 a i3 ...a ij ...a in  j  1, 2,.....n
 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 
 
a m 1 am 2 am 3 ...a mj ...a mn 

3  1 5 
Here aij denotes the element of ith row and jth column. Example: order of matrix   is 2×3
6 2  7 

Note: A matrix of order m×n contains mn elements. Every row of such a matrix contains n elements and every
column contains m elements.

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3. Equality of Matrices.

Two matrix A and B are said to be equal matrix if they are of same order and their corresponding
1 6 3  a a 2 a 3 
elements are equal Example: If A    and B   1  are equal matrices.
5 2 1  b1 b 2 b 3 

Then a1  1, a 2  6, a3  3, b1  5, b 2  2, b 3  1

4. Types of Matrices.

(1) Row matrix: A matrix is said to be a row matrix or row vector if it has only one row and any number
of columns. Example: [5 0 3] is a row matrix of order 1× 3 and [2] is a row matrix of order 1×1.

(2) Column matrix: A matrix is said to be a column matrix or column vector if it has only one column
 2
and any number of rows. Example:  3  is a column matrix of order 3×1 and [2] is a column matrix of
  6 
order 1×1. Observe that [2] is both a row matrix as well as a column matrix.

(3) Singleton matrix: If in a matrix there is only one element then it is called singleton matrix.
Thus, A  [aij]mn is a singleton matrix if m  n  1 Example: [2], [3], [a], [–3] are singleton matrices.

(4) Null or zero matrix: If in a matrix all the elements are zero then it is called a zero matrix and it is
generally denoted by O. Thus A  [aij ]mn is a zero matrix if aij  0 for all i and j.

0 0  0 0 0 
Example: [0],  ,  , [0 0] are all zero matrices, but of different orders.
0 0  0 0 0 

(5) Square matrix: If number of rows and number of columns in a matrix are equal, then it is called a square
 a11 a12 a13 
matrix. Thus A  [aij ]m n is a square matrix if m  n . Example : a 21 a 22 a 23  is a square matrix of order
a 31 a 32 a 33 
3×3
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(i) If m  n then matrix is called a rectangular matrix.

(ii) The elements of a square matrix A for which i  j, i.e. a11 , a22 , a33 ,....ann are called diagonal elements
and the line joining these elements is called the principal diagonal or leading diagonal of matrix A.

(iii) Trace of a matrix: The sum of diagonal elements of a square matrix. A is called the trace of matrix A ,
n
which is denoted by tr A. tr A  a
i1
ii  a11  a 22  ...ann

Properties of trace of a matrix: Let A  [aii ]nn and B  [bij ]nn and  be a scalar

(i) tr(A)   tr( A)

(ii) tr( A  B)  tr( A)  tr (B)
(iii) tr( AB)  tr(BA)
(iv) tr ( A)  tr ( A' ) or tr ( A T )
(v) tr (In )  n
(vi) tr (0)= 0
(vii) tr ( AB)  tr A . tr B

(6) Diagonal matrix: If all elements except the principal diagonal in a square matrix are zero, it is called
a diagonal matrix. Thus a square matrix A  [aij] is a diagonal matrix if aij  0, when i  j .

2 0 0 
Example: 0 3 0  is a diagonal matrix of order 3×3, which can be denoted by diag [2, 3, and 4]
0 0 4 

Note: No element of principal diagonal in a diagonal matrix is zero.

 Number of zeros in a diagonal matrix is given by n 2  n where n is the order of the matrix.
 A diagonal matrix of order n  n having d1 , d 2 ,....., d n as diagonal elements is denoted by diag [d 1 , d 2 ,..., d n ] .

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(7) Identity matrix: A square matrix in which elements in the main diagonal are all '1' and rest are all
zero is called an identity matrix or unit matrix. Thus, the square matrix A  [aij ] is an identity matrix, if
1, if i  j
aij  
0, if i  j
We denote the identity matrix of order n by In .
 1 0 0
1 0   
Example: [1],   ,  0 1 0  are identity matrices of order 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
 0 1   0 0 1
 

(8) Scalar matrix : A square matrix whose all non-diagonal elements are zero and diagonal elements are
 , if i  j
equal is called a scalar matrix. Thus, if A  [aij ] is a square matrix and aij   , then A is a scalar
0, if i  j
matrix.
5 0 0 
1 0   
Example: [2],  , 0 5 0  are scalar matrices of order 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
 0 1  0 0 5 
 

Note: Unit matrix and null square matrices are also scalar matrices.

(9) Triangular Matrix: A square matrix [aij ] is said to be triangular matrix if each element above or below
the principal diagonal is zero. It is of two types
(i) Upper Triangular matrix: A square matrix [aij ] is called the upper triangular matrix, if aij  0 when i  j .

3 1 2
Example: 0 4 3  is an upper triangular matrix of order 3×3.
0 0 6 

(ii) Lower Triangular matrix: A square matrix [aij ] is called the lower triangular matrix, if aij  0 when i<
j.
1 0 0 
Example:  2 3 0  is a lower triangular matrix of order 3×3.
4 5 2 

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 n(n  1)
Note: Minimum number of zeros in a triangular matrix is given by where n is order of matrix.
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 Diagonal matrix is both upper and lower triangular.
 A triangular matrix a  [aij ]nn is called strictly triangular if aij  0 for 1  i  n

5. Addition and Subtraction of Matrices.

If A  [aij ]m n and B  [b ij ]m n are two matrices of the same order then their sum A+B is a matrix whose
each element is the sum of corresponding elements. i.e. A  B  [aij  b ij ]mn

5 2 1 5   5  1 2  5  6 7 
Example: If A  1 3  and B   2 2  , then A  B  1  2 3  2   3 5 
  
4 1  3 3  4  3 1  3  7 4 

Similarly, their subtraction A  B is defined as A  B  [aij  b ij ]mn

 5  1 2  5  4  3
i.e. in above example A  B  1  2 3  2     1 1 
4  3 1  3   1  2 
Note: Matrix addition and subtraction can be possible only when matrices are of the same order.

Properties of matrix addition: If A, B and C are matrices of same order, then

(i) A  B  B  A (Commutative law)
(ii) ( A  B)  C  A  (B  C) (Associative law)
(iii) A  O  O  A  A, Where O is zero matrix which is additive identity of the matrix.
(iv) A  ( A)  0  ( A)  A , where ( A) is obtained by changing the sign of every element of A, which is
additive inverse of the matrix.
A  B  A  C
(v)   B  C (Cancellation law)
B  A  C  A

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6. Scalar Multiplication of Matrices.

Let A  [aij ]m n be a matrix and k be a number, then the matrix which is obtained by multiplying every
element of A by k is called scalar multiplication of A by k and it is denoted by kA.
2 4  10 20 
Thus, if A  [aij ]m n , then kA  Ak  [ka ij ]mn . Example: If A   3 1  , then 5 A  15
  5 
4 6   20 30 
Properties of scalar multiplication:
If A, B are matrices of the same order and ,  are any two scalars then
(i) ( A  B)  A  B (ii) (  )A  A  A
(iii) (A)  ( A)  (A) (iv) (A)  (A)   ( A)

Note: All the laws of ordinary algebra hold for the addition or subtraction of matrices and their multiplication by
scalars.

7. Multiplication of Matrices.

Two matrices A and B are conformable for the product AB if the number of columns in A (pre-multiplier)
is same as the number of rows in B (post multiplier).Thus, if A  [aij ]m n and B  [b ij ]n p are two matrices
of order m×n and n  p respectively, then their product AB is of order m  p and is defined as
n
( AB)ij  a
r 1
ir b rj

 b1 j 
b 
 [ai1 ai 2 ...ain ] 2 j  = (ith row of A)(jth column of B) .....(i), where i=1, 2, ..., m and j=1, 2, ...p
 
b nj 
Now we define the product of a row matrix and a column matrix.
b 1 
 
Let A  a1 a 2 ....an  be a row matrix and B  b 2  be a column matrix.
  
b n 
Then AB  a1b1  a2 b 2  ....  an bn  …(ii). Thus, from (i),
( AB)ij  Sum of the product of elements of ith row of A with the corresponding elements of jth column of
B.

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Properties of matrix multiplication

If A,B and C are three matrices such that their product is defined, then
(i) AB  BA (Generally not commutative)
(ii) ( AB)C  A(BC) (Associative Law)
(iii) IA  A  AI Where I is identity matrix for matrix multiplication
(iv) A(B  C)  AB  AC (Distributive law)
(v) If AB  AC 
 BC (Cancellation law is not applicable)
(vi) If AB= 0 It does not mean that A= 0 or B = 0, again product of two non zero matrix may be a zero
matrix.

Note: If A and B are two matrices such that AB exists, then BA may or may not exist.
 The multiplication of two triangular matrices is a triangular matrix.
 The multiplication of two diagonal matrices is also a diagonal matrix and
diag (a1 , a 2 ,....an )  diag (b1 , b 2 ,....b n )  diag (a1 b1 , a 2 b 2 ,....an b n )
 The multiplication of two scalar matrices is also a scalar matrix.
 If A and B are two matrices of the same order, then

(i) ( A  B)2  A 2  B 2  AB  BA
(ii) ( A  B 2 )  A 2  B 2  AB  BA
(iii) ( A  B)(A  B)  A 2  B 2  AB  BA
(iv) ( A  B)(A  B)  A 2  B 2  AB  BA
(v) A(B)  ( A)B  ( AB)

8. Positive Integral Powers of a Matrix.

The positive integral powers of a matrix A are defined only when A is a square matrix. Also then
A 2  A. A , A 3  A. A. A  A 2 A . Also for any positive integers m ,n.
(i) A m A n  A m n
(ii) ( A m )n  A mn  ( A n )m
(iii) I n  I, I m  I
(iv) A 0  In Where A is a square matrix of order n.

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9. Matrix Polynomial.

Let f (x )  a0 x n  a1 x n 1  a 2 x n 2  ...  an 1 x  an be a polynomial and let A be a square matrix of order n.

Then f ( A)  a0 A n  a1 A n 1  a 2 A n 2  ...  an 1 A  an In is called a matrix polynomial.

Example: If f (x )  x 2  3 x  2 is a polynomial and A is a square matrix, then A 2  3 A  2 I is a matrix

polynomial.

10. Transpose of a Matrix.

The matrix obtained from a given matrix A by changing its rows into columns or columns into rows is
called transpose of Matrix A and is denoted by A T or A  .
From the definition it is obvious that if order of A is m×n, then order of A T is n×m
 a1 b1 
a a3 
is a 2 b 2 
a2
Example: Transpose of matrix  1 
b1 b2 b 3  2 3
a 3 b 3  32

Properties of transpose: Let A and B be two matrices then

(i) ( A T )T  A
(ii) ( A  B)T  A T  B T , A and B being of the same order
(iii) (kA )T  kA T , k be any scalar (real or complex)
(iv) ( AB)T  B T A T , A and B being conformable for the product AB
(v) ( A1 A 2 A 3 ..... An 1 An )T  An An 1 ....... A 3 A 2 A1
T T T T T

(vi) I T  I

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11. Determinant of a Matrix.

 a11 a12 a13 

If A  a 21 a 22 a 23  be a square matrix, then its determinant, denoted by |A| or Det (A) is defined as
a 31 a 32 a 33 

a11 a12 a13

| A |  a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33

Properties of determinant of a matrix

(i) | A | Exists  A is square matrix

(ii) | AB | | A || B |

(iii) | A T | | A |

(iv) | kA |  k n | A |, If A is a square matrix of order n

(v) If A and B are square matrices of same order then |AB|=|BA|

(vi) If A is a skew symmetric matrix of odd order then | A |  0

(vii) If A  diag (a1 , a 2 ,.....an ) then | A |  a1 a 2 ...an

(viii)| A | n | A n |, n  N .

12. Special Types of Matrices.

(1) Symmetric and skew-symmetric matrix

(i) Symmetric matrix: A square matrix A  [aij] is called symmetric matrix if aij  a ji for all i, j or A T  A

a h g 
Example:  h b f 
 g f c 

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Note: Every unit matrix and square zero matrix are symmetric matrices.

n(n  1)
 Maximum number of different elements in a symmetric matrix is
2

(ii) Skew-symmetric matrix: A square matrix A  [aij] is called skew- symmetric matrix if aij  a ji for all i,
j

 0 h g

or A   A . Example:   h 0
T
f 
 g  f 0 

Note: All principal diagonal elements of a skew- symmetric matrix are always zero because for any diagonal
element. aij  aij  aij  0
 Trace of a skew symmetric matrix is always 0.

Properties of symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices:

(i) If A is a square matrix, then A  A T , AA T , A T A are symmetric matrices, while A  A T is skew- symmetric
matrix.

(ii) If A is a symmetric matrix, then  A, KA, A T , A n , A 1 , B T AB are also symmetric matrices, where n  N ,
K  R and B is a square matrix of order that of A

(iii) If A is a skew-symmetric matrix, then

(a) A 2 n is a symmetric matrix for n  N ,
(b) A 2 n 1 is a skew-symmetric matrix for n  N ,
(c) kA is also skew-symmetric matrix, where k  R ,
(d) B T AB is also skew- symmetric matrix where B is a square matrix of order that of A.

(iv) If A, B are two symmetric matrices, then

(a) A  B, AB  BA are also symmetric matrices,
(b) AB  BA is a skew- symmetric matrix,
(c) AB is a symmetric matrix, when AB  BA .

(v) If A,B are two skew-symmetric matrices, then

(a) A  B, AB  BA are skew-symmetric matrices,
(b) AB  BA is a symmetric matrix.

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(vi) If A a skew-symmetric matrix and C is a column matrix, then C T AC is a zero matrix.

(vii) Every square matrix A can uniquelly be expressed as sum of a symmetric and skew-symmetric matrix
i.e.
1  1 
A   ( A  A T )   ( A  A T ) .
2  2 

(2) Singular and Non-singular matrix: Any square matrix A is said to be non-singular if | A |  0, and a
square matrix A is said to be singular if| A |  0 . Here | A | (or det(A) or simply det |A| means
corresponding determinant of square matrix A.
2 3 2 3
Example: A    then| A |   10  12  2  A is a non-singular matrix.
4 5  4 5

(3) Hermitian and skew-Hermitian matrix: A square matrix A  [aij ] is said to be hermitian matrix if
 3 3  4 i 5  2i 
 a b  ic 
aij  a ji i. j i.e. A  A . Example: 

 , 3  4 i 5  2  i are Hermitian matrices.
b  ic d 
 5  2i  2  i 2 

Note: If A is a Hermitian matrix then aii  aii  aii is real i, thus every diagonal element of a Hermitian matrix
must be real.
 A Hermitian matrix over the set of real numbers is actually a real symmetric matrix and a square matrix, A=|aij| is

said to be a skew-Hermitian if aij  a ji . i, j i.e. A   A .

 3i  3  2i  1  i 
 0  2  i 
Example:   ,  3  2i  2i  2  4 i are skew-Hermitian matrices.
 2  i 0   1i
 2  4i 0 
 If A is a skew-Hermitian matrix, then aii  aii  aii  aii  0 i.e. aii must be purely imaginary or zero.
 A skew-Hermitian matrix over the set of real numbers is actually a real skew-symmetric matrix.

(4) Orthogonal matrix: A square matrix A is called orthogonal if AA T  I  A T A i.e. if A 1  A T

 cos   sin    cos  sin  
Example: A    is orthogonal because A 1     AT
 sin  cos    sin  cos  
In fact every unit matrix is orthogonal.

(5) Idempotent matrix: A square matrix A is called an idempotent matrix if A 2  A .

1 / 2 1 / 2  1 / 4  1 / 4 1 / 4  1 / 4  1 / 2 1 / 2 
Example:   is an idempotent matrix, because A 2      A.
1 / 2 1 / 2  1 / 4  1 / 4 1 / 4  1 / 4  1 / 2 1 / 2 

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 1 0  0 0 
Also, A    and B    are idempotent matrices because A 2  A and B 2  B .
0 0  0 1 
In fact every unit matrix is indempotent.

(6) Involutory matrix: A square matrix A is called an involutory matrix if A 2  I or A 1  A

1 0  1 0 
Example: A    is an involutory matrix because A 2   I
0 1  0 1 
In fact every unit matrix is involutory.

(7) Nilpotent matrix: A square matrix A is called a nilpotent matrix if there exists a p  N such that
Ap  0
0 0  0 0 
Example: A    is a nilpotent matrix because A  0 0   0
2
(Here P = 2)
 1 0   

(8) Unitary matrix: A square matrix is said to be unitary, if A' A  I since | A  | | A | and | A ' A | | A '|| A |
therefore if A  A=I, we have | A '|| A |  1
Thus the determinant of unitary matrix is of unit modulus. For a matrix to be unitary it must be non-
singular.
Hence A  A  I  A A   I

(9) Periodic matrix: A matrix A will be called a periodic matrix if A k 1  A where k is a positive integer. If,
however k is the least positive integer for which Ak 1  A, then k is said to be the period of A.

 f (x ) g(x ) dA  f (x ) g (x )

(10) Differentiation of a matrix: If A    then  is a differentiation of matrix
h(x ) l(x )  dx h(x ) l(x ) 
A.
 x 2 sin x  dA 2 x cos x 
Example: If A    then 
2 x 2  dx  2 0 
(11) Submatrix : Let A be m×n matrix, then a matrix obtained by leaving some rows or columns or both,
2 1 0 
of A is called a sub matrix of A. Example : If A'  3 2 2  and 
2 2 
 are sub matrices of matrix
5 3 
 2 5 3 
 2 1 0  1
A  3 2 2 4 
 2 5 3 1 

(12) Conjugate of a matrix: The matrix obtained from any given matrix A containing complex number
as its elements, on replacing its elements by the corresponding conjugate complex numbers is called

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 1  2i 2  3i 3  4 i
conjugate of A and is denoted by A . Example: A  4  5 i 5  6 i 6  7 i  then
 8 7  8i 7 
 1  2i 2  3i 3  4 i
A  4  5 i 5  6 i 6  7 i
 8 7  8i 7 

Properties of conjugates:
 
(i) A  A

(ii)  A  B   A  B

(iii) (A)   A,  being any number

(iv) ( AB)  A B , A and B being conformable for multiplication.

(13) Transpose conjugate of a matrix: The transpose of the conjugate of a matrix A is called
transposed conjugate of A and is denoted by A  . The conjugate of the transpose of A is the same as the
transpose of the conjugate of A i.e. ( A)  ( A )  A .

If A  [aij ]mn then A  [b ji ]nm where b ji  a ij i.e. the ( j, i)th element of A   the conjugate of (i, j)th element of
A.

1  2i 2  3i 3  4 i  1  2i 4  5 i 8 
Example: If A  4  5 i 5  6 i 6  7 i  , then A   2  3i 5  6 i 7  8 i
   
 8 7  8i 7  3  4 i 6  7 i 7 

Properties of transpose conjugate

(i) ( A  )  A

(ii) ( A  B)  A   B 

(iii) (kA )  K A , K being any number

(iv) ( AB)  B A

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13. Adjoint of a Square Matrix.

Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n and let C ij be cofactor of aij in A. Then the transpose of the
matrix of cofactors of elements of A is called the adjoint of A and is denoted by adj A
Thus, adj A  [C ij ]T  (adj A)ij  C ji  cofactor of a ji in A.
T
 a11 a12 a13   C11 C12 C13  C11 C 21 C 31 
If A  a 21 a 22 
a 23 , then adj A  C 21 C 22 C 23   C12
 C 22 C 32 ;
a 31 a 32 a 33  C 31 C 32 C 33  C13 C 23 C 33 

Where C ij denotes the cofactor of a ij in A.

p q
Example: A   , C11  s, C12  r, C 21  q, C 22  p
r s
T
 s  r  s  q
 adj A     
 q p   r p 

Note: The adjoint of a square matrix of order 2 can be easily obtained by interchanging the diagonal elements and
changing signs of off diagonal elements.

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