Wave Energy Converter Modeling in the Frequency

Domain: A Design Guide

Bret Bosma, Zhe Zhang, Ted K.A. Brekken,
H. Tuba Özkan-Haller, Cameron McNatt,
Solomon C. Yim
College of Engineering
Oregon State University
Corvallis, USA

Abstract—Wave energy converter research continues to validation of the merits of the design under operational sea
advance and new developers are continuing to emerge, leading conditions. In order to start a design, the detail of the end
to the need for a general modeling methodology. This work product does not need to be known, however the general
attempts to outline the design methodology necessary to shape and design philosophy is needed. The idea at this
perform frequency domain analysis on a generic wave energy stage of the design process would be to create as simple a
converter. A two-body point absorber representing a generic model as possible and start getting rough numbers for power
popular design was chosen and a general procedure is output and performance characteristics. Several texts
presented showing the process to obtain first pass preliminary describing the theory behind ocean waves and structure
performance results. The result is a design guide that new
interaction exist, which include [1],[2],[3]. Also, many
developers can adapt to their particular design and wave
conditions, which will provide the first steps toward a cost of
papers on the subject exist, including [4],[5]. Development
energy estimate. This will serve the industry by providing a of a scaled wave energy converter is described in [6]. In
sound methodology to accelerate the new development of wave addition, a numerical benchmark study of different wave
energy converters.1 energy converters is presented in [7].
Frequency domain analysis provides a good first step in
I. INTRODUCTION the design process. Goals of frequency domain modeling
Wave Energy Converter (WEC) design is still in its include defining the parameters of the WEC, defining a
infancy with significant research going into the design of mooring configuration and power take off system, and
new devices. Unlike the wind industry where a clear proven getting a first impression of how the device will perform.
topology has been established, the wave energy industry is Because frequency domain analysis is intrinsically linear,
still looking for its first grid tied industrial scale wave many real nonlinear effects which become prominent under
generation site. As developers attempt to prove the merit of high and extreme sea conditions are not taken into account
new designs a standard methodology is needed for the initial and results should be viewed with this in mind [5]. More
modeling of said devices. detailed analysis will no doubt follow, but frequency domain
analysis provides an insightful look at a preliminary design
Assuming that a rough physical WEC design has been and WEC performance for normal energy conversion
chosen, frequency domain analysis is the first step in the operation. Basic shape optimization, identification of
resonant frequencies of the device, structure loading due to
This material is based upon work supported by the Department of
Energy under Award Number DE-FG36-08GO18179.
wave pressures, general frequency response characteristics,
This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an and power output characteristics are to be gained by this
agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States analysis.
Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes
any warranty, expressed or implied, or assumes any legal liability or During the process of developing a WEC model, many
responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any results are relevant. In particular Response Amplitude
information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that is Operators (RAOs), Froude Krylov forces, diffraction forces,
use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any added mass, and radiation damping forces in the frequency
specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark,
manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its
domain are useful. Hydrostatic results can also provide
endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States insight into the design. An iterative approach to changing
Government or any agency thereof. Their views and opinions of the authors shape design and characterizing the system can help improve
expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United the design, providing greater power output. This would be a
States Government or any agency thereof.

978-1-4673-0803-8/12/$31.00 ©2012 IEEE 2099

 Frequency Domain Analysis (Linear) – Relatively fast simulation time/First approximation and evaluation of design

Device Parameters
(Solid model, Mass properties,etc)
Response Amplitude Operator (RAO)

Mooring Model (Linearized) Added Mass A(ω), Linear Damping B(ω)

Frequency Domain
Modeling Tool
PTO Model (Linearized) (eg. Aqwa, WAMIT) Mooring and PTO Forces

Power output
Wave Resource
S(ω)

Figure 1. High level block diagram of inputs and outputs of frequency domain model.

first step in the process to estimate a cost of energy for the ̈ (2)
device.
where is the mass, is the vertical displacement, and
For this paper a generic two-body point absorber was are the total forces on the body. The types of wave
used as an example of the design process. This is a popular forces on a body include viscous and non-viscous forces.
design which several companies have pursued or are The viscous forces include form drag and friction drag.
pursuing. Two general-purpose representative software Form drag is a function of the shape of the object. A body
products, ANSYS Aqwa[8] and SolidWorks[9] were used in with a large apparent cross-section will have a larger drag
this modeling process, however several other modeling and than a body with a smaller cross-section, therefore presenting
hydrodynamics packages exist. Although these programs higher form drag. Friction drag is caused by the viscous drag
solve for motions (and forces) in six degrees of freedom, for present in the boundary layer around the body. The viscous
convenience of exposition, focus in this presentation will be forces including friction drag are usually relatively small in
on the heave motion of a point absorber. Thus, only motion magnitude and neglected, or represented by a Morrison force
in the z-direction will be analyzed. A high level block term, and will not be discussed in this study.
diagram of inputs and outputs of the representative model is
shown in Fig. 1. Hydrodynamic forces exerted on the body, under the
linear formulation, can be interpreted to include the Froude-
This guide is targeted for researchers and wave energy Krylov force, diffraction force on a “fixed” body, and
converter companies that desire a methodology to follow in superposition of the radiation force due to the motion of the
basic WEC design. It does not provide a novel design; rather body. These forces arise from potential flow wave theory
it provides the background information and suggested and linearization (which allows superposition of the
techniques to expedite the process of designing a WEC. linearized forces). The total (non-viscous) forces acting on a
fixed floating body in regular waves consist of the sum of the
A. Linear Wave Theory
diffraction forces and the Froude-Krylov forces and are
A simple model of the waves is a good place to start denoted as the excitation force as shown in (3). The Froude-
defining the environment of a wave energy converter. Krylov force is a wave induced force on the “fixed” body,
Linear wave theory (also known as Airy wave theory) and its specification does not account for the effects of the
provides such a simple model, which assumes that the fluid presence of the body. It is the incident wave force resulting
flow is irrotational, incompressible, and inviscid, thus from the pressure on the virtual fixed body in the undisturbed
potential flow applies. It also assumes that the mean depth waves. The diffraction force is due to scattering which is a
of water is uniform and that the wave amplitude is small. combination of wave reflection and diffraction.
Airy waves can be modeled as the following
(3)
(1)
where is the excitation force, is the Froude-Krylov
where ω is the frequency in radians/sec and is the wave force and is the diffraction force. In this theory, an
number and is the water surface elevation. The assumption is made that the dimensions of the body are
modeling at this stage utilizes these sinusoidal (also called sufficiently large in comparison to the wavelength of the
harmonic) linear waves. incoming wave such that the incoming waves acting on the
B. Forces on Structures body are diffracted by the presentation of the body. The
interpretation of the Froude-Krylov force is that the pressure
In order to ultimately define the potential power output field of the wave is not affected by the presence of the body
from a wave energy device one must start with defining the is purely for convenience and is an artifact of linearization.
forces acting on a structure. The governing equation of
motion in the time domain is

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 theoretically be extracted. In order to calculate the RAO for
Equation of Motion
Fluid Force on Structure a given structure a general equation of motion is defined.
(7)
Hydrodynamic Hydrostatic
where is the mass of the structure, is the radiation
Wave Exciting Radiation
force, is the hydrostatic force, is the excitation
Force (Fe) Force (Fr) wave force (both incident and diffracting forces) and is
the heave response. Fig. 2 shows the relationship between
Added Mass Radiation
the terms in (7). This equation then leads to the RAO given
Froude-Krylov Diffraction
Ma(ω) Damping Fr(ω) as

Fe(ω) -ω2Ma(ω)Z(ω) jωC(ω)Z(ω) KZ(ω)

 (8)
( )
Figure 2. Equation of motion terms of fluid forces on a structure.
The RAO is a complex quantity and it is common to
The important physics that is enforced is that there is no flow define the RAO as the magnitude of (8) when the phase
through the (fixed) rigid body. difference between the incident wave and motion of the
device is not of interest. However, the phase can be
The radiation force due to structure motion can be important in optimizing power output as a 180 degree phase
decomposed into an added mass and a radiation damping shift between the float and spar velocity will maximize the
term as shown in (4). This hydrodynamic force is induced generator speed.
by the structure’s oscillation, which in turn generates waves.
The “added mass” force component is in phase and the D. Workflow
“radiation damping” term is out of phase with the body The workflow required to achieve frequency domain analysis
motion. The added mass can be thought of as an added will be useful for the designer in the design process. The
inertia on the body undergoing harmonic oscillation due to first task is to create a computer model of the device to feed
the presence of the surrounding fluid. The “radiation
damping” is caused by the motion of the body in a fluid,
generating out-going waves carrying energy to infinity and in
phase with the body velocity thus acting as a velocity
proportional “damping force”.
( ) (4)
where is the added mass, is the radiation
damping, and is the heave motion and is the
imaginary unit.
The hydrostatic restoring or buoyancy force is exactly
that, a force trying to return the structure to hydrostatic
equilibrium. This force originates from the static pressure
term because the wet surface of the body is exposed to
varying hydrostatic pressures as a result of its oscillations.
The hydrostatic stiffness is as follows
(5)
where is the density of the water, is the acceleration of
gravity, and is the cross-sectional area of the wetted
surface. This leads to the definition of the hydrostatic force
defined as
(6)

C. RAOs
Response Amplitude Operators (RAOs) are transfer
functions which determine the effect a sea state will have on
a structure in the water. This can be useful in determining
the frequencies at which maximum amount of power can Figure 3. Generic WEC example. A massless, stiff connection between
the spar and damper is present, but not shown. All dimensions in meters.

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 Frequency Domain Analysis (Linear)

Aqwa

Workbench Aqwa LINE Aqwa LIBRIUM Aqwa FER

Wave Resource Mooring and PTO Wave Resource

Frequencies Design Spectrum

Define Geometry
3-D Diffraction and Equilibrium and Frequency Domain
Process Results
Radiation Analysis Stability Analysis Analysis
Define Mass
Properties

Change PTO
Damping

Hydrostatic
Froude-Krylov
Diffraction Mooring Forces
Added Mass Static and Dynamic PTO Forces
Radiation Damping RAOs
Stability Power Output

Figure 4. Example workflow for frequency domain analysis.

to the hydrodynamics package. Next, the hydrodynamics damping plate are locked together for the simulation. In a
package would be applied. Although the approach outlined final design there would be a truss structure between the spar
here is presented in the context of Aqwa, the general and damper but for initial simulation this is ignored.
approach can be applied to any hydrodynamics program with
minor modifications. Post processing can also be achieved A. Solid Model
with many different tools. As an example of the process, Once a concept for a design is developed, the first step in
MATLAB and Excel were used to post process the data analysis is creating a representation of the geometry of the
provided by Aqwa. The workflow decision tree for this device. This may take the form of a solid model, surface
design is shown in Fig. 4. model, etc. In this example a solid model was used. There
are several modeling packages available with which to
II. DEVICE GEOMETRY develop a solid model. It is important to research the
Given an idea for a wave energy converter, a computer geometric formats required by the hydrodynamic tool that
model representation of the device needs to be created at this shall be used.
stage. There are different methods of defining device Beyond providing a convenient user interface for
geometry. The method chosen is dictated by the developing a model, packages such as Solidworks can
hydrodynamics package selected. In this example a solid provide valuable information for model simulation such as
model approach is chosen using SolidWorks to define the the center of gravity of bodies, inertia values associated with
geometry. For those using WAMIT, as another example, a bodies, and mass properties. As an alternative, many of the
surface model needs to be created. Ultimately, whichever hydrodynamic software packages including ANSYS Aqwa
program is used, a mesh of the device geometry will be provide a simple modeling platform sufficient for creating
defined. Fig. 3 shows an example of a WEC geometry. basic shapes and devices.
There are three bodies for this model, including a float,
center spar, and damping plate. The center spar and 1) Solidworks

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Most WEC designs will be multi-bodied devices and in this simplified calculations by the hydrodynamics package by
case will be combined as an assembly of parts. In the treating quantities as being referenced to the center of mass
generic point absorber example a separate body was created or treating a body as if its entire mass is concentrated at the
for the float, spar, and damper plate. The spar and damper center of mass.
are fixed together in the hydrodynamics package and the
only relative motion is between the float and spar/damper. Significant thought should be given to where the center
The reason for this has to do with the way that the of mass is located in the final design. For the device to be
hydrodynamic package deals with the interface between two stable it needs to have a positive metacentric height. The
bodies. If the proximity of two bodies is small enough, metacenter is calculated as the ratio of the inertia resistance
which is common in most WEC designs, the package of the device divided by the volume of the device. At this
requires time steps so small that it is not practical to run the stage however, device construction materials and all
simulation. Therefore, for this model, there will be three components are most likely not known. Therefore caution
separate bodies, the float and damper plate will interact but should be used to ensure that the center of mass is not in an
there will be no interaction between the spar and the float. unreasonable position.

Once the solid bodies have been modeled, characteristics III. WAVE RESOURCE DATA
such as inertia values and center of gravity can be gathered In conducting frequency domain analysis a range and
from the modeling program to be fed into the hydrodynamics number of frequencies is specified for a simulation.
program. When the geometry is imported into the solid Hydrodynamic packages often by default have a program
modeling program the static water level needs to be defined controlled setting for frequency range which can be modified
and the body properties detailed. A point mass is defined for to target a specific site if necessary. Water depth is also a
each body with the inertia values specified. critical parameter to be defined in the design process.
A big part of the modeling process includes generating a A. Range and number of frequencies
mesh with which the hydrodynamics program calculates the
By default the range of frequencies may be program
pressures and forces on each mesh element. This is where a
controlled by the hydrodynamics package. This will provide
tradeoff between model accuracy and simulation time and
a range that will include most if not all conditions that the
storage space needs to be made. Although a small mesh size
device might encounter. A total number of frequencies
would be preferred, a rougher mesh provides significantly
should also be chosen where more frequencies provide more
shorter simulation times and smaller output files. Depending
detailed results.
on the complexity of the bodies, and the patience for the
simulation, a mesh size can be determined. The larger mesh If one wishes to target a specific site with a targeted
size that is chosen, the faster results are obtained, however range of frequencies this is possible. For example, the
the smaller the mesh size, the more accurate the results will National Data Buoy Center (NDBC)[10] provides historical
be. Take note that a single mesh size does not have to be data for many locations around the world. For example, if a
used. A finer mesh can and was used near the interface site near the NDBC Stonewall Banks buoy was chosen,
between two bodies. This practice will lead to greater historical data shows that a range of frequencies of 0.125 Hz
accuracy of results. to 0.3 Hz would capture the wave frequencies found at that
site.
B. Mass Properties
1) Moments of inertia B. Wave directions
Moments of inertia provide a measure of a bodies Technically, if the device is symmetrical about the z-axis,
resistance to change in its state of rotation. For example, in a there is no need to calculate multiple incident wave angles.
hydrodynamic package such as Aqwa, mass and inertia In practice, however more accurate results will be obtained
values can be specified using a point mass approach. Inertia by choosing a number of incident wave angles. Increasing
values can either be specified directly or via knowledge of the number of angles has a relatively small impact on
the radius of gyration. This is calculated as the root mean simulation time. A wave range, interval, and number of
square distance of the bodies parts from its center of gravity. intermediate directions can be specified, all in degrees. For
SolidWorks calculates inertia values for the bodies that can an asymmetrical device this can be a critical degree of
then be transferred to Aqwa. By default the mass definition freedom which further complicates the analysis results.
is program controlled so there is no need to input mass
C. Water depth
values. Alternatively, manually specifying the mass is an
option. Water depth is a very important parameter in influencing
power extraction of a WEC device. Power output in shallow
2) Center of mass water can be different from that found in deep water. From
The center of mass is the weighted average location of an analysis perspective, in general, a deep water assumption
the mass of the body. For example, the center of mass is will make for an easier process. However, if there is a
communicated as an XYZ coordinate into Aqwa for each desired location to target, or for specific scaled testing
body. SolidWorks can be used to determine this center of conditions it is important to use the depth in which the
mass using the mass properties dialog. This allows for

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 x 10
5
x 10
5 The current codes intended for WECs have been adapted
8 Float
10
from the ship industry where ship dynamics have been

Added Mass (N/(m/s 2))

Float
Damper 8
studied. In general these vessels are much larger, single
FK+Diff (N/m)

6 Damper
Spar
6 Spar
4
4
bodied structures. Although improving, sometimes the
2 2
application of these codes to smaller, multiple bodies
0 0
interacting, can lead to issues in convergence and accuracy.
0 0.2 0.4
Frequency (Hz)
0.6
Float
0 0.2 0.4
Frequency (Hz)
0.6
This can be partially attributed to the nonlinear effects which
200
Damper
Spar 6
x 10
5
have a greater influence on the performance of the system at

Radiation Damping(N/(m/s))
100
Float
Damper
a smaller scale.
FK+Diff(deg)

4 Spar
0 Hydrostatic results are also included in this stage. Center
-100
2 of gravity, volumetric displacement, center of buoyancy, and
metacentric heights are some of the parameters available.
-200 0
0 0.2 0.4
Frequency (Hz)
0.6 0 0.2 0.4
Frequency (Hz)
0.6 These will help with keeping the proper stability of the
device.

Figure 5.Example 3-D Diffraction and Radiation Analysis results. A. 3-D Diffraction and Radiation Analysis
Once the solid model has been created and imported in
device will operate. For this example a deep water the hydrodynamics package, the first step in analysis is a 3-D
application was used with a depth of 1000 m. diffraction and radiation analysis. This will determine wave
force and structure response calculations as well as
IV. HYDRODYNAMICS SOFTWARE PACKAGES hydrostatic analysis. Outputs include the Froude-Krylov
There are several industry standard hydrodynamic codes forces, diffraction forces, added mass, and damping forces in
available for analysis of WECs. These include WAMIT[11], the frequency domain as shown in Fig. 5.
ANSYS Aqwa, and Orcaflex to name a few. There are also
Note, at this stage, there is no mooring or PTO defined
codes based on WAMIT such as WaveDyn and HydroD.
and the structures are not connected. This is acceptable for
Both WAMIT and ANSYS Aqwa solve the linear water the device specific characteristics, namely the hydrostatics,
wave boundary value problem. They use the Boundary Froude-Krylov, added mass, and radiation parameters.
Element Method (BEM), also known as the panel method However if we would like to get information regarding the
and the integral method, to find diffraction and radiation response amplitude operators, power generation, or mooring
velocity potentials. In general, BEM apply source or dipole characteristics we will have to run further analysis.
functions on the surfaces of submerged bodies, and solve for
their strength so that all boundary conditions are met [12]. B. Equilibrium and Stability Analysis
Once the diffraction and radiation velocity potential fields Equilibrium and stability is the next step in the process.
have been solved, excitation forces, added mass and Static equilibrium and stability of a system under the
damping matrices, as well as wave field pressure, velocity, influence of the following steady forces: gravity, buoyancy,
and surface elevation can be found. Both WAMIT and Aqwa wave drift force, steady wind force, current, thrusters, and
can also find hydrostatic forces and moments. mooring are considered.
The primary difference between the two software This is the stage where the mooring and power take off
packages is the data pre-processing, post processing,
software interface, and supplementary calculations. WAMIT Float
1
does not have a graphical user interface. Its inputs and Damper
RAO (m/m)

outputs are text files that require pre-processing and post- Spar

processing by another program. Aqwa does have a limited 0.5

graphical interface that aids in part of the setup and analysis

of a problem but also uses text files for a significant portion 0
of the modeling process. WAMIT users have high level of 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Frequency (Hz)
0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5

control over setup and access to a wide range of data outputs.

Aqwa has more post-processing computational tools 100 Float
RAO Phase (deg)

including frequency domain analysis, time domain analysis, 50 Damper

and stability calculations. 0
Spar

In the end, at this stage, the excitation force, added mass -50

matrix, damping matrix, and hydrostatic coefficients need to -100

be computed. Both WAMIT and Aqwa compute these values 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
with the same technique. It is left to the user to decide which Frequency (Hz)

software package he feels comfortable using, and whether he

needs additional data or analysis that is provided by only one Figure 6. RAO amplitude and phase for each body.
tool.

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 6
x 10
4
damping:1.0e+004 N/m/s
3.5 damping:8.0e+009 N/m/s
damping:1.6e+010 N/m/s
damping:2.4e+010 N/m/s
3
damping:3.2e+010 N/m/s
damping:4.0e+010 N/m/s
2.5 damping:4.8e+010 N/m/s
damping:5.6e+010 N/m/s
Ppto (W)

2 damping:6.4e+010 N/m/s
damping:7.2e+010 N/m/s
damping:8.0e+010 N/m/s
1.5
damping:8.8e+010 N/m/s
damping:9.6e+010 N/m/s
1

0.5

0
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Frequency(Hz)

Figure 7. Power vs. Frequency plot for multiple damping values, including envelope (thick black line) showing max power
output for each frequency which could be achieved using active damping.

model gets introduced into the system. Equilibrium and E. Power Take Off Model (Linearized)
stability analysis is necessary to move on to both frequency One way to model a power take off (PTO) system is with
and time domain modeling. an articulation allowing rotational motion. For this
C. Frequency Domain Analysis articulation a rotational damping term can be specified.
Therefore, one must convert the rotational damping specified
Frequency domain response allows insight into the RAOs to an equivalent linear damping value to calculate the PTO
and relative velocity measurements which lead to power force. Once that conversion has been made, calculating
output calculations based on power take off implementation
becomes
and mooring application. The hydrodynamic package
calculates the significant response of amplitudes in irregular (9)
waves. It utilizes a linearized stiffness matrix and damping
to obtain the transfer function and response spectrum. The where is the relative velocity between bodies and is
major benefit of this type of analysis is the ability to make a the linear damping value.
systematic parameter study while getting power predictions F. Response Amplitude Operators (RAOs)
for the device. At this stage, a mooring model and power
take off need to be defined to simulate a more complete The hydrodynamic package will provide a Response
system. The following sections describe the models used. Amplitude Operator for each body. A sample output RAO
magnitude and phase plot is shown in Fig. 6. As the plot
D. Mooring Model (Linearized) shows the response drops off for waves with a period lower
The mooring configuration used in this example is a three than around five seconds.
point system. The lines are assumed to be a conventional For example, if a monochromatic wave with an
linear elastic cable. The lines are assumed to have no mass amplitude of 1 m and a frequency of 0.3 Hz is considered,
and geometrically are represented as a straight line. The the resulting heave motion of the float will have a magnitude
stiffness and the unstretched length are the two parameters of approximately 0.65 m and a phase shift of approximately
that need to be specified. 8 deg.
Another option is a single point catenary mooring
system. This can be modeled as a composite elastic catenary V. OUTPUT POWER COMPARISONS
with weight. Mass per unit length and equivalent cross Once the PTO forces are known the next natural step is to
sectional area are properties that need to be defined for this calculate the power output of the device as a function of
type of mooring model. frequency for different damping values. The power for each
frequency was computed using the following equation
There are many more possibilities for mooring a wave
energy converter. The importance of mooring design and (10)
modeling should not be overlooked. Reference [13] shows
many different mooring configurations with detailed where is the relative velocity between the float and the
analysis. damper and is the force applied to the power take off.

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values. An envelope was then developed to show the and Technology, 1996.
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what this shows is the amount of power possible if able to Hammagren, Z. Zhang, C. Stillinger, T. Brekken, A.
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is tested. This shows possible resonance peaks around eight 1:7 Scale Wave Energy Converter,” ASME Conf. Proc.,
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potential power output values in the frequency domain.
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