Optical Fiber Communication

Lecture-8

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 1

Types of Modes in Optical Fiber
Guided modes: Those modes are guided by the optical fiber, which means they are experiencing
total internal reflection. Theoretically, an optical fiber can support their propagation indefinitely
unless we take into account the attenuation introduced by the fiber material.
Radiation modes: These modes will not experience total internal reflection and these modes
will propagate outside the fiber core.
Leaky modes: Leaky modes lose power as they propagate along the fiber. For a mode to remain
within the core, the mode must meet certain boundary conditions. A mode remains bound if
𝟐𝝅𝒏𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝟏
the propagation constant 𝜷 meets the boundary condition: <𝜷<
𝝀 𝝀
Where, 𝜷 is propagation constant. And 𝒏𝟏 and 𝒏𝟐 are the index of refraction for the core and
𝟐𝝅𝒏𝟐
the cladding, respectively. When the propagation constant becomes smaller than , power
𝝀
leaks out of the core and into the cladding. Generally, modes leaked into the cladding are lost in
a few centimeters. However, leaky modes can carry a large amount of power in short fibers.

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Phase and Group Velocity:
To understand the difference between phase and group velocity of waves, consider the following
analogy. A group of people, say city marathon runners, start from the starting at the same time.
Initially it would appear that all of them are running at the same speed. As time passes, group
spreads out (disperses) simply because each runner in the group is running with different speed. If
you think of phase velocity to be like the speed of an individual runner, then the group velocity is
the speed of the entire group as a whole. Obviously and most often, individual runners can run
faster than the group as a whole. To stretch this analogy, we note that the phase velocity 𝒗𝒑 of
waves are typically larger than the group velocity 𝒗𝒈 of waves. However, this really depends on the
properties of the medium. The media in which 𝒗𝒈 = 𝒗𝒑 is called the non-dispersive medium. But
the media in which 𝒗𝒑 > 𝒗𝒈 is called normal dispersion. The media in which 𝒗𝒑 < 𝒗𝒈 is called
anomolous dispersive media. It must be emphasized that dispersion is a property of the medium in
which a wave travels. It is not the property of the waves themselves.

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Phase and Group Velocity
Phase velocity: Phase velocity refers to the velocity of a
monochromatic wave, let’s say, the velocity of one of the peaks
of the wave. For example, a monochromatic wave with angular
frequency 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇 (f is the frequency) travelling in +ve z-
direction is given by, 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝐳).
𝝎
Where, 𝜷 is the propagation constant defined by 𝜷 = 𝒏(𝝎)
𝒄
𝝎
And 𝒗𝒑 = 𝜷
Group velocity: On the other hand, group velocity refers to a
group composed of waves within a frequency band ∆ω. Group
velocity is the velocity with which the entire group of waves
would travel.
𝝎𝟐 − 𝝎𝟏 ∆𝝎
𝒗𝒈 = =
𝜷𝟐 − 𝜷 𝟏 ∆𝜷
Phase and group velocity are related through Rayleigh's formula,
𝑑𝑣𝑝
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 − λ 𝑑λ

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Relation between phase and group velocity
𝜔 2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋 𝛽 𝜕𝑣𝑝
𝛽= ,𝛽 = , 𝛽= 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 +
c 𝑐 λ 2𝜋 (− 𝜕𝜆)
𝜕𝜔 𝜕 𝜆2
𝑣𝑔 = = 𝑣 𝛽
𝜕𝛽 𝜕𝛽 𝑝 𝜆2 𝛽 𝜕𝑣𝑝
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 −
𝜕𝑣𝑝 2𝜋 𝜕𝜆
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 +𝛽
𝜕𝛽 𝜆2 𝜕𝑣𝑝
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 −
𝜕𝑣𝑝 𝜆 𝜕𝜆
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 + 𝛽 𝜕𝑣𝑝
2𝜋 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 − 𝜆
𝜕
𝜆 𝜕𝜆
𝛽 𝜕𝑣𝑝
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 + .
2𝜋 𝜕 1
𝜆
𝛽 𝜕𝑣𝑝
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 +
2𝜋 𝜕 1 𝜕𝜆
𝜕𝜆 𝜆

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Electrical and Optical Bandwidth
Bandwidth, BW, by definition, is the frequency range, ∆𝒇,
within which either the power or current output-input ratio
declines to 3 dB of the maximum value. Shown in fig-1.
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑯𝒐𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 ---(1)
𝒑𝒊𝒏

Where, power is measured in watts.

Optical bandwidth: In optics, it’s common practice to
𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝟏
measure bandwidth at half the power level, that is =𝟐
𝒑𝒊𝒏
𝟏
𝑯𝒐𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 (𝟐) = −𝟑𝒅𝑩
So, the bandwidth of an optical fiber is the frequency range
Fig-1: Pulse width defined as full width at half maximum
within which the output power of the information signal (FWHM) power.
drops to half the input value.

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Electrical Bandwidth: A fiber-optic communication system
includes a light source and photodetector. If the bandwidth
of the entire system is to be determined, the ratio of
electrical output power to electrical input power must be
known. But electrical power is proportional to the square of
the current; so, formula (1) becomes:
2
𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐻𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log10 = 10 log10 2 = 20 log10
𝑝𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
To obtain 𝐻𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = −3 𝑑𝐵, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ratio must be 0.707,
𝐼𝑖𝑛
where both currents are measured in amperes.
Therefore, from the formula defined in equation (1) it can
be said that the optical and electrical bandwidth are
different. Thus, to measure electrical bandwidth—the
system bandwidth—the current ratio is used; to measure
optical bandwidth—the bandwidth of the fiber itself—we
Fig: Bandwidth: (a) definition of bandwidth;
use the power ratio. This is why the bandwidth of the (b) electrical and optical bandwidth
optical fiber itself, 𝐵𝑊𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 , is greater than the total
Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 7
bandwidth of the entire system.
Gaussian Beam and Mode Field Diameter
A beam of light does not have strict cross-sectional boundaries. A cross-
sectional beam is most intense in the center and its intensity declining
gradually from the center outward. The most popular model used in
singlemode fibers is a Gaussian curve, given by
𝟐𝒓𝟐
𝑰 𝒓 = 𝑰 𝟎 𝐞𝐱𝐩 − 𝟐
𝒘𝟎
Where, I(r) is the current value of the beam’s intensity at the radius r,
I(0) is the maximum beam intensity at 𝒓 = 𝟎, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑾𝟎 is the mode-field
radius.
Consider figure of a gaussian beam, there is no boundary to a beam’s
intensity and so, theoretically, a beam’s light spreads to infinity.
Mode field Diameter (MFD): Is equal to 𝟐𝒘𝟎 , 𝐢𝐟 we put 𝒓 = 𝒘𝟎 into the
above formula then
𝑰 𝟎
𝑰 𝒓 = 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟓 𝑰(𝟎)
𝒆
So, mode-field diameter, MFD, is the cross-sectional dimension 𝟐𝒘𝟎 ,
𝟏
where the beam’s intensity drops to 𝒆𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟓 of its peak value.

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End of Class-8

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Optical Fiber Communication
Class -9

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 Effective Refractive Index
A light beam propagates in a singlemode fiber mostly within the core and partially within the
cladding (typically, about 20%). This means the fiber’s effective refractive index, 𝒏𝒆𝒇𝒇 , is the
combination of the core and cladding refractive indexes.
Typical dimensions of MFD and core diameters in step-index single mode fibers are 9.3 and
8.3 𝝁𝒎, respectively.

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 Chromatic Dispersion
Chromatic dispersion in single-mode optical fibers consists of
three contributions, namely material dispersion, waveguide
dispersion and Profile dispersion.
Material Dispersion: Material dispersion is caused by the
wavelength dependence of the silica’s refractive index. An
information-carrying light pulse contains different wavelengths
because a light source radiates light of a finite spectral width.
Therefore, the components of the pulse with different
wavelengths will travel within a fiber at different velocities and
will arrive at the fiber end at different times, thus causing the
spread of the pulse.
The amount of pulse spreading caused by material dispersion.
∆𝒕𝒎𝒂𝒕 Τ𝑳 (𝒑𝒔Τ𝒌𝒎) = 𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒕 𝝀 ∆𝝀
Where, 𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒕 (𝝀) measured in (ps/nm.km) is the dispersive
characteristic of the material called the material-dispersion
parameter, ∆𝝀(𝒏𝒎) is the spectiral width of the light source and
𝑳 𝒌𝒎 is the fiber length.

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Material Dispersion Cont..
• At a particular wavelength around 1300 nm,
material dispersion is equal to zero; it is called
the zero-dispersion wavelength, 𝝀𝒅 .
• For 𝝀 < 𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝒏𝒎, 𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒕 𝝀 is negative. This
means that light at a wavelength, say of 1000 nm
travels more slowly than light at a wavelength of
1100 nm.

Fig: Chromatic dispersion parameters of a single mode

fiber as a function of wavelength. 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑡 = material
dispersion; 𝐷𝑤𝑔 = waveguide dispersion; 𝐷 = total
dispersion.

Fig: Wavelength dependent refractive index of bulk

fused silica
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Material Dispersion Cont..
Derivation of the formula for material dispersion:
𝝏𝝎 𝟏
A group of spectral components travels at group velocity: 𝒗𝒈 = and let 𝝉𝒈 = 𝒗 be a propagation delay
𝝏𝜷 𝒈
per kilometer of the path length- a unit propagation delay(ns/km).
Expanding 𝝉𝒈 into the Taylor series:
𝝏𝝉𝒈 𝟐
𝝏 𝝉𝒈
𝟏
𝝉𝒈 𝝀 = 𝝉𝒈 𝝀𝟎 + 𝝉𝒈 𝝀 − 𝝀𝟎 + 𝝀− 𝝀𝟎 𝟐 𝝏𝝀𝟐 + … . (1)
𝝏𝝀 𝟐
where 𝝉𝒈 𝝀𝟎 is the unit propagation delay for the chosen wavelength, 𝝀𝟎 .
Let, 𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒕 𝝀 = 𝝏𝝉𝒈 /𝝏𝝀 (2)
where 𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒕 𝝀 is called the material dispersion parameter, or coefficient. Using the notation ∆𝒕𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒕 =
𝝉𝒈 𝝀 − 𝝉𝒈 𝝀𝟎 and ∆𝝀 = 𝝀 − 𝝀𝟎 the formula (1) is reduced to
∆𝒕𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒕 = 𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒕 𝝀 ∆𝝀 (3)
𝟏
Since 𝝉𝒈 = 𝒗 , the parameter 𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒕 𝝀 can be expressed as follows:
𝒈
𝟏
𝝏𝝉𝒈 𝝏
𝒗𝒈
𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒕 𝝀 = = (4)
𝝏𝝀 𝝏𝝀

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Derivation of the formula for material dispersion cont..
But 𝒗𝒈 = 𝝏𝝎/𝝏𝜷
𝟏 𝝏𝜷
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏𝝎
𝒗𝒈
𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒕 𝝀 = = (5)
𝝏𝝀 𝝏𝝀

𝝎 𝝎𝒏
Since propagation constant 𝜷 = = and refractive index 𝒏 = 𝒏 𝝎
𝒗 𝒄
𝝏𝒏
𝝏𝜷 𝟏 𝝏𝒏 𝝎 𝒏+𝝎𝝏𝝎
= = (6)
𝝏𝝎 𝒄 𝝏𝝎 𝒄
Recalling that 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒄/𝝀 we obtain
𝝏𝜷Τ𝝏𝝎 = [ 𝒏 − 𝝀 𝝏𝒏Τ𝝏𝝀]Τ𝒄 (7)
The group effective refractive index, 𝑵𝒆𝒇𝒇 is given by
𝑵𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝒏 + 𝝎 𝝏𝒏Τ𝝏𝝎, or 𝑵𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝒏 − 𝝀 𝝏𝒏Τ𝝏𝝀
Substituting formula (7) in (5)
𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒕 𝝀 = − 𝝀Τ𝒄 (𝝏𝟐 𝒏Τ𝝏𝝀𝟐 )

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 Waveguide Dispersion
➢ After entering a singlemode fiber, an information-carrying light pulse is
distributed between the core and cladding. Its major portion travels
within the core, the rest within the cladding. Both portions propagate at
different velocities since the core and cladding have different refractive
indexes. The pulse will spread simply because light is confined within a
structure having different refractive indexes—the core-cladding
combination of the fiber.
➢ Waveguide dispersion in a single mode fiber is relatively small compared
with material dispersion.
➢ It depend on wavelength. Indeed, waveguide dispersion depends on the
mode-field distribution between the core and the cladding, that is on
the MFD, but the MFD depends on the wavelength. The longer the
wavelength, the larger the MFD and the larger the fraction of total pulse
power that will travel in the cladding. The cladding portion of the pulse
travels faster than the core portion since the cladding refractive index,
𝒏𝟐 , is less than the core index, 𝒏𝟏 .
➢ The amount of pulse spreading caused by waveguide dispersion, ∆𝒕𝒘𝒈 ,
per unit of length is given by:
∆𝒕𝒘𝒈 Τ𝑳 = 𝑫𝒘𝒈 𝝀 ∆𝝀

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 Profile Dispersion:
Profile dispersion parameter, 𝑫𝒑 𝝀 is
the result of taking into account the
derivative of the relative index with
respect to the operating wavelength,
𝒅∆Τ𝒅𝝀 . The absolute value of this
parameter usually doesn’t exceed 2
ps/nm.km and it is very slightly
dependent on the wavelength.

Chirping in the context of optical communications refers to the phenomenon where the frequency of an optical signal changes over time. This can be either an increase
(up-chirp) or decrease (down-chirp) in frequency

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➢ The chromatic dispersion-parameter in a single mode fiber is the
sum of the material and waveguide dispersion, so
𝑫 𝝀 = 𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒕 𝝀 + 𝑫𝒘𝒈 𝝀 + 𝑫𝒑 𝝀
➢ Pulse spreading caused by chromatic dispersion, ∆𝒕𝒄𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒎 , is given
by
∆𝒕𝒄𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒎 Τ𝑳 = 𝑫 𝝀 ∆𝝀
Where, 𝑫 𝝀 is the chromatic-dispersion parameter of the fiber and
∆𝝀 is the spectral width of the light source.
➢ Manufacturers of optical fiber use the following formula for
calculating the dispersion parameter, 𝑫 𝝀 , they call it as
dispersion coefficient.
𝑺𝟎 𝝀𝟒𝟎
𝑫 𝝀 (𝒑𝒔Τ𝒏𝒎. 𝒌𝒎) = 𝝀− 𝟑
𝟒 𝝀
Where 𝝀𝟎 is the zero-dispersion wavelength (nm), 𝝀 is the operating
wavelength (nm), and 𝒔𝟎 is the zero-dispersion slope (𝒑𝒔Τ𝒏𝒎𝟐 . 𝒌𝒎)
To calculate the dispersion parameter near the zero- dispersion
wavelength , 𝝀𝟎 the following simplified formula can be used:
𝑫 𝝀 = 𝑺𝟎 (𝝀 − 𝝀𝟎 )

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 Dispersion Regime
There are two different dispersion regimes in fibers,
normal-dispersion regime and anomalous-dispersion
regime.
normal-dispersion regime: The fiber is said to exhibit
normal-dispersion when 𝝀 < 𝝀𝑫 . In the normal-dispersion
regime, longer wavelength components in the pulse travel
faster than shorter wavelength components, resulting in
different frequency components arriving the receiver at
different times.
anomalous-dispersion regime: The fiber is said to be in
the anomalous-dispersion regime when 𝝀 > 𝝀𝑫 . In the
anomalous regime, the exact opposite will occur in
comparison to normal-dispersion, that the longer
wavelength components travel slower than the shorter
wavelength components.

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Conventional, Dispersion Shifted, and Dispersion
Flattened Fibers:
The zero-dispersion region is around 1310 nm. But the minimum attenuation occurs around
1550 nm. Therefore, to obtain a singlemode fiber with the best properties, it is necessary
either to move the minimum attenuation point to 1310 nm or shift the minimum dispersion
point to 1550 nm. The attenuation and material dispersion depend on the properties of the
fabricated fiber material and can’t be change by manipulating the fiber design. But the
waveguide dispersion is controlled by the mode-field distribution in the core-cladding guiding
structure. Mode-field distribution is, in turn, determined by the profile of the core’s refractive
index. So, by redesigning the fibre core's refractive-index profile, the waveguide-dispersion
value is changed, which shifts the fibre's minimum chromatic dispersion to the 1550-nm
region.

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Conventional Fiber: The singlemode fiber is called
conventional if its zero-dispersion wavelength is
around 1300 nm. The fiber is so named because this
zero-dispersion wavelength stems from the natural
properties of the fiber material-silica- and the
waveguiding property of a simple step-index fiber.
Dispersion-shifted fiber: To shift the occurrence of
minimum dispersion to the 1550-nm region
manufacturer fabricate fibers with sophisticated
index profiles. The purpose of creating sophisticated
profile of the core refractive index is to increase the
occurrence of waveguide dispersion at the longer
wavelength so that, at approximately 1550 nm,
material and waveguide dispersions cancel each
other out.

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Dispersion-flattened fiber: Wavelength-
division multiplexing technology uses
many wavelengths simultaneously, it
needs with a zero-dispersion property, not
at a single wavelength but distributed
along a region of wavelengths. Thus, the
need for dispersion-flattened fibers arose.

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 Polarization Mode Dispersion:
Even though we call the fiber “singlemode,” it carries two modes under
one name. These modes are linear-polarized waves that propagate
within a fiber in two orthogonal planes, shown in figure. Ideally, each
mode carries half of the total light power. If the fiber is perfect, both
propagate at the same velocity and arrive at the fiber end
simultaneously and the presence of polarized mode is unnoticed. If,
however, the fiber exposes the modes to property changes along the x
and y planes to their propagation, the velocity of the modes will be
affected. They will then begin to travel at different velocities, resulting
in pule spreading. The pulse spreading caused by the change of the
fiber polarization properties is called polarization mode dispersion
(PMD). Is calculated by:
∆𝒕𝑷𝑴𝑫 = 𝑫𝑷𝑴𝑫 𝑳
Where 𝑫𝑷𝑴𝑫 is the coefficient of polarization-mode dispersion
measured in 𝒑𝒔Τ 𝒌𝒎 , and 𝑳 𝒌𝒎 , is the fiber length.
Note: 𝑫𝑷𝑴𝑫 does not depend on wavelength and it depends on the
square root of the fiber length. Polarization mode dispersion is
relatively small compare with chromatic dispersion. But when system
operates at zero-dispersion wavelength, chromatic dispersion drops to
such small numbers that PMD becomes a significant component of the
total dispersion.

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Bandwidth (Bit Rate) of a Singlemode Fiber:
The bit rate, BR, of a fiber link is defined by
𝑩𝑹 < 𝟏Τ 𝟒∆𝒕
Where ∆𝒕 is dispersion-induced pule spreading.
∆𝒕𝒄𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒎 = 𝑫 𝝀 ∆𝝀 𝑳
So, the maximum bit rate limited by chromatic dispersion
𝑩𝑹𝒄𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒎 = 𝟏Τ[𝟒 𝑫 𝝀 ∆𝝀 𝑳]

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End of Class-9

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Class -10

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Coping with Dispersion In a single Mode Fiber
In fact, users want more bandwidth, but we know that it is dispersion that limits bandwidth in optical
fibers. Therefore, reducing dispersion is still one of the major problems confronting the industry.
Coping with Chromatic Dispersion: At the 1550-nm operating wavelength, the regular—that is, the
conventional or unshifted—fiber has a positive dispersion coefficient 𝑫 𝝀 in the range of 𝟏𝟕 −
𝟏𝟖 𝒑𝒔Τ𝒏𝒎. 𝒌𝒎; a non-zero dispersion-shifted fiber has a negative dispersion coefficient of about 𝟐 −
𝟒 𝒑𝒔Τ𝒏𝒎. 𝒌𝒎. These are the orders of magnitude of dispersions we have to cope with. If there is
anything good about chromatic dispersion, it’s its time stability. For installed cabled fiber, the
chromatic-dispersion coefficient is a very stable number.
There are two basic techniques for dispersion compensation: 1) Using dispersion-compensating fiber
(DCF) and dispersion-compensating grating (DCG).

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Dispersion-Compensating Fiber (DCF):
The basic idea is simple: The positive
dispersion can be compensated for by inserting
a piece of a singlemode fiber with a negative-
dispersion characteristic so that the total
dispersion of the link will be almost zero.
Figure: demonstrates the idea in terms of
pulse-spread compensation.

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DCF cont..
Drawbacks of DCF:
First, to make the dispersion highly negative, a designer has to increase the relative index, ∆, to 𝟐. 𝟓%
compared with 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕% for a conventional fiber. The depressed-cladding design can be used to facilitate
achieving this number but ∆+ still should be very high (on the order of 𝟐. 𝟑%). To obtain such a relative
index, the designer has to dope the fiber’s core very heavily. In fact, up to 𝟐𝟓% of the core should be
germanium, added to the silica during the manufacturing process. Doping of this magnitude increases
Rayleigh scattering losses.
Second, high dispersion may be achieved by decreasing the core radius. DCF data shows that MFD of
around 𝟒. 𝟕 𝝁𝒎 is used, resulting, again in increasing scattering loss. For this reason—heavy doping and
small core size —attenuation in a DCF is much higher than in a regular fiber.

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 29

DCF cont..
Since, the major problem in using DCF is high attenuation, this dispersion-compensating technique was not
widely used until the optical amplifier became the working tool in fiber optic communications system.
Typically, 17 to 20 km of a DCF is required to compensate for a 120-km span, which results in 8 ot 10 dB of
additional attenuation. It is quite evident that without extra amplification this technique cannot be used.
For a system designer, the combination of an optical amplifier and DCF poses a new challenge. If you place
the DCF immediately after the EDFA , the strength of the amplified light will produce nonlinear effects even
more severe than usual. Hence, the quandary arises as to the ideal placement of the DCF in the link.
Third, A system designer trying to insert a DCF will meet a splicing problem. Arising from the fact that MFDs
of conventional fiber and a DCF are quite different. Indeed, at the 1550-nm operating wavelength, the MFD
of a regular singlemode fiber is about 𝟏. 𝟎𝟓 𝝁𝒎 and the MFD of a DCF is about 𝟒. 𝟕 𝝁𝒎. The common means
of resolving the problem is to insert a piece of interim fiber between the conventional and the DCF, fiber.

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 30

Dispersion Management: Is the term used to refer to the management of dispersion
compensation from the communications-system standpoint. One of the major tasks of this
management program is to choose the right place for the DCF, the sequence for placing the
DCF and the regular fiber, and the lengths of these fibers. The trick is to keep the dispersion
from reaching zero at any given point along the system span while achieving the zero-
dispersion effect at the receiver end. The goal is to maximize the bandwidth of a system,
bearing in minx the system’s ability to re reconfigured and upgraded.
Two-mode dispersion-compensating Fiber (TM-DCF): Singlemode dispersion-compensating
fiber suffers from several drawbacks: high attenuation, low negative dispersion, and a high
level of nonlinearities. Two-mode dispersion-compensating fiber (TM-DCF) has been
developed to overcome these problems. This fiber is designed such that 𝑫 𝝀 has a large
negative value for the second-order, 𝑳𝑷𝟏𝟏 , mode. A negative-dispersion coefficient as high as
− 𝟕𝟕𝟎 𝒑𝒔Τ𝒏𝒎. 𝒌𝒎 has been achieved with this fiber, while attenuation is almost the same as
it is for a singlemode DCF.

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 31

Dispersion Compensating Gratings (DCF):
Fiber Bragg gratings: These devices are based on the well-known principle of diffraction
gratings. The most developed DCGs—at this time—are chirped-fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs).
Gratings implies the periodic structure—that is, a periodic change in the value of the refractive
index of the core. A small portion of light is reflected at each change of the refractive index. All
these reflected portions of light combine into one reflected beam provided that the Bragg
condition is met.
The Bragg condition is : 2Λ𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜆𝐵
Where Λ is the grating period (that is, the distance between two adjacent maximum points of
the periodic refractive index), 𝒏𝒆𝒇𝒇 is the effective core refractive index, and 𝝀𝑩 is the Bragg
central wavelength. This grating works as a mirror, selectively reflecting only one wavelength,
𝝀𝑩 , and transmitting all the others. The word fiber signifies that the grating is implanted in it.
Chirped means that the optical grating period, Λ 𝒏𝒆𝒇𝒇 , changes linearly over the length of the
grating. Thus, chirped FBG reflects not a single wavelength but a set of wavelengths.

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 32

 DCF cont..
The principal of action of DCF is visualized in
figure. An optical circular is used to direct pulses
into and out of FBG.
An input pulse, dispersed after propagating
along a telecommunications fiber, directed to
the grating, where the shorter wavelengths are
reflected almost immediately upon entering
while the longer wavelengths penetrate deeper
into the grating before they will be reflected.
Thus, the device ensures less of a delay for
shorter wavelengths but creates more delays for
longer ones, This is exactly the opposite of the
delay introduced by a singlemode fiber itself.
Therefore, pulse spread caused by chromatic
dispersion in telecommunications fiber is
compensated for by a chirped FBG.

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 33

End of Class-10

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 34

Class-11

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 35

Coping with Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD):
Chromatic dispersion can be compensated for because of its stability, but, because of its random
nature, compensation for PMD is not so straightforward. Obviously, this is true for a regular
singlemode fiber.
Birefringence (B): PMD is caused by the difference indexes along the x axis and the y axis,
𝒏𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒏𝒚 , respectively. This difference is called birefringence. B:
𝑩 = 𝒏𝒙 − 𝒏𝒚
This formula states that 𝒏𝒙 > 𝒏𝒚 ; in other words, y is the fast axis, x the slow axis defined
arbitrarily. Usually the terms fast and slow are used to denote the appropriate axis.
Beat length: This is the length over which the phase difference between the x- and y- polarized
waves changes by 𝟐𝝅.
𝜷 = [𝟐𝝅Τ𝝀] 𝒏𝒙 − 𝒏𝒚
Where 𝜷 is a phase constant, we can define beat length 𝒍𝒑 as:
𝝀
𝒍𝒑 𝒎 = 𝟐𝝅Τ𝜷 = 𝝀ൗ 𝒏𝒙 − 𝒏𝒚 =
𝑩
Thus, beat length is inversely proportional to the fiber’s birefringence, B, and proportional to the
operating wavelength, 𝝀. Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 36
Polarization-maintaining (PM) fibers: Also called polarization-
preserving or Hi-Bi fibers, have very high birefringence
deliberately induced. High birefringence is achieved by
having very high asymmetry in the core and/or cladding. This
asymmetry is made either in the core and cladding shape or
in pre-induced mechanical stress. Both measures result in a
fiber that has well-pronounced slow and fast—in terms of
the velocity of the polarized light propagation—axes. Linear-
polarized light launched along, say, the fast axis will keep its
state of polarization during propagation along the fiber if
high inherent mechanical stress is pre-induced in a PM fiber.
Thus, external stress, always being smaller in magnitude,
cannot significantly change a fiber’s birefringence.
Unfortunately, high attenuation and the high cost of a fiber—
plus costly installation and maintenance—preclude the
widespread use of PM fibers in telecommunication networks.

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 37

Other polarization-maintaining components: To maintain
the state of polarization throughout the entire
communication link—form transmitter to receiver—
besides using PM fibers, other fiber-optic link
components should have to used. This set includes PM
connectors, fiber-optic polarizers (to couple two fibers),
fiber polarization controllers (to convert the state of
polarization within a fiber), PM splitters (to split the
signal between two PM fibers), and rotators/analyzers
(to prepare light for coupling into the fiber and to
measure extinction ratio, ER).

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 38

Fiber nonlinearities:
In optics, the terms linear and nonlinear (Fig. 2.13) mean
‘power independent’ and ‘power dependent’ phenomena
respectively.
The nonlinearities in optical fibers fall into two categories
(Table- 2.1). One is stimulated scattering (Raman and
Brillouin), and the other is the optical Kerr effect due to
changes in the refractive index with optical power. While
stimulated scatterings are responsible for intensity
dependent gain or loss, the nonlinear refractive index is
responsible for intensity dependent phase shift of the Nonlinear Effects in Optical Fibers

optical signal. One major difference between scattering

effects and the Kerr effect is that stimulated scatterings
Kerr effects Stimulated Scattering
have threshold power levels at which the nonlinear effects
manifest themselves while the Kerr effect doesn’t have
such a threshold. SPM XPM FWM SRS SBS

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 39

Fiber nonlinearities:
Optical Kerr effect: The refractive index of silica fiber for
communication is weakly dependent on optical intensity.
And is given by 𝒏 = 𝒏𝟎 + 𝒏𝟐 𝑰 𝒕
where 𝒏𝟎 ≈ 𝟏. 𝟓, 𝒏𝟐 ≈ 𝟑. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟎 𝒎𝟐 Τ𝑾, (for
standard silica fiber)
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰 𝒕 = 𝒐𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚
Although the refractive index is a very weak function of
signal power, the higher power from optical amplifiers
and long transmission distances makes it no longer
Nonlinear Effects in Optical Fibers
negligible in modern optical communication systems. In
fact, phase modulation due to intensity dependent
refractive index induces various nonlinear effects, Kerr effects Stimulated Scattering
namely, self-phase modulation (SPM), cross-phase
modulation (XPM), and four-wave mixing (FWM)
SPM XPM FWM SRS SBS

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 40

Self Phase Modulation (SMP):
The higher intensity portions of an optical pulse encounter a
higher refractive index of the fiber compared with the lower
intensity portions while it travels through the fiber. In fact
time varying signal intensity produces a time varying
refractive index in a medium that has an intensity-
dependent refractive index. The leading edge will experience
a positive refractive index gradient (dn/dt) and trailing edge
a negative refractive index gradient (−dn/dt). This temporally
varying index change results in a temporally varying phase
change, as shown in Fig. The optical phase changes with time
in exactly the same way as the optical signal. Since, this
nonlinear phase modulation is self-induced the nonlinear Fig.: Phenomenological description of spectral broadening of
pulse due to SPM.
phenomenon responsible for it is called as self-phase
modulation.

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 41

Self Phase Modulation (SMP):
Different parts of the pulse undergo different phase shift
because of intensity dependence of phase fluctuations.
This results in frequency chirping. The rising edge of the
pulse finds frequency shift in lower side (red shift)
whereas the trailing edge experiences shift in upper side
(blue shift). Hence primary effect of SPM is to broaden the
spectrum of the pulse, keeping the temporal shape
unaltered. The SPM effects are more pronounced in
systems with high-transmitted power because the chirping
effect is proportional to transmitted signal power.

Fig.: Phenomenological description of spectral broadening of

pulse due to SPM.

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 42

The phase (φ) introduced by a field E over a fiber length L is given by:
𝟐𝝅
𝝓= 𝒏𝑳
𝝀
where λ is wavelength of optical pulse propagating in fiber of refractive index n, and L is known
as optical path length.
For a fiber containing high-transmitted power n and L can be replaced by neff (Effective refractive
index) and Leff ( Effective length) respectively i.e.,
Where
𝟏 − 𝒆−𝜶𝑳
𝒏𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝒏𝒍 + 𝒏𝒏𝒍 𝑰 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒇 =
𝜶
𝒏𝟏 = 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙., 𝒏𝒏𝒍 = 𝑵𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙,
𝑰 = 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕, 𝜶 = 𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 43

 𝟐𝝅
𝝓= 𝒏𝒍 + 𝒏𝒏𝒍 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒇
𝝀
The first term on right hand side refers to linear portion of phase constant (φl) and second term provides
nonlinear phase constant (φnl).
If intensity is time dependent i.e., the wave is temporally modulated then phase (φ) will also depend on
time. This variation in phase with time is responsible for change in frequency spectrum, which is given by

𝒅𝝓
𝝎=
𝒅𝒕

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 44

In a dispersive medium a change in the spectrum of temporally varying pulse will
change the nature of the variation. To observe this, consider a Gaussian pulse,
which modulates an optical carrier frequency ω0 (say) and the new instantaneous
frequency becomes,
𝒅𝝓
𝝎′ = 𝝎𝟎 −
𝒅𝒕
𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝑰
𝝎′ = 𝝎𝟎 − 𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒇 𝒏𝒏𝒍 Fig (a): Gaussian pulse.
𝝀 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒊

di(t)/dt
at leading edge of the pulse > 𝟎 hence
𝒅𝒕
𝝎′ = 𝝎𝟎 − 𝝎 𝒕
𝒅𝒊
and at trailing edge < 𝟎 so,
𝒅𝒕
𝝎′ = 𝝎𝟎 + 𝝎 𝒕
Where,
Fig (b): For a pulse with dI/dt varying as function of time.
𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝑰
𝝎 𝒕 = 𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒇 𝒏𝒏𝒍
𝝀 𝒅𝒕
This shows that the pulse is chirped i.e., frequency varies across the pulse. This
chirping phenomenon is generated due to SPM, which leads to the spectral
broadening of the pulse.
𝒅𝒊
Fig. (a) and (b) show the variation of 𝒊(𝒕) and for a Gaussian pulse. Fig. (c)
𝒅𝒕
shows frequency chirping induced by Self-Phase modulation. Fig (C):Frequency chirping by the effect of SPM.

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 45

There is broadening of the spectrum without any change in temporal distribution in case of
self-phase modulation while in case of dispersion, there is broadening of the pulse in time
domain and spectral contents are unaltered. In other words, the SPM by itself leads only to
chirping, regardless of the pulse shape. It is dispersion that is responsible for pulse
broadening.
Soliton: There is a possibility of compressing the pulse width using SMP. On the other hand, all
types of dispersion, cause pulse widening. Fortunately, we can use SPM to compensate for
dispersion-caused pulse spread to keep the pulse width constant over the entire transmission
distance. Such a pulse, having a constant width, is called a soliton. A soliton either keeps its
width constant or changes it periodically, but its width never exceeds a given value. A soliton,
then, is essentially a nonlinear effect because it is based on SPM.

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 46

Cross-phase Modulation(XPM)
Another nonlinear phase shift originating from the Kerr effect is cross-
phase modulation (XPM). While SPM is the effect of a pulse on it own
phase, XPM is a nonlinear phase effect due to optical pulses in other
channels. Therefore, XPM occurs only in multi-channel systems. In a
Interfering Pulse Signal Pulse
multi-channel system, the nonlinear phase shift of the signal at the
center wavelength 𝝀𝒊 is described by:
𝟐𝝅
𝝓𝑵𝑳 = 𝒏 𝒛 𝑰𝒊 𝒕 + 𝟐 ෍ 𝑰𝒋 𝒕
𝝀𝒊 𝟐
𝒊≠𝒋

The first term is responsible for SPM, and the second term is for XPM. Z= ±Z0
Eq. might lead to a speculation that the effect of XPM could be at least
twice as significant as that of SPM. However, XPM is effective only when
pulses in the other channels are synchronized with the signal of interest. Z= ±Z0 + Lw
When pulses in each channel travel at different group velocities due to
Fig.: Illustration of walk-off distance
dispersion, the pulses slide past each other while propagating. Fig.
illustrates how two isolated pulses in different channels collide with
each other. When the faster traveling pulse has completely walked
through the slower traveling pulse, the XPM effect becomes negligible.
The relative transmission distance for two pulses in different channels to
collide with each other is called the walk-off distance, 𝑳𝒘 .

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 47

Cross-phase Modulation(XPM) Cont…
𝑻𝟎
≈
𝑫∆𝝀
Interfering Pulse Signal Pulse
where To is the pulse width, 𝒗𝒈 is the group velocity,
and 𝝀𝟏 , 𝝀𝟐 are the center wavelength of the two
channels. D is the dispersion coefficient, and ∆𝝀 =
𝝀𝟏 − 𝝀𝟐 .
When dispersion is significant, the walk-off distance is Z= ±Z0

relatively short, and the interaction between the

pulses will not be significant, which leads to a reduced
Z= ±Z0 + Lw
effect of XPM. However, the spectrum broadened due
to XPM will induce more significant distortion of Fig.: Illustration of walk-off distance

temporal shape of the pulse when large dispersion is

present, which makes the effect of dispersion on XPM
complicated.

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 48

Four-wave Mixing (FWM):
Four-wave mixing (FWM), also known as four-photon
Z=0 Km
mixing, is a parametric interaction among optical
waves, which is analogous to intermodulation f2 f f
distortion in electrical systems. In a multi-channel 1

system, the beating between two or more channels Z=Z0 Km

causes generation of one or more new frequencies at 2f1 – f2 f2 f 2f2 – f1 f

the expense of power depletion of the original 1

channels. When three waves at frequencies fi, fj, and Original Frequencies

fk are put into a fiber, new frequency components are New Frequencies

generated at 𝒇𝑭𝑾𝑴 = 𝒇𝒊 + 𝒇𝒋 + 𝒇𝒌 . In a simpler case Fig. : Illustration of side-bands generation due to FWM in two-
channel system
where two continuous waves (CW) at the frequencies
𝒇𝒊 and 𝒇𝟐 are put into the fiber, the generation of side
bands due to FWM is illustrated in Fig.

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 49

 Four-wave Mixing (FWM) Cont:
The number of side bands due to FWM increases
Z=0 Km
geometrically, and is given by,
𝟏 𝟑 f2 f f
𝑴= 𝑵𝒄𝒉 − 𝑵𝟐𝒄𝒉
𝟐 1

where 𝑵𝒄𝒉 is the number of channels, and M is the number of Z=Z0 Km

newly generated sidebands. For example, eight channels can
produce 224 side bands. Since these mixing products can fall 2f1 – f2 f2 f 2f2 – f1 f
1
directly on signal channels, proper FWM suppression is
required to avoid significant interference between signal Original Frequencies
channels and FWM frequency components.
New Frequencies
FWM of a fiber can be suppressed either by increasing channel
Fig. : Illustration of side-bands generation due to FWM in two-channel
spacing or by increasing dispersion. Large dispersion can cause system
unacceptable power penalties especially in high bit rate
systems. However, careful design of the dispersion map (often
called dispersion management) which allows large local
dispersion but limits the total average dispersion to be below a
certain level is found to be very effective to combat both
dispersion and FWM induced degradations.

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 50

Stimulated Scattering:
The Optical Kerr effects are governed by the power dependence of refractive index and are elastic in the sense that no
energy is exchanged between the electromagnetic field and the dielectric medium. A second class of nonlinear effects
results from stimulated inelastic scattering in which the optical field transfers part of its energy to the nonlinear
medium. There are two major types of stimulated scattering
1) Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
2) Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
The main difference between the two is that optical phonons participate in SRS, while acoustic phonons participate in
SBS. In a simple quantum-mechanical picture applicable to both SRS and SBS, a photon of the incident field is
annihilated to create a photon at a downshifted frequency. The new photon is propagated along the original signal in
the same direction in SRS, while the newly generated phonon propagates in the backward direction in SBS.
Furthermore, the downshifted frequency range where new photons can be generated is ~30 THz in SRS and only ~30
MHz in SBS. Therefore, SBS does not impose any significant limitations in high-speed (Gb/s systems) digital light wave
systems. However, SRS can impose some limitations on WDM systems because the effect of SRS is to deplete the
energy of some channels (higher frequency channels) on behalf of the other channels (low frequency channels). The
effect of SRS is not very significant unless the number of channels is more than 100. On the other hand, SRS can be
used for signal amplification in a fiber (so called Raman amplifier).

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 51

End of Class - 11

Prepared by Bijoy Kumer Karmaker 52