Chapter

Bridges 11
INTRODUCTION 11.1
A bridge circuit in its simplest form consists of a network of four resistance arms
forming a closed circuit, with a dc source of current applied to two opposite junc-
tions and a current detector connected
to the other two junctions, as shown in A
I2
Fig. 11.1. I 1

Bridge circuits are extensively R1 R2

used for measuring component values SW1
such as R, L and C. Since the bridge
circuit merely compares the value of C G D
an unknown component with that of I3 I4
an accurately known component (a E

standard), its measurement accuracy R4

R3
can be very high. This is because the
readout of this comparison is based on
B
the null indication at bridge balance,
and is essentially independent of the Fig. 11.1 Wheatstone’s bridge
characteristics of the null detector.
The measurement accuracy is therefore directly related to the accuracy of the
bridge component and not to that of the null indicator used.
The basic dc bridge is used for accurate measurement of resistance and is
called Wheatstone’s bridge.

WHEATSTONE’S BRIDGE (MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE) 11.2

Wheatstone’s bridge is the most accurate method available for measuring
resistances and is popular for laboratory use. The circuit diagram of a typical
Wheatstone bridge is given in Fig. 11.1. The source of emf and switch is connected
to points A and B, while a sensitive current indicating meter, the galvanometer, is
connected to points C and D. The galvanometer is a sensitive microammeter, with
a zero center scale. When there is no current through the meter, the galvanometer
pointer rests at 0, i.e. mid scale. Current in one direction causes the pointer to
deflect on one side and current in the opposite direction to the other side.
 Bridges 323

When SW1 is closed, current flows and divides into the two arms at point
A, i.e. I1 and I2. The bridge is balanced when there is no current through the
galvanometer, or when the potential difference at points C and D is equal, i.e. the
potential across the galvanometer is zero.
To obtain the bridge balance equation, we have from the Fig. 11.1.
I1 R1 = I2 R2 (11.1)
For the galvanometer current to be zero, the following conditions should be
satisfied.
E
I1 = I 3 = (11.2)
R1 + R3
E
I2 = I4 = (11.3)
R2 + R4
Substituting in Eq. (11.1)
E ¥ R1 E ¥ R2
=
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
R1 ¥ (R2 + R4) = (R1 + R3) ¥ R2
R1 R2 + R1 R4 = R1 R2 + R3 R2
R2 R3
R4 =
R1
This is the equation for the bridge to be balanced.
In a practical Wheatstone’s bridge, at least one of the resistance is made
adjustable, to permit balancing. When the bridge is balanced, the unknown
resistance (normally connected at R4) may be determined from the setting of the
adjustable resistor, which is called a standard resistor because it is a precision
device having very small tolerance.
R R
Hence Rx = 2 3 (11.4)
R1

Example 11.1 Figure 11.1 consists of the following parameters. R1 = 10 k,

R2 = 15 k and R3 = 40 k. Find the unknown resistance Rx.

Solution From the equation for bridge balance we have

R1 R4 = R2 R3, i.e. R1 Rx = R2 R3
R2 R3 15 k ¥ 40 k
Therefore Rx = = = 60 kW
R1 10 k

11.2.1 Sensitivity of a Wheatstone Bridge

When the bridge is in an unbalanced condition, current flows through the
galvanometer, causing a deflection of its pointer. The amount of deflection is a
324 Electronic Instrumentation

function of the sensitivity of the galvanometer. Sensitivity can be thought of as

deflection per unit current. A more sensitive galvanometer deflects by a greater
amount for the same current. Deflection may be expressed in linear or angular
units of measure, and sensitivity can be expressed in units of S = mm/mA or
degree/mA or radians/mA.
Therefore it follows that the total deflection D is D = S ¥ I, where S is defined
above and I is the current in microamperes.

11.2.2 Unbalanced Wheatstone’s Bridge

To determine the amount of deflection
that would result for a particular degree
of unbalance, general circuit analysis can
be applied, but we shall use Thevenin’s
theorem.
Since we are interested in determining
the current through the galvanometer, we
wish to find the Thévenin’s equivalent,
as seen by the galvanometer.
Thévenin’s equivalent voltage is
found by disconnecting the galvanom-
eter from the bridge circuit, as shown
in Fig. 11.2, and determining the open- Fig. 11.2 Unbalanced wheatstone’s bridge
circuit voltage between terminals a and b.
Applying the voltage divider equation, the voltage at point a can be determined
as follows
E ¥ R3 E ¥ R4
Ea = and at point b, Eb =
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
Therefore, the voltage between a and b is the difference between Ea and Eb,
which represents Thévenin’s equivalent voltage.
E ¥ R3 E ¥ R4
Eth = Eab = Ea – Eb = -
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
Ê R3 R4 ˆ
Therefore Eab = E Á -
Ë R1 + R3 R2 + R4 ˜¯
Thévenin’s equivalent resistance can be determined by replacing the voltage
source E with its internal impedance R1 R2
or otherwise short-circuited and cal-
culating the resistance looking into
Rs = Internal
terminals a and b. Since the internal Resistance of Rs = 0 W
a b
resistance is assumed to be very low, the Source
we treat it as 0 W. Thévenin’s equiva-
lent resistance circuit is shown in Fig. R3 R4
11.3. Fig. 11.3 Thévenin’s resistance
 Bridges 325

The equivalent resistance of the circuit is R1//R3 in series with R2//R4 i.e.
R1//R3 + R2//R4.
R1 R3 R R
\ Rth = + 2 4
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
Therefore, Thévenin’s equivalent circuit is given in Fig. 11.4. Thévenin’s
equivalent circuit for the bridge, as seen looking back at terminals a and b in Fig.
11.2, is shown in Fig. 11.4. a
If a galvanometer is connected across the
Rth
terminals a and b of Fig. 11.2, or its Thévenin
equivalent Fig. 11.4 it will experience the Eth
same deflection at the output of the bridge.
The magnitude of current is limited by both b
Thévenin’s equivalent resistance and any Fig. 11.4 Thévenin’s equivalent
resistance connected between a and b. The
resistance between a and b consists only of the galvanometer resistance Rg. The
deflection current in the galvanometer is therefore given by
Eth
Ig = (11.5)
Rth + Rg

Example 11.2 An unbalanced

Wheatstone bridge is given in Fig. R1 R2 = 2.5 k
11.5. Calculate the current through 1k
the galvanometer. Rg = 300 W
6V
a b
G
Solution The Thévenin’s equivalent
voltage between a and b is the differ- 3.5 k
ence of voltages at these points i.e.
R3 R4 = 10 k
Eth = Ea – Eb = Eb – Ea.
Ê R4 R3 ˆ
\ Eth = E Á - B
Ë R2 + R4 R1 + R3 ˜¯ Fig. 11.5
Ê 10 k 3.5 k ˆ
Eth = 6 Á -
Ë 2.5 k + 10 k 1 k + 3.5 k ˜¯
Eth = 6 (0.800 – 0.778)
Eth = 0.132 V
Thévenin’s equivalent resistance is
R1 R3 R R
Rth = + 2 4
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
1 k ¥ 3.5 k 2.5 k ¥ 10 k
Rth = +
1 k + 3.5 k 2.5 k + 10 k
326 Electronic Instrumentation

= 0.778 k + 2 k
= 2.778 k Rth = 2.778 k
The equivalent circuit connected along Eth Rg = 300 W G
with the galvanometer is as shown in Fig. 0.132 V
11.6.
The current through the galvanometer is
given by Fig. 11.6 Equivalent circuit
Eth 0.132 V
Ig = = = 42.88 mA
Rth + Rg 2.778 k + 0.3 k

11.2.3 Slightly Unbalanced Wheatstone’s Bridge

If three of the four resistor in a bridge are equal to R and the fourth differs by 5%
or less, we can develop an approximate but accurate expression for Thévenin’s
equivalent voltage and resistance.
Consider the circuit in Fig. 11.7.
The voltage at point a is
E¥R E¥R E
Ea = = =
R+R 2R 2
The voltage at point b is
R + D r ¥ E E(R + D r)
Eb = =
R + R + Dr 2R + Dr
Thévenin’s equivalent voltage
between a and b is the difference Fig. 11.7 Slightly unbalanced Wheatstone’s
between these voltages. bridge
Ê (R + D r) 1 ˆ
Therefore Eth = Ea – Eb = E Á -
Ë 2 R + D r 2 ˜¯
Ê 2( R + D r ) - (2 R + D r ) ˆ
= EÁ ˜¯
Ë 2(2 R + D r )
Ê 2 R + 2 Dr - 2 R - D r ˆ
= EÁ ˜¯
Ë 4 R + 2D r
Ê Dr ˆ
= EÁ
Ë 4 R + 2 D r ˜¯
If D r is 5% of R or less, D r in the denominator can be neglected without
introducing appreciable error. Therefore, Thévenin’s voltage is
E ¥ Dr Ê Dr ˆ
Eth = = EÁ
4R Ë 4 R ˜¯
 Bridges 327

The equivalent resistance can be calculated a

by replacing the voltage source with its
internal impedance (for all practical purpose
short-circuit). The Thévenin’s equivalent R
resistance is given by
R ¥ R R( R + Dr )
Rth = +
R + R R + R + Dr Dr
E
R R( R + Dr ) 4R
= +
2 2 R + Dr
Again, if Dr is small compared to R, D r b
can be neglected. Therefore, Fig. 11.8 Thévenin’s equivalent of a
R R slightly unbalanced Wheatstone’s
Rth = + =R bridge
2 2
Using these approximations, the Thévenin’s equivalent circuit is as shown in
Fig. 11.8. These approximate equations are about 98% accurate if Dr £ 0.05 R.

Example 11.3 Given a centre zero

200 – 0 – 200 mA movement having an
internal resistance of 125 W. Calculate 700 W 700 W
the current through the galvanometer
10 V
given in Fig. 11.9 by the approximation
G
method.

Solution The Thévenin’s equivalent

voltage is 700 W 735 W

E (D r )
Eth =
4R
Fig. 11.9
10 ¥ 35
= = 0.125 V
4 ¥ 700
Thévenin’s equivalent resistance is
Rth = R = 700 W
The current through the galvanometer is
Eth 0.125 V 0.125
Ig = = = = 151.5 mA
Rth + Rg 700 + 125 825
If the detector is a 200 – 0 – 200 mA galvanometer, we see that the pointer is
full scale for a 5% change in resistance.

11.2.4 Application of Wheatstone’s Bridge

A Wheatstone bridge may be used to measure the dc resistance of various types
of wire, either for the purpose of quality control of the wire itself, or of some
328 Electronic Instrumentation

assembly in which it is used. For example, the resistance of motor windings,

transformers, solenoids, and relay coils can be measured.
Wheatstone’s bridge is also used extensively by telephone companies and
others to locate cable faults. The fault may be two lines shorted together, or a
single line shorted to ground.

11.2.5 Limitations of Wheatstone’s Bridge

For low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads and contacts becomes
significant and introduces an error. This can be eliminated by Kelvin’s Double
bridge.
For high resistance measurements, the resistance presented by the bridge
becomes so large that the galvanometer is insensitive to imbalance. Therefore, a
power supply has to replace the battery and a dc VTVM replaces the galvanometer.
In the case of high resistance measurements in mega ohms, the Wheatstones
bridge cannot be used.
Another difficulty in Wheatstone’s bridge is the change in resistance of the
bridge arms due to the heating effect of current through the resistance. The rise in
temperature causes a change in the value of the resistance, and excessive current
may cause a permanent change in value.

KELVIN’S BRIDGE 11.3

When the resistance to be measured is of the order of magnitude of bridge contact
and lead resistance, a modified form of Wheatstone’s bridge, the Kelvin bridge
is employed.
Kelvin’s bridge is a modification of Wheatstone’s bridge and is used to measure
values of resistance below 1 W. In low resistance measurement, the resistance of
the leads connecting the unknown resistance to the terminal of the bridge circuit
may affect the measurement.
Consider the circuit in Fig. 11.10, where Ry represents the resistance of the
connecting leads from R3 to Rx (unknown
resistance). The galvanometer can be
connected either to point c or to point a. When
it is connected to point a, the resistance Ry, of
the connecting lead is added to the unknown
resistance Rx, resulting in too high indication
for Rx. When the connection is made to point c,
Ry is added to the bridge arm R3 and resulting
measurement of Rx is lower than the actual
value, because now the actual value of R3 is
higher than its nominal value by the resistance
Ry. If the galvanometer is connected to point b,
in between points c and a, in such a way that
the ratio of the resistance from c to b and that
from a to b equals the ratio of resistances R1
and R2, then Fig. 11.10 Kelvin’s bridge
 Bridges 329

Rcb R1
= (11.6)
Rab R2
and the usual balance equations for the bridge give the relationship
R1
(Rx + Rcb) = (R3 + Rab) (11.7)
R2
Rcb R1
but Rab + Rcb = Ry and =
Rab R2
Rcb R1
+1= +1
Rab R2
Rcb + Rab R1 + R2
=
Rab R2
Ry R1 + R2
i.e. =
Rab R2
R2 Ry
Therefore Rab = and as Rab + Rcb = Ry
R1 + R2
R2 Ry
\ Rcb = Ry – Rab = Ry –
R1 + R2
R1 Ry + R2 Ry - R2 Ry R1 Ry
\ Rcb = =
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Substituting for Rab and Rcb in Eq. (11.7), we have
R1 Ry R1 Ê R2 Ry ˆ
Rx + Á R3 +
R1 + R2 ˜¯
=
R1 + R2 R2 Ë
R1 Ry R1 R3 R1 R2 Ry
Rx + = +
R1 + R2 R2 R2 ( R1 + R2 )
R1 R3
Hence Rx = (11.8)
R2
Equation (11.8) is the usual Wheatstone’s
balance equation and it indicates that the
effect of the resistance of the connecting
leads from point a to point c has been
eliminated by connecting the galvanometer
to an intermediate position, b.
The above principle forms the basis of
Fig. 11.11 Kelvin’s double bridge
the construction of Kelvin’s Double Bridge,
popularly known as Kelvin’s Bridge. It is a Double bridge because it incorporates
a second set of ratio arms. Figure 11.11 shows a schematic diagram of Kelvin’s
double bridge.