SH1690

Fundamentals of a Wave, Electricity, and Magnetism

I. Definition of Terms
a. Wave – disturbances propagated in a medium (or in vacuum) that carry energy
Types:
i. Mechanical waves require a medium to propagate
Examples: sound, earthquakes, ripples, vibrations on a guitar string

ii. Electromagnetic waves can propagate in a vacuum

Classifications:
i. Longitudinal waves are waves where the particles in the wave vibrate and move along the
wave
ii. Transverse waves are waves where the particles in the wave vibrate and move against the
wave

b. Frequency – the number of waves produced in each period

- unit is Hertz (Hz)
c. Wavelength – the distance between any two (2) successive points in a wave that are in phase
with each other
d. Wave speed – the distance where a wave travels per unit time
e. Charge – fundamental physical quantity responsible for electrical phenomena
- unit is Coulomb (C)
i. Positive charge (proton) = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐂
ii. Negative Charge (electron) = −𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐂
iii. Ways of charging:
a. Rubbing
b. Conduction
c. Induction

f. Net Charge – sum of all positive and negative charges in the object
g. Law of Conservation of Charge – if a system starts with equal charge distributions, the system
will be in a state of equilibrium, unless a charge is added or removed from the system (Benjamin
Franklin)
h. Coulomb’s Law – Electric force is determined by the product of two (2) charge values multiplied
to a proportionality constant, and divided by the square of the distance between the charges
i. Electric Field – field existing in a region around a charged particle
j. Magnet – material capable of interacting with other materials easily influenced by magnetism
- name came from the place Magnesia in ancient Greece, where most lodestones in
the ancient world were found
k. Magnetic pole – region of a magnet that is polarized
l. Magnetic field – field of force surrounding a magnet
- created from changing electric field, which is generated from moving charges
- dictated by the right-hand rule
m. Magnetic Flux – measure of a magnetic field strength per area; unit is Weber (𝟏 𝐖𝐛 = 𝟏 𝐕 ∙ 𝐬)
- in a closed surface, total magnetic flux is equal to zero (0)
n. Law of Magnetic Poles – like Coulomb's Law, wherein charges are replaced with polarity (i.e.,
like poles repel, unlike poles attract)
o. Electric Flux – strength of an electric field over an area in a field region
p. Electric Current - Amount of charge in conductor per unit time; unit is Ampere (A) = 𝟏 𝐂/𝐬
Types:
a. Direct – current has both constant voltage and direction, primarily used in battery-operated
devices

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b. Alternating – current direction and magnitude changes in between two extreme values,
periodically reverses direction, and used in daily living
Kinds:
a. Conventional – current flows from positive terminal of the source towards the negative
b. Electron – current flowing in opposite from the conventional, flowing from the negative
terminal of the source towards the positive

II. FORMULAE
Wave Speed (𝒗𝒘 )
𝒗𝒘 = 𝝀𝒇
Where 𝝀 = wavelength, usually in nanometers (nm)
𝒇 = frequency
𝟏
=
𝒕
where 𝒕 = time (in seconds)

Quantization of Charge (𝒒)

𝒒 = 𝒏𝒄
Where 𝒏 = amount of charges present
𝒄 = charged particle present

Electric Force (𝑭𝑬 )

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝑬 = 𝒌
𝒓𝟐
Where 𝒒 = charge
𝒓 = radius between charged particles
𝒌 = Coulomb’s constant
𝟏
=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎
𝐍 ∙ 𝐦𝟐
= 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗
𝐂𝟐

Electric Field (𝑬)

𝒒
𝑬=𝒌
𝒓𝟐
Electric Flux (𝚽𝑬 )
𝚽𝑬 = 𝑬𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
Where 𝑨 = area of the region
𝜽 = angle of the surface

Electric Current (𝑰)

𝒒
𝑰=
𝒕
Where 𝒒 = charge
𝒕 = time

Magnetic Flux (𝚽𝑩 )

𝚽𝑩 = 𝑩𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
Where 𝑩 = magnetic flux density

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Magnetic Flux (𝚽𝑩 )

𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑭 = 𝒌𝒎
𝒓𝟐
Where 𝒎 = magnetic strength of poles (in ampere-meter, Am)
𝒓 = distance between poles
𝒌𝒎 = proportionality constant
𝐍
= 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝟐
𝐦

References:
Bauer, W., & Westfall, G. D. (2016). General physics 2 (2nd ed.). Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House,
Inc.
Bautista, D.C. (2013). Science impact: Integrated science (3rd ed.). Antipolo City: Academe Publishing
House, Inc.
Cacanindin, D.D.A., …, Sharma, M. PhD (2016). General physics 2. Quezon City, Vibal Publishing House,
Inc.
Catchilar, G. C. & Malenab, R. G., (2003). Fundamentals of physics. Mandaluyong City, National Book
Store.
Cordero-Navaza, D. & Valdez, B. J., (2006). Physics IV (2nd ed.). Quezon City, Phoenix Publishing House,
Inc.
Freedman, R. A., Ford, A. L., & Young, H. D. (2011). Sears and zemansky's university physics (with modern
physics) (13th ed.). Addison-Wesley.
Giambattista, A., Richardson, B. M., Richardson, R. C, (2007). College physics (2nd ed.). New York: The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Halliday, D., Resnick, R. & Walker, J., (2007). Fundamentals of physics (5th ed.). New York: John Wiley
and Sons, Inc.
Hewitt, Paul G., (2007), Conceptual physics (3rd ed.). California: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company
Santiago, K. S., & Silverio, A. A. (2016). Exploring life through science: Senior high school physical science.
Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.
Wilson, Jerry D. & Buffa, Anthony J., (2003). Physics (4th ed.). Prentice Hall Perfect Symmetry: Bantam
Books

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is stronger than that of a straight wire. In this case, if the fingers of the
Electromagnetism right hand are curled in the direction of the current, then the thumb
points to the North pole of the field (see Figure 2).
Electromagnetism is the branch of physics that studies the
relationship between electricity and magnetism. It is because an
electric current produces a magnetic field, and a changing magnetic
field produces an electric current.

Magnetism from Electricity

While doing a demonstration in physics in 1820, Danish physicist Hans
Christian Oersted discovered that a moving charge or a current-
carrying wire produces a magnetic field around it in addition to its
electric field. The direction of the magnetic field in a straight wire can
be determined by following the "right-hand rule".
Figure 2. The "right-hand" rule visualized on a solenoid
Source: https://www.miniphysics.com/ss-magnetic-field-due-to-current-in-a-solenoid.html
To do this, grasp the wire with the right hand in such a way that the
thumb points to the direction of the conventional current. The fingers Ampere later formulated a law for computing the magnetic field for
curl in the direction of the magnetic field. When a current pass through different conduct configurations. Ampere also designed the prototype
a straight wire, the magnetic lines of force form concentric circles with galvanometer to measure current based on the deflection of a
their centers at the axis of the wire and their planes perpendicular to magnetic needle. Not to be outdone, Jean-Baptiste Biot and Felix
the wire (see Figure 1). Savart formulated the Biot-Savart Law for determining the magnetic
field at a point in space due to an electric current.

In addition. to the discovery that a moving charge creates a magnetic

field, it was also that the magnetic field exerts a force on a moving
charge or on a current-carrying conductor. The magnitude of this force
for a moving charge is given by the formula,

𝑭 = 𝒒𝒗𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽,

where 𝑭 is the force, 𝒒 is the charge, 𝒗 is the magnitude of the velocity

of the moving charge, 𝑩 is magnitude of the magnetic field, and 𝜽 is
Figure 1. The "right-hand" rule visualized the angle between the direction of velocity of the charge the magnetic
Source: https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/395851/left-or-right-hand-rule field. In case of a current-carrying conductor with a length 𝑳, the force
exerted by the magnetic field is given as,
Shortly after Oersted announced his discovery that a current-carrying
wire produces a magnetic field, French physicist André-Marie Ampere 𝑭 = 𝑰𝑳𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽,
conducted experiments and concluded that electric current passing
through a coil or a solenoid produces a magnetic field. A solenoid is where 𝜽 is the angle between the length of the conductor and the
simply a long coil of several turns of wire. The magnetic field produced magnetic field.

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his experiments, Faraday connected a coil of wire to a galvanometer,
One (1) of the applications of this effect of magnetic field is the as shown in Figure 3.
mechanism behind a motor. A motor is a device that converts electrical
energy to mechanical energy. It consists of a coil placed in a magnetic
field. It works on the principle that a magnetic field exerts a force on a
moving charge. This force rotates the attached shaft, and the rotation
does the work.

Ampere showed that two parallel current-carrying wires attract each

other magnetically if the currents are in the same direction; they repel
each other if the currents are in opposite directions. This experiment
led him to formulate a law known as Ampere's force law, which allows
for the determination of the magnitude and direction of the magnetic
forces acting upon two current-carrying wires in proximity to one
another.

The Ampere's law is also the basis for the standard definition of a
current. A current of one ampere is the constant current which, if
maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of
negligible circular cross section, and placed one meter apart in Figure 3. A diagram of a magnet's interaction to a solenoid, producing current moving away from the direction
where the magnet is moving
vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to Source: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/electromagnetic-induction.html

𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐍 per unit length. Recall that a current of one ampere

constitutes a charge of one coulomb passing a given point in one He noticed that the meter registered a brief current when he moved
second. the bar magnet quickly toward the coil. Pulling the bar magnet away
from the coil also produced a brief current but in opposite direction.
Electricity from Magnetism When the magnet was stationary, no current was detected. As the
If electric current produces a magnetic field, then the reverse is also magnet is moved quickly into the coil, the magnetic field at the coil
true - a changing magnetic field can produce electric current in a becomes stronger. An induced current flow in a direction to produce
process called electromagnetic induction. The current and the some magnetic field lines from right to left, making the near end a
electromotive force (or EMF) produced are called induced current north pole to prevent the magnet from plunging into the coil. Pulling
and induced EMF, respectively. Two (2) major laws govern the bar magnet out weakens the magnetic field. A current is induced
electromagnetic induction: Faraday's Law and Lenz's Law. in such a direction as to produce more flux through the coil, making
the near end a south pole to prevent the bar magnet from moving
Faraday's Law states that an induced current (and hence induced away.
EMF) is produced whenever there is a change in magnetic flux in a
circuit. The induced EMF is proportional to the rate of change of the Unifying Electricity and Magnetism
magnetic flux. Lenz's Law states that the induced current flows in a James Clerk Maxwell realized that the results of independent studies
direction to oppose the change causing it. These laws are about electricity and magnetism revealed that they are not distinct
demonstrated in the following experiments performed by Faraday, to phenomena. Electricity and magnetism are but manifestations of a
whom the discovery of electromagnetic induction is credited. In one of single force - electromagnetic force. Maxwell devised a set of four

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(4) mathematical equations that unified electric and magnetic Discovery of Radio Waves
phenomena into what is now known as electromagnetic theory. His Heinrich Hertz was credited for having discovered radio waves in the
equations, which form the basis of electromagnetism, are in late 1880s. Hertz's apparatus consisted of two metal balls connected
differential form but in essence may be stated as follows: to two (2) brass plates that served as a transmitter. An induction coil
• Like charges repel; unlike charges attract. was used to produce electric sparks between the two brass balls. A
• Magnetic monopoles do not exist. coil of wire with a small spark gap acted as a receiver. As sparks
• A changing electric field produces a magnetic field. jumped across the two brass balls in the transmitter, sparks were also
• A changing magnetic field produces an electric field. observed in the gap in the receiver.

Figure 4. Light dissected as both electric and magnetic waves

Source: https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/communication-systems/propagation-of-electromagnetic-waves/

Maxwell demonstrated that changing electric and magnetic fields

travel through space in the form of waves and at the speed of light.
Figure 5. Heinrich Hertz's setup that let him detect radio waves, a form of electromagnetic wave
This physical constant is derived by using differential equations, where Source: http://www.sparkmuseum.com/BOOK_HERTZ.HTM
the second-order derivatives of the electric and magnetic fields, to
which both electric permittivity (𝜺0 ) and magnetic permeability (𝝁𝟎 ) Hertz reasoned out that the sparks in the transmitter setup changing
are derived. After derivations, these two (2) variables are used to magnetic and electric fields that propagated as waves to the receiver.
derive the phase speed of light using the formula, When these waves reached the receiver, the changing electric field
caused the charges in the loop to oscillate, producing the spark.
𝟏 Furthermore, Hertz determined that these waves travel at the speed
𝒗= . of light and have frequencies ranging from 50 MHz to 300 MHz. These
√𝜺𝟎 𝝁 𝟎
waves were formerly called Hertzian waves, which was later changed
to radio waves. The unit of frequency is hertz, in honor of Heinrich
If 𝝁𝟎 ≈ (𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟖𝟐) × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐇/𝐦, and 𝜺𝟎 ≈ 𝟏. 𝟓 ×
Hertz.
𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝐅/𝐦, this gives us the speed of light 𝒄 ≈ 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦/𝐬.

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REFERENCES:
Bauer, W., & Westfall, G. D. (2016). General physics 2 (2nd ed.).
Quezon City: ABIVA Publishing House.
Cacanindin, D.D.A., …, Sharma, M. Ph.D. (2016). General physics 2.
Quezon City, Vibal Publishing House, Inc.
Freedman, R. A., Ford, A. L., & Young, H. D. (2012). Sears and
zemansky's university physics (with Modern physics) (13th
ed.). Addison-Wesley.
Santiago, K. S., & Silverio, A. A. (2016). Exploring life through
science: Senior high school physical science. Quezon City:
Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.

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c. Snell's Law – mathematical description of refraction
Optics
Geometric Optics 𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐
1. Reflection – change of a wave’s direction between two (2) media
in such a way the wave returns to the medium it originally came d. Total Internal Reflection – phenomenon that dictates the
from behavior of how light is refracted in a medium, resulting in
a. Incident Ray – the light at its point of entry three (3) different cases
b. Incident Angle (𝜽𝒊 ) – the light's angle upon entry i. Critical Angle (𝜽𝒄 ) – angle where light bends at the
c. Reflected Ray – the light at its exit point after reflection boundary between the first and second media
d. Reflected Angle (𝜽𝒓 ) – the light's angle upon reflection 𝒏𝟐
e. Normal – the imaginary line that bisects the incident and 𝜽𝒄 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏
reflected angles, which serves as the point of incidence 𝒏𝟏
during reflection
Case Result
Reflection Types: 𝜽𝒊 < 𝜽𝒄 Refraction occurs, Snell's
• Specular – reflection occurring at smooth surfaces, where (entry angle is smaller Law is applied.
light rays are reflected without breaking up, resulting in a than critical angle)
reflection with one incidence 𝜽𝒊 = 𝜽𝒄 Refraction angle is equal
• Diffuse – reflection occurring at rough surfaces, where light (entry angle is equal to to 90°
rays break up at uneven surfaces, reflecting at different critical angle)
angles 𝜽𝒊 > 𝜽𝒄 Internal Reflection occurs
(entry angle is larger than
2. Refraction – change of a wave’s direction between two (2) media critical angle)
in such a way that the wave slows down upon entry to the second
medium and changes direction 3. Mirror – an optical device where light is reflected and reconvened
a. Refractive Index (𝒏) – dimensionless quantity that describes to form images
how fast light travels through a material (called a medium) a. Plane Mirror – a mirror with a flat surface and can only form
virtual images; has right-left reversal for its virtual image
𝒄 b. Convex Mirror – a curved mirror whose surface bulges
𝒏= outward, where the image formed is similar to a concave lens
𝒗
Where, c. Concave Mirror – a curved mirror whose surface bulges
𝒄 = speed of light in a vacuum inward, where the image formed is similar to a convex lens
= 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦/𝐬 4. Lens – from the Greek word for lentils, also known as a “thin lens”,
𝒗 = speed of light in a given medium is an optical device where light is refracted to form images, without
undergoing dispersion and aberration, wherein it depends on how
b. Refraction Angle (𝜽) – angle at which the light ray is its surface is curved
refracted and exits the medium a. Convex Lens – a lens wherein its surface bulges outward,
forming large virtual images to the left of the objects; also
known as a converging lens

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b. Concave Lens – a lens wherein its surface bulges inward, • The unit of a wave's energy is joule (J). However, the electron-
forming small virtual images at the right side of the objects; volt (eV) is more commonly used. One (1) electron-volt is
also known as diverging lens equivalent to 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐉, the same value as an electron's
electric charge.
Physical Optics
1. Electromagnetic Wave – series of waves of the electromagnetic 2. Prism – piece of transparent material that allows light to pass
field, radiating through space carrying energy through and disperse
• Light is an electromagnetic wave made up of several bands 3. Dispersion – process of breaking up light into its component
of visible radiation, all attenuated to a particular color colors
4. Scattering – process where light is redirected in other directions
WAVELENGTH FREQUENCY Types:
COLOR a. Rayleigh – a form of scattering where particles are smaller
(in nanometers [nm]) (in terahertz [THz])
than the interacting wavelengths, resulting in colors because
Violet ~ 380 − 449 ~ 680 − 750
each wavelength is scattered differently
Blue ~ 450 − 489 ~ 610 − 679 b. Mie – a form of scattering where particles are of the same size
Cyan ~ 490 − 519 ~ 580 − 609 (if not larger) as the interacting wavelengths, resulting to
Green ~ 520 − 569 ~ 540 − 579 achromatic colors (i.e., white and grey among others)
Yellow ~ 570 − 589 ~ 510 − 539 because each wavelength is scattered almost equally
Orange ~ 590 − 619 ~ 480 − 509 5. Absorption – process where certain wavelengths are not
Red ~ 620 − 759 ~ 430 − 479 reflected, resulting in colors or absence of it (i.e., black color)
Occurrence:
• When referring to the spectral colors, violet is used because a. Opacity – an object's property where light cannot pass
it only has a single wavelength (making it a spectral color), through
and it stands closer to blue. Purple stands closer to red and b. Translucency – an object's property where light can pass and
is primarily a mixture of red and blue lights. be diffused, and it stands opposite opacity
• The color indigo was first used when Isaac Newton first c. Transparency – an object's property where light passes
recorded his findings about the properties of light. This color, through easily, and follows Snell's Law
which is in between blue and violet, looks bluer than violet. In 6. Attenuation – process where light's intensity decreases upon
modern physics, indigo is not a spectral color. passing through a medium; mathematically, in a solid medium,
• Each color has a specific energy (𝑬), which can be calculated
using the formula, 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆−(𝝁𝒂 +𝝁𝒔 )𝒙 ,
Where,
𝑬 = 𝒉𝒇, 𝑰 = final intensity of light (in watts per square meter, 𝐖/𝐦𝟐 )
Where, 𝑰𝟎 = initial intensity of light
𝒇 = wave frequency (in hertz, Hz) 𝒆 = Euler's constant
𝒉 = Planck constant 𝝁𝒂 = absorption coefficient of the medium (in 𝐦−𝟏 )
= 𝟔. 𝟔𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝐉 ∙ 𝐬 𝝁𝒔 = scattering coefficient of the medium (in 𝐦−𝟏 )
= 𝟒. 𝟏𝟑𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 𝐞𝐕 ∙ 𝐬 𝒙 = medium's thickness (in meters)

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In a solution, 2. Halo – rings and arcs of light surrounding the source of light
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆−(𝜶𝒂 +𝜶𝒔 )𝑪 , present (either the Sun or the Moon) due to the presence of ice
Where, crystals in the atmosphere
𝜶𝒂 = absorption coefficient of the solution (in 𝐜𝐦𝟑 /𝐠) 3. Sun dog – (aka. parhelion) occurrence of bright spots that sit on
𝜶𝒔 = scattering coefficient of the solution (in 𝐜𝐦𝟑 /𝐠) either side of the Sun (either on one side, or both), as seen in the
𝑪 = solution's concentration (in 𝐠/𝐜𝐦𝟑 ) sky (see Figure 1)

7. Emission – process of releasing an atom's pent-up energy to

attain equilibrium after absorbing energy; mathematically,

∆𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
𝑬𝒃 − 𝑬𝒂 = 𝒉𝒇
Where,
𝑬𝒂 = lower energy level (or ground state)
𝑬𝒃 = higher energy level (or excited state)

8. Interference – process of reinforcing, or negating, the amplitude

of at least two (2) interacting waves with identical frequencies;
formulae is identical to path difference
Types:
a. Constructive Interference – resulting interference of the net
amplitude of two (2) identical waves, showing amplification or
Figure 1. Sun dogs accompanying a solar halo
reinforcement, creating bright fringes [occurs when 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_dog
0, 𝜆, 2𝜆, etc.]
b. Destructive Interference - resulting interference of the net • If the light source is the Moon, an achromatic moon dog is
amplitude of two (2) identical waves, showing cancellation, observed (aka. paraselene). This is a rare event because the
creating dark fringes (or gaps) [occurs when 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = Moon must be bright enough, and there must be ice crystals
𝜆/2, 3𝜆/2, 5𝜆/2, etc.] in the atmosphere for this to occur (see Figure 2)

9. Diffraction – principle where light bends around an obstacle, 4. Rainbow – a meteorological event that results from the
spreading waves in the region behind it combination of reflection, refraction, and dispersion of light,
creating a multicolored arc (or full ring)
Atmospheric Optics 5. Mirage – an optical phenomenon defined as refraction caused by
1. Stellar Scintillation – aka. twinkling of the stars; light from stars the difference in temperature of the ground and the atmosphere,
enter the atmosphere and are refracted several times due to the creating an image in the intense heat (see Figure 3)
differences in particles present in the air
• This means dry air has less scintillation compared to humid
air due to the presence of more water vapor in the atmosphere

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REFERENCES:
Bauer, W., & Westfall, G. D. (2016). General physics 2 (2nd ed.).
Quezon City: ABIVA Publishing House.
Cacanindin, D.D.A., …, Sharma, M. Ph.D. (2016). General physics 2.
Quezon City, Vibal Publishing House, Inc.
Freedman, R. A., Ford, A. L., & Young, H. D. (2012). Sears and
zemansky's university physics (with Modern physics) (13th
ed.). Addison-Wesley.
Interference (1999). Lifted and modified from the Boston University’s
Physics online lecture:
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/Interference.html
Nave, C. R. (2016). Interference. Retrieved from the Georgia State
University’s HyperPhysics Classroom:
http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/interfcon.html#c1
Nave, C. R. (2016). Lenses. Retrieved from the Georgia State
Figure 2. Moon dogs beside a lunar halo
University’s HyperPhysics Classroom:
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_dog http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/geoopt/lenscon.html#c1
Santiago, K. S., & Silverio, A. A. (2016). Exploring life through science:
Senior high school physical science. Quezon City: Phoenix
Publishing House, Inc.
Thomas, S. (2011). Ch. 27 interference & wave nature of light online.
Retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/cscottthomas/ch-
27-interference-wave-nature-of-light-online-6896801

Figure 3. The blue sky being refracted as a "lake"

Source: https://www.britannica.com/topic/illusion/Optical-phenomena

08 Handout 3 *Property of STI

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