UNIT- V

5 5.1: Zener Diode

Special Purpose Devices

rapidly. The sharp change in the zener current i

called knee or zener knee of the
Q.1 What is zener diode ?
Draw and explain the characteristis. reverse
characteristics of zener diode.
ISJNTU : Part B, Dec.-05, 14, 16, May-08, 13, Marks 4]) Current
CathodeK limiting
R
OR Draw zener diode
characteristics.
IS JNTU : Part A, March-17, Marks 2]
Reverse
Ans. : A zener diode is a silicon V’ breakdown
p-n junction voltage
semiconductor device which is operated in its reverse
breakdown region. Anode A
" The zener diodes are
fabricated with precise (a) Symbol (b) Reverse biasing
breakdown voltages by controlling the doping level Fig. Q.1.1 Zener dlode
during manufacturing.
" The Fig. Q.1.1 (a) shows the symbol of zener diode " The reverse bias voltage at which the
breakdown
while the Fig. Q.1.1 (b) shows the the operation of occurs is called zener breakdown voltage, denoted
zener diode in reverse breakdown region. as Vz. This value is carefully designed by
"When the reverse voltage is applied to zener diode, controlling the doping level during manufacturing
at a certain reverse voltage, the reverse breakdown " The V-I characteristics of zener
OCcurs and current in the zener diode increases diode is shown in
the Fig. Q.1.2.

Forward characteristics
similar to the conventional
diode

Knee point
Zmin

Reverse Zmax
characteristics

Operating
region

Fia. Q.1.2 V-1

Characterlsstlcs of zener dlode
(5- 1)
 Flectromic Derices and Circuits
5-2 Special Purpose Devices
diodes, practically two currents are
" For zener
oner diode to maintain its specified. The Izmin is minimum cårrent through the
reverse breakdown operation.
.The IZmax 1S the maXimum current which
zener diode can take safely maintaining its
breakdown operation, i.e. constant V, acTOSS it. eve
a2 Explain avalanche and zener breakdowns.
S(JNTU : Part B, Dec.-12, 14, 16, March-17,21, Marks 5)
Ans.: Breakdown due to the avalanche Effect :
.If reverse voltage is increased, at a
particular value, velocity of minority carriers increases.
. Due to the kinetic energy associated with the
minority carriers, more minority carriers are generdted
when there is colision of minority carriers with the atoms The collision
make the electrons to break
the co-valent bonds.
.These electrons are available as minority carriers and get accelerated due to
high reverse vOltage.
They again colDde with another atoms to generate more minority carriers. This is called carrier
multiplication.
" Finally large number of minority carriers move across the junction, breaking the p-n
junction. Ihese
large number of minority carriers give rise to a very high
reverse current.
.This effect is called avalanche effect and the mnechanism of destroving the
junction is called reverse
breakdown of a pn junction. The voltage at which the breakdown of a p-n junction occurs is called
reverse breakdown voltage.
Breakdown due to the Zener Effect:
"When a p-n junction is heavily doped the depletion region isvery narrow.
" Electric field is voltage per distance and due to narrow depletion region and high reverse voltage, it is
intense.
" Such an intense field is enough to pull the electrons out of the valence bands of the stable atoms.
"Such a creation of free electrons is called zener effect which is different than the avalanche effect.
These minority carriers constitute very large current and mechanism is called zener breakdown.
" These effects are required to be considered for special diodes such as zener diode as such diodes are
always operated in reverse breakdown condition.
3 Compare between zener and avalanche breakdown. ISJNTU : Part A, May-09, Dec.-12, Marks 3]
Ans. :

Sr. No. Zener breakdown Avalanche breakdown

1 Breakdown is due to intense electric field across Breakdown is due to the collision of accelerated
charge carriers with the adjacent atomns and due to
the junction.
carrier multiplication.
than 6 V. Occurs for zeners with zener voltage greater than
2.
Occurs for zerners with zener voltage less 6 V.

3 The temperature coefficient is positive.

The teperature coefficient is negative.
4 The breakdown voltage decreases as junction The breakdown voltage increases as junction
temperature increases.
temperature increases.
breakdown The V-I characteristics is not as sharp as zener
The V-I characteristics is very sharp in
5
breakdown.
region.

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Q.4 Compare zener diode with
Ans, :
conventional semiconductor diode. IJNIU: Dec.-19, Marks 51
Sr. Zener diode P-N junction diode
No.
1
Operated in reverse breakdown condition. Operated in forward biased condition and
in reverse breakdown condition.
never operated
2
The characteristics lies in third
quadrant. The characteristics lies in first quadrant.

Operating (mA)|
regions

-V
V -V
Operating
region

3
Dynamic zener resistance is very small in reverse The diode resistance in reverse biased condition is very
breakdown condition.
high.
Zener diode symbol is,
The p-n junction diode symbol is,

5. The conduction in zener is opposite to that of arrow in

The conduction when forward biased is in same direction
the symbol, as operated in breakdown region. as that of arrow in the symbol, when
6. forward biased.
The power dissipation capability is very high. The power dissipation capability is very low
zener diodes. compared to
7.
Applications of zener diode are voltage regulator,
protection circuits, voltage limiters etc. Applications of p-n junction diode are rectifiers, voltage
multipliers,
devices.
clippers, clampers and many electronic

5.2 : Zener Diode as a Voltage

Regulator
Q.5 Define voltage regulator.
Ans.: A cirquit used after the filter circuit in a
powersupply which makes the d.c. output voltage
ripple free and keeps it constaFt irrespective of smooth anu
changes in the load or in input line voltage is called voltage
regulator.
Q.6 Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator. Justify it.
S (JNTU : Part B,
March-16,21, Dec.-14, 17, 19, Mars
OR Explain the operation of zener diode as a voltage regulator.
IS (JNTU: Part B, May-06, 09. 11.
Dec.08, 12, Marks
Ans, : Ashunt voltage regulator using zener diode is shown in the Fig. O.6.1.

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R
" Similarly if R, increases, I, decreases and to keep I
constant I, increases accordingly. But as long as it
Vin is between Izmin and Izmay output voltage Vo will
Unregulated RL be constant.
"Thus the changes in the load get compensated and
output is maintained constant.
Fig. Q.6.1 Zener diode as a
shunt regulator
" The zener diode has a Q.7 What are the limnitations of zener voltage
the current through it characteristics that as long as
is between lzmin and
regulator circuit ? IJNTU : Part A, May-19, Marks 2]
the voltage across it is Izmax Ans. : 1. Large power loss in series resistance.
constant equal to zener 2
voltage V, Poor efficiency due topower loss.
" As zener 3 The d.c. output voltage changes due to zener
diode is connected in shunt with the load
resistance.
resistance, the output voltage is equal to the zener
voltage. 4. Changes in I produce changes in zener current.
" From the Fig. Q.6.1 we can write, 5. The output voltage is not adjustable as Vo Vz
6 Can not be used for large load currents.
Vo = V and I= I, + IL
Q.8 A Zener voltage regulator circuit is to
maintain constant voltage at 60 V, over a current
Regulation with varying input voltage : range from 5 to 50 mA. The input supply voltage
" The load current I = constant and is 200 V. Determine the value of resistance R to
Rp be connected in the circuit for voltage regulation
I- Iz + IL from load current I, =0 mA to I max the
maximum possible value of I,. What is the value
" If Vin increases, then the total current I increases.
of I max? ITJNTU : Nov.-05, Aug.-08, Marks 8]
But I is constant as Vz is constant. Hence the
current Iz increases to keep I constant. Ans. : V, = 60 V, Izmax = 50 mA, Izmin 5 mA,
Vin = 200 V, I. min = 0 A
" Similarly if V, decreases, then current. I decreases.
But to keep I constant, I, decreass. The regulator is shown in the Fig. Q.8.1.
" But in both cases, as long as Iz is between Izmin
and Izmaxy the V, ie. output voltage V, is constant. W
in R V= 60 V
" Thus the changes in input voltage get
compensated and output is maintained constant.
Fig. Q.8.1
Regulationwith varying load : Now
" The input voltage is constant while the load I = Izmax t Iimin = 50 mA
resistance R is variable. and I= Vin -Vo
R
" As Vin is constarnt and V, = V, is constant, then for 50x 10-3 200-60
Constant R the currentI is constant. R
1.e. R= 2800 S2
constant = I, + z Now I =lzmin t ILmax i.e.
R 50 = 5 +Imay
t R, decreases, I, increases and to keep I constant ILmax = 45 mÀ
z decreases accordingly. But as long as it is
between Izmin and Izmav output voltage Vo will be
constant.
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Q.9 Determine the value of R, that Rs
will establish maximum
power conditions for the zener diode
in Fig. Q.9.1. shown is circuit shown 220 2 4

IS JNTU:March-22, Marks 5]
Ans. : V, - 10 V, Pzmay 400 V,= 10 V
mW 20 V
PZmax =400 mw
PZmax= Vy xIzmax
i.e.
zmax = 400
10 = 40 mA
Fig. Q.9.1
Vin -Vz20-10 45.45 mA
R 220
For maximum power conditions for zener, l =Zmax
i.e. I, 45.45 - 40 = 5.45 mA
ie. 10
R R, =
5.45x 103
RÊ = 1835 k2

5.3 : Silicon Controlled Rectifier

(SCR)
Q.10 Explain the
construction of SCR. I
JNTU: Part A, May-13, Aug.-08, Dec.-06,
Ans. : "The SCR is a four layer March-22, Marko 31
p-n-p-n
are heavily doped while inner layers are device where p and n layers are
lightly doped. alternately
arranged. The outer layers
" There are three p-n
junctions called Jj, J, andJ.
" The outer p layer is
called anode while outer n layer 0S called
" The three
terminals are taken out respectively from these three cathode. Middle p layer is called gate.
layers, as shown in the Fig. Q.10.1.

+
Anode
(A) Cathode (K)
J
Heavily Ja
doped Lightly Heavily
doped doped
Gate

Fig. Q.10.1
" The Fig. Q.10.2 Construction of SCR
shows the symbol of SCR.
" Anode must be
positive with respect to cathode to Gate
SCR. forward bias the
.But this is not sufficient
criterion to tum SCR ON. To make it Anode Cathode
current is to be passed through the gate ternminal ON, a
it is a current operated
device. denoted as Icr. Thus Fig. Q.10.2 Symbol of SCR
. The LT 0S the
gate trigger current required to
.The basicmaterial used for the SCR make the SCR ON.
fabrication silicon.
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011 Explain the working principle of SCR.

(JNTU : Part B, March-16.21. Dec.-17, Oct.-19, March-21 Marks 5l
Ans. The operation of SCR is
:
divided into two categories,
i) When gate is open and ii) When gate is closed
1. When gate is open :
. Consider that the
anode is positive with respect to cathode
and gate is
" The junctons J and J, are forward biased and iunction L. is reverse opel
biased. There is depletion region
around J2 and only leakage current flows which is
negligibly small.
"Practically the SCR is said to be OFF This is callod forwardd
blocking state of SCR and voltage
appied to anode and cathode with anode positive is called forward voltage. This is shown n
tne
Fig. Q.11.1(a).

Depletion
Ao
Depletion A regions
region
Anode

J.
n
J.

J Forward n
Reverse
G
voltage Jg voltage
open J3 n open Ja
n
Cathode
J4, Jg forward biased J4 Jg reverse biased
Jy reverse biased J, forward biased
(a) (b)

Fig. Q.11.1 Operation of SCR when gate is open

"With gate open, if cathode is made positive with respect to anode, the junctions J,, J, become reverse
biased and J, forward biased. Still the current flowing is leakage current, which can be neglected as it
0s very small.
" The voltage applied to make cathode positive is called reverse voltage and SCR is said to be in
reverse blocking state. This shown in the Fig. Q.11.1 (b).
"In forward blocking state, if the forward voltage is increased and made suficiently large, the reverse
biased junction J, breaks down and SCR conducts heavily.
2. When gate is closed :
"Consider that the voltage is applied between gate and cathode when the SCR is in forward blocking
state.

" The gate is made positive with respect to the cathode.

" The electrons from n-type cathode which are majority n number, cross the junction J, to reach to
positive of battery.
" While holes fromp type move towaras tne negauve or battery, this constitutes the gate current

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Ans. : The Fig. Q.12.1 shows the characteristics of
" This current increases the anode current as some of
the electrons cross junction J,. As SCR.
anode current
increases, more electrons cross the junction J, and "The characteristics are divided into two sections
the anode current further
increases. 1. Forward characteristics :
" Due to regenerative action, within short time, the . It shows a forward blocking region, when l, =0. h
junction J, breaks and SCR conducts heavily. The also shows that when forward voltage increases
connections are shown in the Fig. 0.11.2. upto Va0, the SCR turns ON and high current
A results. The drop across SCR reduces suddenly
which is now the ohmic drop in the four layers
The current must be limited only by the extermal
resistance in series with the device.
J2
" It also shows that, if gate bias is used then as gat
current increases, less voltage is required to tum
R
n ON the SCR.
Current
limiting " If the forward current falls below the level of the
resistor
holding current I, then depletion region begins to
Fig. Q.11.2 Operation of SCR when gate develop around J, and device goes into the
is closed
forward blocking region.
" The resistance R is required to limit the current. "When SCR is turned ON from OFF state, the
" Once the SCR
conducts, the gate loses its control. resulting forward current is called
I;. The latching current is slightlylatching curent
Q.12 Draw and explain the
characeristics of SCR. holding current. higher than the
IS JNTU: Part B,
March-16,21,22, May-12, Dec.-13, 17,
Aug.-08, Oct.-19, Marks 5]

Forward
Forward characteristics
ON state With
IG2 1gate closed
lG1
As Ia increases
Vao decreases
lG=0
VBR
VH
Veo
VBRReverse Reverse
blocking Forward
breakdown voltage blocking region
region VaO =Forward
breakover voltage
Reverse
characteristics

Fig. Q.12.1
Characteristlcs of SCR
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2. Reverse characteristics :
1E the anode to
cathode voltage is " When we apply positive voltage from gate to
device enters into the reverse reversed, then the cathode, holes are injected into the base of T;. This
blocking region. The
urrent is negligibly small and practically forward biases the base emitter junction of Tz
If the reverse voltage is
neglected. increasing Icz
increased, similar to the " This collector qurrent is the base current for T1,
diode, at a particular value avalanche
OCCUrs and a breakdown
large current flows through therefore increase in I (IR1) will increase collector
device. This is called reverse the and emitter currents of T;, resulting increase in
breakdown
voltage at which this happens is called
and the base current of T,.
breakdown voltage VgR: reverse " The increase in base current. for T, will result in a
,The forward further increase in I2:
breakover voltage is greater than
reverse breakover voltage. " The net result is a regenerative increase in the
collector Current of each transistor. This
O.13 Draw and explain the operation of until both
using two transistor equivalent circuit.
SCR regenerative process is continuous
transistors are driven into saturation making all
IJNTU : Part B, May-12, Dec.-12, Marks 5) junctions forward biased.
Ans. : The two transistor model of SCR is shown in
" This results in large anode current which is limited
the Fig. Q.13.1.
only by the external circuit resistance and voltage.
Q.14 State the merits, demerits and applications
of SCR.
Ans. : The merits are,
T2
1. Very small amount of gate drive is required.
N N
P lc2 2. SCRs with high voltage and current ratings are
P
available.
N
3. On state losses of SCR are less.
Go T2 4. Can handle large power
C
Ig2 5. Carn be used as a switch.
E2 6. Easy to turn on.
7 Can be easily protected with a fuse.
Fig. Q.13.1 Two transistor model of SCR " The demerits are,

"The left half is a pnp transistor and right half is 1. Gate has no control, once SCR is turned on.
npn transistor. 2. External circuits are required for turning it
off.
The collector current of T, becomes base current of 3. Operating frequencies are low.
l2 and collector current of T, becomes base current 4. Additional protection circuits are
required.
of T,. 5. Conducts only in one direction hence
controls
Lonsider a positive voltage on the anode with power during only one half cycle of a.c. input.
respect to the cathode and gate current is zero. " The applications are,
As gate current is zero, base current of T2 lgg iS 1. Controlled rectifiers.
Zero and I is approximately leakage currernt lco 2. A.C. voltage stabilizers.
lhe base current of T,, Ies = I, = Iro, is too small 3. D.C. to D.C. converters called choppers.
in the
tO turn T, ON. Both transistors are therefore 4. D.C. to A.C.
converters called inverters.
"OFF" state. 5. Dimmerstats to control ight intensity.
the sum of the 6.
e anode current is then just For speed control schemes of d.c.
and a.c.
leakage currents of the two transistors, lco1 + lco2 motors called drives.
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7 As a switch.
8. Heater control circuit. 9. In protection circuits.

5.4 : Tunnel Diode

Q.15 Define
tunneling phenomenon. Explain how tunnel diode operates under different
n wnat way it is different from
conventional diodes? Give the necessary energy level
diagrams.
operating conditlong
IS UNTU : Part B, March-16,17, Dec.-11,12,14,17,
Ans. : In tunnel
diode, p May-13,18, Marks 5)
very small. Due to this, theand n regions are very heavily doped. Due to this, the width of the
energy. This is called tunnelingcharge carriers can easily penetrate the thin depletion region due to depletion
the highregikionnetic
is
" Compare to
effect.
conventional diode, the depletion region width of tunnel diode is about 1/100 th
n and p regions of tunnel
diode are verv heavily time and
negative resistance region which is not possible indoped. The V-I characteristics of tunnel diode showe
" n open circuit, the conventional diode.
fermi level in the p-side is the same
no filled states on one side of energy as fermi level in the n-side. There are
the junction which are at the
other side. Hence there is no same energy as empty allowed
flow of currents. states the
" In reverse biased, the
height of
shift downwards with respect to barrier
is increased above open
the p-side levels as
circuit value En. Hence n side levels
shown in the Fig. Q.15.1.
Conduction
band

p-side
Ec n-side

EG Conduction
EM
band
Barrier Barrier
height
En
Ep thickness

Ec
Tunneling
EG Applied
Valence
band
reverse bias
Ey

Fig. Q.15.1 Energy

bands in a heavily doped p-n
"It can be seen that
the dark black
diode under reverse blas
as allowed
empty states in the energy states in the valernce band of
the p side lie at the
side giving reverse current. conduction band of the n side. Thus same level
" As reverse bias electrons tunnel from p side to
increases, the dark black
Current. states increase
causing mnore tunneling and more reverse

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" When torWard biased, the barrier potential E. decreases Son side levels shift upwards with respect
to those on p side.
" There are occupied states in the conduction band of n side shown dark, which are at same. c5
allowed empty states in the valence band of the n side Thus electrons tunnel from n side to P
causing forward current. This shown in the Fig. Q.15.2.

Ec

EG Conduction
band
Barrier
Ey E
Tunneling height

Ec
Holes
Ec
Valence Applied
band Ev forward bias

Fig. Q.15.2
" As forward bias increases, the n side level further shifts upwards. This increases tunneling and at one
point maximum current I, flows which is called peak current.
reduces,
"If forward bias further increases, there is drop in the n side levels and the tunneling
almost zero as the
reducing the forward current. At a particular forward bias, the current reduces
tunneling reduces to very low level.
diode. State its applications.
Q.16 Draw and explain the characteristics of Tunnel May-07, 12, 13, Aug.-08, Dec.-12, 13, 16, March-17, Marks 4)
IJNTU: Part B,
) characteristics of a tunnel diode.
Ans. : The Fig. 0.16.1 shows the volt-ampere (V -
of the order of 5 2 and current increases.
"For smnall forward voltages, the resistance remains small,
the voltage Vp which is about 600 mV. The In
The current attains a peak value Ip corresponding to amperes.
to several hundred
can vary from few micro amperes
the slope dI/dV of the
At the peak point,
I(mA)
Peak point
the forward
characteristics becomes zero. If now
beyond Vp, then the
voltage is increased further,
Negative Negative resistance
resistance region is the useful
rather than increasing. region region of tunnel diode.
current starts decreasing
Forward
current
conductance dl/dv becomes
Thus the dynamic dV/dI is Valley
resistance
negative. Hence the dynamic point
V(volts)
negative resistance V, V,
negative and it shows
Reverse
characteristics Forward voltage
continues
resistance
characteristics. This negative
as valley voltage.
till a voltage V, called ly and Fig. Q.16.1 Characterstics of tunnel diode
At the valley voltage Vy, the current is
"
again zero.
Slope dI/dy becomes
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" After Vu, if
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Special Purpose Deoica
the voltage is increased, the urrent again increases. Thus resistance
positive and remains positive thereafter. again becomes
" At the so called
peak forward voltage V, the current again reaches the value equal to peak
Ip. current
" The value of current between Iþ and ly can be obtained with three different
multivalued feature makes the tunnel diode useful in the pulse and digital circuits. voltage values. This
nthe reverse direction reverse Current starts at very small reverse bias voltage.
flows for small reverse bias voltage Large reverse current
hence it behaves as a good conductor in reverse direction.
indicated in reverse characteristics. This is
Applications :
1. As a high speed switch.
2. In pulse and digital
circuits.
3. In negative resistance and high
frequency (microwave) oscillator.
4. In switching networks.
5. In timing and computer logic
circuitry.
6. Design of pulse
generators and amplifiers.
7. In oscillators.

Q.17 Compare tunnel diode with

conventional diode.
Ans. : ISJNTU: Jan.-14, May-19, Marks 3)
Sr. No.
Tunnel diode
1
Conventional p-n junction diode
Impurity concentration is high about 1 part in 10
atoms. Impurity concentration is low about 1 part in 10
atoms.
2
Depletion region width is about 5 microns, which is
/100th the width of typical p-n junction diode. The width of depletion region is
tunnel diode. high compared to the
3 The carrier velocities are very
high at low
hence can punch through the depletion forward bias, The carrier velocities are low at
low forward bias, hence
region. can not penetrate the
4 The V-I characteristics shows the
negative resistance
-........
depletion region.
region. The V-I characteristics does not
show the negative
5 The V-I resistance region.
characteristics is, The V-I
Negative
resistance
characteristics is,
region

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6 The materials used for construction are germanium or The silicon is most popularly used.
gallium arsenide.
7 The symbol is,
The symbol is,

8 The switching time is very low of the order of nano to The switching time is high.
picoseconds.
9 Used for high frequency oscillators, high speed Used in rectifiers and other general purpose
applications such as computérs, pulse and digital applications.
circuits and switching networks.

Q.18 Draw the small signal model of tunnel diode operating in the negative resistance regon.
IG(JNTU: Dec.-18, Marks 5]

Ans. :" The circuit symbol of a tunnel diode is shown in the Fig. Q.18.1 (a) while its smallsignal equivalent
circuit in the negative resistance region is shown in the Fig. Q.18.1 (b).

R 5 pF Ls

-Rn
(-152 2)
(a) Symbol (b) Small signal Equivalent circuit in negative resistance region

Fig. Q.18.1 Tunnel diode

between I, and I..

"The negative resistance - R, has aminimum at the point of inflection
resistance.
"The series resistance R. is due to ohmic contact
" The series inductance L, depends upon the lead length and the geometry of the diode package.
capacitance and is
"The junction capacitance C depends upon the bias represents the junction diffusion
usually measured at the valley point.
5.5 : Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
characteristics of UJT. Give its eguivalent
Q.19 With neat diagram explain the construction, working and
circuit.
IS JNTU: Part B, March-16, May-13, 19, Oct.-19, Dec.-14, 19, Marks 5)
silicon slab to which aluminium rod is alloved at
Ans. : It is three terminal device, consisting lightly doped n type
p-n junction.
one end with a p type material, forming a emitter E is taken from the aluminium
. At other end of slab, two bases B, and B, are attached. The
Q.19.1.
rod. This is shown in the ig.

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n-type Si slab
p-n
junction B
Emitter
E Base VBB
Contacts External
supply
Aluminium
rod B,
B,
(a) Construction (b) Symbol

Fig. Q.19.1
The Fig. Q.19.2 shows its
RR1 and RRT are internal equivalent circuit where " The potential of A is decided by factor Caused
Rp1 >RB2
resistances two bases with intrinsic stand off ratio denoted as n. The V,
n VB where n =
B2 RgB with KgB =Rg1 +Rg2
lIg=0
D Rg2 Case 1 : Vg <VA
Open " For this case, p-n
VgB junction is reverse biased I does
RB1 not flow. UJT said to be OFF.
B. Case 2 : Vg> VA
Fig. Q.19.2 Equivalent circult of UJT "When V; becomes equal or greater
than Vp
Working: The supply VB is junction is forward biased with V, = the p-n
bases while V is applied to connected between where Vp is diode drop. nV8p +Vb
emitter as shows the " Thus
Fig. Q.19.3. current I;
flows and charge carriers are
B
injected in the RR1 region of the bar.
"Thus
conductivity of the Ra1 region increases and
this makes p-n junction
Rg2 more forward biased as
drop across Ra1 reduces.
" This
A further
increases the
VB8 charge carriers, thus I, current and injecteu
RB1 increases to a vaiue
VE determined by source resistance.
" In this condition, UJT is
said to be ON.
B. Characteristics
emitter
: The graph of
emitter current agau
voltage plotted for a particular
is called UjT value of VBB
Fig. Q.19.4. characteristics, This is shown in the
Fig. Q.19.3
" It is
divided into
region and saturationcut-off region, negative resistor
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 Special Purpose Devices
Flectronic Devices and Circuits 5-14

VE Emitter
voltage
Peak point
Cut-off Vp Negative
region resistance
region (Stable) !
Saturation
region
VE (sat)
Vy --
Valley point
0
IE
Ip Emitter current
Reverse leakage
current in uA

Fig. Q.19,4UJT characteristics

Q.20 Define intrinsic stand off ratio of UJT. +VBB

IT(JNTU:Part A, Marks 2]
Ans. : When I = 0, then the voltage drop across B Vo2
Bg1 is given by, VE
VBB RBi
VRB1 RgË +Rg2
R4
B
Vot

n= Rpi
Rg1 +RB2
UJT ON
RB1 = Intrinsic stand off ratio
RgB I =0 Fig. Q.21.1 UJT relaxation oscillator

" The value of n is between 0.5 to 0.8. The value of R, is so selected that UJT operates in
Electronic Devices and Circuits
******.. Special Purpose Devices
5-14 ........*

VE Emitter
voltage
Peak point
Cut-off Vp Negative
region resistance
region (Stable)
Saturation
region
VE (sat)--.

Valley point

'EO Emitter current

Reverse leakage
current in uA

Fig. Q.19,4 UJT characteristics

0.20 Define intrinsic stand off ratio of UJT.

m. o+ VeB
ISJNTU: Part A, Marks 2)
Ans., : When I =0, then the voltage drop across R R2
B
Rg1 is given by,
VRB1 VBB RB1 =n VBB B.
RB +Rg2
R
Rgi
Rg1 +RB2 lig =0
Rpi = Intrinsic stand off ratio
AA.
‘ uJT ON
RgBi =0 Fig. Q.21.1 UJT relaxation 0scillator

" The value of n is between 0.5 to 0.8. "The value of R is so selected that UT
operates in
Q.21 What are the applications of UJT ? negative resistance region.
IT JNTU: Part A, Dec.-16, Marks 2)
"C gets charged to VBg through Rb:
Ans. : Applications of UJT
" When its voltage is more than Vp, UJT fires. Then
"The various applications of UJT are,
Cf starts discharging through Rp1 + R. This
1. Triggering of other devices like SCR. discharge is very fast due to small R.
2. In a sawtooth waveform generator.
" This produces pulse across R.
3. In a relaxation oscillato.
" Then capacitor voltage becomes less than Vy,
4. In timing circuits. UJT
5. In automobile ignition circuits. becomes OFF and charging of capacitor starts again
and cycle repeats.
UJT relaxation oscllator : The Fig. Q.21.1 shows the " The waveforms of UJT relaxation oscillator are
circuit of UJT relaxation oscillator. shown in the Fig. Q.21.2.
"R and R, are biasing resistors. R and C decide
the oscillating rate.
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Electronic Devices and Circuits
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. . . . Deit
******...i.
5-15
. . .*******ssss.
Vo
Vp

Vo14 UJT ON

Va UWTOFF

Fig. Q.21.2 Waveforms of UJT relaxation

oscillator
5.6 : Varactor Diode
C-(Transition capacitance)
Q.22 Define varactor diode ?
of varactor diode with its Explain the operation W-Width of
mention its applications. equivalent circuit and | depletion region

IS JNTU : Part B,
May-08,12,13,19, Dec.-11,13,18,
March-17, Marks 5]
OR Write a note on Plate Plate
varactor diode. Dielectric
IS JNTU : Part A, Dec.-17, Marks 3]
Reverse bias
Ans. : " In practice, special type of voltage

manufactured which shows the transition diodes

are
Flg. Q.22.1
property more predominanty as compared capacitance EA
normal diodes. Such diodes are to the W where e Permittivity of semiconductor
called varactor
diodes, varicap, VvC A =
(Voltage Variable Capacitance), or tuning diodes. Area of cross section
"In a reverse baised diode, the depletion and W =Width of
exists between p-region and region " As the reverse depletion region
the Fig. Q.22.1. n-region as shown in biased applied to the diode
" The
increases, the width of the depletion region (")
p-region and n-region act like the plates of increases. Thus the transition
capacitor while the depletion region acts like decreases. capacitance
dielectric. " In short, the capacitance can be
" Thus there exists a
capacitance at the p-n applied voltage. Thus controlled by ue
called transition capacitance, junction a variable capacitance 3
space
achieved,
charge
capacitance, barrier capacitance or depletion region " The
variation of
capacitance. It is denoted as Cp. reverse bias Cwith respect to the appied
voltage shown in the Fig. Q.22.2. As
is
Mathematically it is given by the expression, reverse voltage is negative, graph is shown inthe
second quadrant.
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Electronic Devices and Circuits 5- 16

C-(0): AC- in pF
.8..8..
8..
C decreases 80.
as V increases
60

40

*****
20

Ve -15 -10
Reverse voltage

Fig. Q.22.2 V-l

The various other
characteristics
are,
applications of varactor diodes
1. Tuned circuits
2. FM modulators
3. Automatic frequency
control devices
4. Adjustable bandpass
filters
5. Parametric amnplifiers
6. Television receivers.

Q.23 Draw the V-1

diode. characteristics
IJNTU :
of varactor
Dec.-14, 18, Part A: Marks 2]
Ans. : Refer answer of
Q.22.
 dre USerUI

controls and applications like burglar alarm.

5.10 :Schottky Diode

Q.33 Explain the construction and operation of

Schottky diode. Compare its characteristics with
conventional diode. State its applications.
Ans. : The diodes which are specially manufactured
to solve the problem of fast switching are called
Schottky diodes.
"Its construction is different than the conventional
p-n junction diode.
" It consists of a metal to semiconductor junction as
shown in the Fig. Q.33.1(b). These diodes are also
called Schottky barrier diodes, surface barrier
diodes or hot carrier diodes. The symbol for the
Schottky diode is shown in the Fig. Q.33.1 (a).
Gold leaf metal contact

Anode (+)
Metal
Silicon dioxide
Screen

Metal to
n-type silicon semiconductor junction
Metal contact

(a) Symbol (b) Construction

Fig. Q.33.1 Schottky diode

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20 Special Purpose Devices
**.*******

" In both the materials metal as well as n-type

semiconductor the electrons are the majority
carriers.
" In the metal, the minority carriers (holes) are very
less in number. When the contact is made between
the two materials, the electrons from the n-type
semiconductor material immediately flow into the
adjoining metal. This is because the kinetic energy
level of the majority carriers i.e. electrons in the n
region is higher than the electrons in the metal.
" Hence a heavy flow of majority carriers is
established from n region to the metal. Due to high
kinetic energy the injected carriers are called hot
carriers.
" In conventional diode, the minority carriers get
injected into adjoining region while in Schottky
diode, majority carriers get injected into metal.
" In Schottky diode the conduction is totally by
majority carriers.
" The heavy flow of electrons into the metal creates a
region near the junction surface, depleted of carriers
in the silicon material.
"The additional carriers in the metal establish a
negative wall in the metal at the boundary between
the two materials. This results in further current.
So there exists a carrier free region and a negative
wall at the surface of the metal.
Characteristics
The characteristics of Schottky diode are shown in
the Fig. Q.33.2.

Diode Schottky diode

Current

p-n
junction junction
diode diode

V
0.25 V 0.7 V Diode
voltage
Schottky
diode

Fig. Q.33.2 Comparlson of characterlstlcs

" The barrier at the junction for a Schottky diode is
less than that of normal p-n junction
diode, in both
forward and reverse bias region.
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Electronic Devices and Circuits
........
5-21 Snecial Purpose Devices
........ ......

" The barrier potential and breakdown o.15 A solar cell works on the principle of
forward bias and reverse bias region voltage in effect.
are also less than p-n
junction diode.
respectively Q.16 The ring around p-type material in solar
cell acting
" The barrier potential of
Schottky diode is 0.25 V as as positive output terminal is made un of
Compared to 0.7 V for normal diode. Q.17 The region in LED which is responsible for 4.
emission of light is called region.
Applications : Due to fast switching characteristics,
the Schottky diodes are very Q.18 is used in seven segment displays.
useful for high
frequency applications such as digital computers, Q.19 A metal semiconductor junction is used i
high speed TTL, radar systems, mixers, diode.
detectors in
communication equipments and analog to digital 0.20 The majority charge carriers in Schottky diode are
Converters. called carriers.

Fill in The Blanks

For Mid Term Exam
Multiple Choice Questions
For Mid Term Exam
Q.1 For zener diode, temperature coefficient 0.1 In which of the
IS (JNTU: Aug.-16]
following diodes impurities are
heavily doped ?
Q.2 Photodiode operates based on the principle
of IS JNTU: Aug.-16] a PN junction diode bË Gunn diode
Q.3 After firing the gate pulse is removed in an c Varactor diode d Tunnel diode
SCR, the curent
IJNTU: Aug.-16] Q.2 A zener diode is
0.4 In tunnel diode, the p and n normally operated in
regions are a reverse biased mode
doped.
0.5 In tunnel diode, the negative b forward biased mode
resistance region
continues till the voltage called c unbiased mode
Q.6 The third terminal of SCR apart from d none of
anode and these
cathode is called
0.7 An SCR has Q,3 For a zener diode having
pn junctions. maximum zener cuTent
of 50 mA and V, = 10 V, the
Q.8 The control element of an SCR is maximum power
dissipation is
Q.9 When SCR starts conducting, then looses
all control. a 1W
bË 0.05 W
Q.10 In a UJT, the p-type emitter is c 5 mW
d 0.5 W
doped.
Q,4 The breakdown for zener diodes
Q.11 Between the peak point and the valley point of with
Vz>6 V is
UJT emitter characteristics, we have
region. a zener
b avalanche
0.12 capacitance plays a dominant role in c hall none of these
varactor diode.
Q.5 The sharp change in reverse
Q.13 A diode showing variable
capacitance zener diode is called characteristics 0
characteristics is called of the curve.
diode.
Q.14 dËode is suitable for electrical tuning saturation b knee
applications. C cut-in
d none of these

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 Special Purpose Derices
fiectromic Derices and Circuits 5 - 22
mA.
As temperature increases the maximum power Q.14 In the given circuit, h =
dissipation rating of zener diode
1ks2
increases decreases
remains sarne none of these
24
12 V 1k2
07 The photodiode current under no light is called
CuIrent.

a forward b maximum
b 2
a 4
c dark d none of these d 12
C 6
Q.8 The dark current of photodiode is always of tunnel diode is about
Q.15 The depletion layer width conventional.
the width of
times
a large b very small 1 b 10
d infinite 10
C Zero 1
c 20 100
Q.9 The photo current is directhy proportional to
Vp and V,
Q.16 The portion of characteristics between
a forward current b reverse voltage of a tunnel diode shows resistance.
d none of these
c intensity of light a positive b! zero

to c negative d exponential
Q.10 The current in photodiode is ue
carriers.
Q.17 SCR is operated device.
b minority
majority a current b voltage
d none of these
c both C resistance d charge
Q.11 A photodiode converts Q.18 SCR behaves as a switch

a light energy into

chemical energy a bidirectional b unidirectional
electrical energy
b chemical energy into c mechanical
electrical energy
c light energy into d electro mechanical
d electrical energy into light energy
Q.19 SCR is turned off when
zener diode.
Q12 is the best description of a
condition a gate is reverse biased
biased
It operates only in reverse b gate is removes
b It is constant voltage device c anode current is reduced to zero
It is constant current device
d gate voltage is reduced to zero
d None of these
Q.20 UJT have p-n junctions.
Q13 Zener diodes are used as a 2 b3
element
a reference current C 4 d1
b reference voltage
element
c amplifier
d reference resistance
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Electronic Devices and Circuits
Q.21 When the
.....

5-23 Special Purpose Devices

temperature
off ratio of UJT increases, the intrinsic stand Q.29 The barrier potential of Schottky diode is
V.
a increases
b remnains sanme a 5 b 0.25
c decreases d becomes zero c 2 di 0.7
0.22 UJT can be used as Answer Keys for Fill in the Blanks :
a sawtooth generator b rectifier
Q.1 positive for 0.2
C regulator d amplifier Vy >5.6 Vand
negative for
Photoconductivity
Q.23 Which of the following is not Vz <5.6 V
the characteristic of
ÜJT ?
Q.3 remains constant Q.4 heavily
a Peak point voltage
bËn Q.5 valley voltage Q.6 gate
c Negative resistance 0.7 2
Q.8 gate
d Bilateral conduction
......

Q.9 gate Q.10 HEAVILY

Q,24 A solid state device which
converts light energy Q.11 negative resistance Q.12
into an electrical energy based on transition
effect is called
photovoltaic
Q.13 varactor Q.14
*******.

Varactor
a solar cell bË LED
Q.15 photovoltaic Q.16 nickel
c photodiode d Schottky diode
0.17 active Q.18 LEDs
Q.25 material is commonly used for solar
cells. Q.19 Schottky Q.20 hot
La copper and nickel b aluminium
Answer Keys for Multiple Choice Questions :
alloys
c selenium and silicon d tungston and Q.1 0.2 0.3 d Q4
cobalt
Q.5 b
Q.6 Q.7 Q.8 b
Q,26 A diode which emits light when forward biased is
called Q.9 Q.10 Q.11 C Q.12

a Schottky diode bi varactor diode Q.13 b Q.14 d Q.15 d Q.16

c photodiode d LED Q.17 Q.18 b Q.19 C Q.20 d
Q.27 The drop across forward biased LED is
about Q.21 Q.22 Q.23 0.24
V.

a! 5 Q.25 Q.26
b 0.25 Q.27 Q.28 a

c 2 d 0.7 Q.29

Q.28 are used for the fast switching

devices. END...S

a Schottky diode b varactor diode

c photodiode d LED

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