BIOENERGETICS

BIOENERGETICS organelle called the chloroplast.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION :
TOPIC OUTLINE  In photosynthesis, light (a form of energy),
Introduction carbon dioxide, and water are transformed into
Lesson 1 - Digestion and the Conversion of glucose.
Food into Energy  This is the same glucose that gets broken
Lesson 2 – ATP & Energy Production down in cellular respiration.
Lesson 3 - Coenzymes in Metabolism
Lesson 4 - Citric Acid Cycle METABOLISM
Lesson 5 - Electron transport Chain &
 Most people think of metabolism in the
Oxidative Phosphorylation
context of weight loss and bodybuilding, but
metabolic pathways are important for every cell
Introduction
and tissue in an organism.
BIOENERGETICS
 Metabolism is how a cell gets energy and
BIOENERGETICS  Life is an energy intensive
removes waste.
process
 It takes energy to operate
 Vitamins, minerals,
muscles, extract wastes, make
new cells, heal wounds, even EXAMPLE : and cofactors aid the
to think. reactions.
 One saving grace of science
terminology is that it can
ANABOLISM & CATABOLISM
almost always be broken down
into smaller, less  two broad types of biochemical reactions that
overwhelming pieces. This is make up metabolism.
true for bioenergetics.  Anabolic and catabolic pathways typically
 life, living work together, with the energy from catabolism
BIO
providing the energy for anabolism.
ENERGETICS  study of energy
ANABOLISM
DEFINITION :
ANABOLISM  builds complex molecules
 study of energy in living things
from simpler ones
 how energy is transformed (changed from one
form into another) through :
NOTE
 the synthesis of complex
TWO MAJOR PROCESSES
CELLULAR RESPIRATION molecules from simpler ones
 These chemical reactions
 Cellular respiration (or some variation of it)
require energy.
occurs in all living things.
 In eukaryotes, cellular respiration occurs in
CATABOLISM
the cytoplasm and primarily in the mitochondria.
CATABOLISM  the breakdown of complex
PURPOSE :
molecules into simpler ones.
 MAIN PURPOSE : to take a sugar molecule like
glucose (a simple sugar) and break it apart to
NOTE
release energy in the form of ATP.
 These reactions release
EXAMPLE (1) Think of ATP as energy currency.
energy.
(2) In bioenergetics, ATP molecules
can instantly release energy when
the cell needs it.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS Lesson 1 - Digestion and the Conversion of Food
 occurs in most plants, most algae, and some into Energy
types of bacteria.
 In eukaryotes, photosynthesis occurs in an

DRGB 1
BIOENERGETICS
 Watch the video about how the body uses food
– you are what you eat

HOW DOES YOUR BODY USE FOOD? USES

1  CARBOHYDRATE  As building blocks

NOTE *AMINO ACIDS

DIGESTIVE PROCESS o use to make enzymes,
 carbs are converted to glucose (cells hormones
uses as energy) o build and maintain tissues
 These chemical reactions require o construct transport
energy. proteins – transport fat
throughout the body
o make antibodies – can
USES help neutralize some
 Immediate energy bacteria and viruses in the
body.
LIVER :
*sense the glucose in the
bloodstream and used as  As energy
immediate energy
*If the body is low on fuel
 Stored energy - it can convert proteins to energy
 Stored as fat
LIVER :
*Once the bloodstream have
enough glucose in it, the liver takes *If the body doesn’t need to use
the extra glucose and converts it protein for all of the situations
into - it can be through a lengthy
glycogen process converted to and stored
o (stored form of glucose as fats
energy)
o can be stored in the liver
and muscles ; can store a 3  FATS
combined total of 2000
calories CHECKLIST
 Stored fat  Part of many cell membranes
 Stored as energy in the liver or fat
*the extra glucose is stored as fat tissue
in the fat tissue  Used as energy in the form of
ketones (ketone body) or glucose

2  PROTEIN Lesson 2 - ATP and Energy Production

NOTE
DIGESTIVE PROCESS Digestion and the Conversion of Food Into Energy
 proteins are broken down into the METABOLISM  the sum of all the chemical
main components of amino acids reactions that take place in an
organism
CATABOLISM  the breakdown of large

DRGB 2
BIOENERGETICS
molecules into smaller ones;
 energy is generally released
during catabolism
ANABOLISM  the synthesis of large
molecules from smaller ones;
 energy is generally absorbed
during anabolism
METABOLIC  the process which is a series
PATHWAY of consecutive reactions
 can either be linear or cyclic

METABOLIC PATHWAYS
LINEAR PATHWAY PHOTO :
 the series of reactions that generates a final
product different from any of the reactants.

PHOTO :

CYCLIC PATHWAY
 the series of reactions that regenerates the
first reaction.
PHOTO :

OVERVIEW OF METABOLISM
STAGE 1 : Digestion
 The catabolism of food begins with digestion,

DIGESTION :
which is catalyzed by enzymes in
the saliva, stomach, and small
intestines

DEFINITION OF TERMS
MITOCHONDRIA  site where energy PHOTO :
production occurs
 organelles within the
cytoplasm of a cell
INTERMEMBRANE  area between the two
SPACE membranes
MATRIX  the area enclosed by the
inner membrane
 specific area where
energy production occurs STAGE 1 : DIGESTION
PHOTO :

DRGB 3
BIOENERGETICS
CARBOHYDRATES
 hydrolyzed into monosaccharides beginning
with amylase enzymes in saliva and continuing
in the small intestine
PHOTO :

STAGE 2 : Formation of Acetyl CoA

PHOTO :
PROTEIN DIGESTION
 begins when stomach acid denatures the
protein and pepsin begins to cleave the large
protein backbone into smaller peptides
 Then, in the small intestines, trypsin and
chymotrypsin cleave the peptides into amino
acids
PHOTO :

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION :
 Monosaccharides, amino acids, and fatty
acids are degraded into acetyl groups, which are
then bonded to coenzyme A forming acetyl-CoA.

PHOTO :

TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
 are emuslified by bile secreted by the liver,
then hydrolyzed by lipase into 3 fatty acids and a
glycerol backbone
PHOTO :

DRGB 4
BIOENERGETICS
STAGE 3 : The Citric Acid Cycle ATP and Energy Production
 based in the mitochondria, where the acetyl General Features of ATP Hydrolysis
CoA is oxidized to CO2  Hydrolysis of ATP cleaves 1 phosphate group
 The cycle also produces energy stored as a PHOTO :
nucleoside triphosphate and the reduced
coenzymes
PHOTO :

 This forms ADP and hydrogen phosphate

(HPO4 2−), releasing 7.3 kcal/mol of energy
PHOTO :

STAGE 4 : The Electron Transport Chain and

Oxidative Phosphorylation
 Within the mitochondria, the electron
transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation
produce ATP (adenosine 5’-triphosphate)
 ATP is the primary energy-carrying molecule
in the body
PHOTO : General Features of ATP Phosphorylation
 Phosphorylation is the reverse reaction, where
a phosphate group is added to ADP.
PHOTO :

ATP AND ENERGY PRODUCTION :

 Phosphorylation re-forms ATP and requires

7.3 kcal/mol of energy

DRGB 5
BIOENERGETICS
PHOTO :

 Any process (walking, running, breathing) is

fueled by the release of energy when ATP is
hydrolyzed to ADP
PHOTO :

Lesson 2 – Mitochondria Parts

MITOCHONDRIA PARTS
 Energy is absorbed and stored in ATP when it MATRIX  which metabolizes
is synthesized from ADP nutrients into by-products
PHOTO : the mitochondrion can use
for energy production.
INTERMEMBRANE  MAIN FUNCTION :
SPACE oxidative phosphorylation
 Channel proteins called
porins in the outer
membrane allow free
movement of ions and small
Coupled Reactions in Metabolic Pathways molecules into the
COUPLED REACTIONS  pairs of reactions intermembrane space.
that occur together OUTER  This membrane surrounds
MEMBRANE the mitochondrial matrix,
NOTE where the citric acid cycle
 The energy released by one produces the electrons that
reaction is absorbed by the other travel from one protein
reaction complex to the next in the
 Coupling an energetically inner membrane.
unfavorable reaction with a INNER  The inner membrane is
favorable one that releases more MEMBRANE also loaded with proteins
energy than the amount required is involved in electron transport
common in biological reactions. and ATP synthesis.
 This membrane surrounds
the mitochondrial matrix,
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION : where the citric acid cycle
 The hydrolysis of ATP provides the energy for produces the electrons that
the phosphorylation of glucose. travel from one protein
PHOTO : complex to the next in the
inner membrane.

DRGB 6
BIOENERGETICS
Lesson 2 – Cellular Respiration and the Mighty
Mitochondria  ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

 Watch the video about Cellular Respiration *takes place in the mitochondria
and the Mighty Mitochondria *require oxygen
1. Electrons are transferred from the
Cellular Respiration and the Mighty Mitochondria NADH and FADH to several electron
ATP  Adenosine Triphosphate carriers
 a type of nucleic acid 2. used to create a proton gradient
 action packed with three *PROTONS – used to power an enzyme
phosphates called ATP Synthase
ADP  Adenosine Diphosphate *ATP Synthase
 when the chemical bond that – add phosphate + ADP = ATP
holds the third phosphate is - makes ATP
broken, it releases a great *OXYGEN – final acceptor of the
amount of energy and electrons
converted to ADP 3. oxygen will combine with 2 protons =
Aerobic  “Aero” = Air H2O (water)
Cellular  Eukaryotic cells *yields 34 ATP
Respiration
ATP Energy 

 breaks glucose
Photosynthesis  (LIGHT)  Lesson 3 - Coenzymes in Metabolism

 makes glucoses Coenzymes NAD+ and NADH

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION : Coenzyme  causes an oxidation reaction
 cells must make ATP energy as to occur, so the coenzyme is
 OXIDIZING reduced
AGENT  When a coenzyme acts as an
oxidizing agent, it gains H+ and
3 major steps of cellular respiration : e−.
 GLYCOLYSIS Coenzyme  causes a reduction reaction to
as occur, so the coenzyme is
*takes place in the cytoplasm REDUCING oxidized
*does not require oxygen AGENT  When a coenzyme acts as a
1. Glucose (2 ATP + 2 NADH molecules)  reducing agent, it loses H+ and
Pyruvate e−.
*NADH – useful in making more ATP Coenzyme  nicotinamide adenine
*yields 2 ATP NAD+ dinucleotide
 is an oxidizing agent
PHOTO :
 KREBS CYCLE

*also called as “Citric Acid” Cycle

*takes place in the mitochondria
*require oxygen
1. Pyruvate  Acetyl-CoA
2. Acetyl-CoA is oxidized = CO2 + 2 ATP
molecules + 6 NADH + 2 FADH2
*yields 2 ATP

DRGB 7
BIOENERGETICS
NADH  After gaining 1 H+ and 2 e−, the
reduced form of NAD+ is NADH.
Curved  often used to depict reactions
arrows that use coenzymes as oxidizing
agents
PHOTO :

NADH and FADH2

NAD+ and  both act as oxidizing agents
FAD
NADH and  reduced forms of NAD+ and
FADH2 FAD
 both act as reducing agents

Coenzyme A
Coenzyme A  HS-CoA
 is neither an
 In this reaction, isocitrate is oxidized to oxidizing nor a reducing
oxalosuccinate while NAD+ is reduced to NADH. agent
PHOTO :

Coenzymes FAD and FADH2

Coenzyme  flavin adenine
FAD dinucleotide
 an oxidizing agent as
well
PHOTO :

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION :
Coenzyme A  When an acetyl
group reacts with the
sulfhydryl
end of coenzyme A, the
thioester acetyl CoA is
formed.
PHOTO :

FADH2 After gaining 2 H+ and 2

e−, the reduced form of
FAD is FADH2

PHOTO :

DRGB 8
BIOENERGETICS
molecules (steps [3] and [4])
 4 molecules of reduced
coenzymes (3 NADH’s and 1
FADH2) are formed (steps [3],
[4], [6], and [8])
 1 mole of GTP is made in step
[5]; GTP is similar to ATP

SPECIFIC STEPS OF THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE

STEP 1 :
 When the thioester bond is broken, 7.5
 reacts acetyl CoA with oxaloacetate to form
kcal/mol of energy is released.
citrate, and it is catalyzed by citrate synthase
PHOTO :

Lesson 4 - Citric Acid Cycle

Citric Acid Cycle

Citric Acid  a cyclic metabolic pathway
Cyle that begins with the addition of
acetyl CoA to a four-carbon
substrate.
 The cycle ends when the same
four-carbon substrate is formed
as a product 8 steps later
 produces high-energy
compounds for ATP synthesis in
STEP 2
stage [4] of catabolism
 isomerizes the 3o alcohol in citrate to the 2o
alcohol in isocitrate; it is catalyzed by aconitase
OVERVIEW OF THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE PHOTO :
PHOTO :

Citric Acid  begins when 2 C’s of acetyl

Cycle CoA react with a four-carbon STEP 3
substrate to form a six-carbon  isocitrate loses CO2 in a decarboxylation
product (step [1]) reaction catalyzed by isocitrate dehydrogenase
 2 C atoms are sequentially
removed to form 2 CO2 PHOTO :

DRGB 9
BIOENERGETICS

STEP 6
 succinate is converted to fumarate with FAD
 Also, the 2o alcohol of isocitrate is oxidized by and succinate dehydrogenase; FADH2 is formed
the oxidizing agent NAD+ to form the ketone a-
ketoglutarate and NADH. PHOTO :

STEP 4
 releases another CO2 with the oxidation of
a-ketoglutarate by NAD+ in the presence of
coenzyme A to form succinyl CoA and NADH
PHOTO :

STEP 7
 water is added across the C=C;
 this transforms fumarate into malate, which
has a 2o alcohol
PHOTO :
 This step is catalyzed by a-ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase.

STEP 5
 the thioester bond of succinyl CoA is
hydrolyzed to form succinate, releasing energy
that converts GDP to GTP
PHOTO :

DRGB 10
BIOENERGETICS
STEP 8
 the 2o alcohol of malate is oxidized by NAD+
to form the ketone portion of oxaloacetate and
NADH
PHOTO :

Reduced  NADH and FADH2

coenzymes  reducing agents
 can donate e− when oxidized.
NADH  oxidized to NAD+
 FADH2 is oxidized to FAD
when they enter the electron
transport chain
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION :
 The product of step [8] is the starting material
 The e− donated by the coenzymes are passed
for step [1]
down from complex to complex in a series of
redox reactions, which produces some energy
 These e− and H+ react with inhaled O2 to form
CITRIC ACID CYCLE water
 This process is aerobic because of the use of
OVERALL CITRIC ACID CYCLE YIELDS O2
 2 CO2 molecules
 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 molecules ATP Synthesis by Oxidative
 1 GTP molecule PHOSPHORYLATION
 To return to the matrix, H+ ions travel through
MAIN FUNCTION : a channel in the ATP synthase enzyme
 to produce reduced coenzymes (NADH and ATP synthase  the enzyme that catalyzes
FADH2) the phosphoryation of ADP
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION : into ATP.
 These molecules enter the electron transport Oxidative  The energy released as the
chain and ultimately produce ATP Phosphorylation H+ ions return to the matrix is
the energy stored in the ATP
molecule
 because the energy used
Lesson 5 - Electron transport Chain & Oxidative to transfer the phosphate
Phosphorylation group results from the
oxidation of the coenzymes
The Electron Transport Chain
Electron  a multistep process using 4
Transport enzyme complexes (I, II, III and ATP Yield by Oxidative
Chain IV) located along the PHOSPHORYLATION
mitochondrial inner membrane. Each NADH  produces enough energy to
PHOTO : entering the make 2.5 ATPs.
electron
transport chain
Each FADH2  The energy released as the
entering the H+ ions return to the matrix is
electron the energy stored in the ATP

DRGB 11
BIOENERGETICS
transport chain molecule ADDITIONAL INFORMATION :
 info

The citric acid cycle produces overall :
 3 NADH x 2.5 ATP = 7.5 ATP
 1 FADH2 x 1.5 ATP = 1.5 ATP
 ENUMERATION
1 GTP = 1 ATP
1  Info
= 10 ATP
CHECKLIST

Focus on Health & Medicine 
Hydrogen Cyanide 
 If any one step of the electron transport chain
or oxidative phosphorylation is disrupted an 2  Info
organism cannot survive 3  Info
Hydrogen  produces −CN, which 4  Info
cyanide (HCN) irreversibly binds to the FE3+
portion of the cytochrome SUBTOPIC 1
oxidase Term  Definition
Cytochrome  a key enzyme of complex
oxidase IV of the electron transport For information that needs
chain emphasis
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION :
 This prevents the FE3+ from being reduced to
FE2+, halting the electron transport chain and
energy production
 ATP is not synthesized, and cell death occurs

SUBTOPIC 1
term  definition


term 
term 
DEFINITION :



SUBTOPIC 2
TOPIC
 info

PURPOSE :

EXAMPLE (1)
(2)
(3)
TOPIC
 info


DRGB 12