Department of Geography

& Environmental Studies

ENV :
Principles of Demography

Lecture Notes

Thursday, February 23, 2023 1

 Course Structure:
Topics
1. Demographic data
2. Population distribution and density
3. Population change
4. Fertility and fecundity
5. Mortality and morbidity
6. Migration
7. Nuptiality
8. Theories of population and
development
9. Population policy
10.Population control

Thursday, February 23, 2023 2

 Topic 1:
Demographic data
1. Meaning of demographic data
2. Sources of demographic data
3. Basic demographic data
collection methods
4. Basic demographic data
analysis methods
5. Basic demographic data
presentation methods

Thursday, February 23, 2023

3
 Topic 1.1:
Meaning of demographic data

• Demographic data is defined as

statistical data about the
characteristics of a population,
such as age, gender, education,
marital status and income of the
people within a population.

Thursday, February 23, 2023 4

 Topic 1.2:
Sources of demographic data

1. Censuses
2. Vital Registration Systems
3. Sample Surveys

Thursday, February 23, 2023

5
 Topic 1.2.1:
Censuses

1. Meaning of population census

2. Essential features of census
3. Usefulness of census
4. Types of enumeration
5. Topical areas for census
6. Analysis of population census in
Malawi

Thursday, February 23, 2023 6

 Topic 1.2.1.1:
Censuses

• A population census is the total

process of collecting, compiling,
evaluating, analysing and
publishing or otherwise
disseminating demographic,
economic and social data
pertaining, at a specified time, to
all persons in a country or in a
well delimited part of a country.

Thursday, February 23, 2023 7

 Topic 1.2.1.1:
Censuses

• Clarke (1972) defined a census as

the total process of colleting,
compiling and publishing
demographic data pertaining, at
a particular time (periodicity), to
all persons (universality) in a
defined territory.

Thursday, February 23, 2023 8

 Topic 1.2.1.2:
Essential Features of Population
Censuses
1. Individual enumeration –
each individual and living
quarter has to be enumerated
separately.
2. Universality – A census must
cover every individual or
housing unit present within the
defined census area.

Thursday, February 23, 2023 9

 Topic 1.2.1.2:
Essential Features of Population
Censuses
3. Simultaneity – Each person
and housing unit must be
canvassed within a defined
point in time.
4. Defined periodicity - There
should be a defined time gap
between censuses. The most
commonly used interval is 10
years.

Thursday, February 23, 2023 10

 Topic 1.2.1.3:
Usefulness of Population Censuses

1. To provide facts to policy makers

and planners
2. Policy development and
management/evaluation of
programs
3. Redistricting – delimitation of
election boundaries to insure
adequate representation
4. Scientific research
5. Industry – to determine
consumer demand and
availability of labor.

Thursday, February 23, 2023 11

 Topic 1.2.1.4:
Types of Enumeration

1. Canvasser (enumerator)
method – information on each
individual or housing unit is
entered by a census official.
2. Household method:
responsibility for entering
information given to an
individual in the housing unit.

Thursday, February 23, 2023 12

 Topic 1.2.1.5:
Topical Areas of Population
Censuses
1. Geographical and internal
migration

2. Household and family

3. Demographic and social

4. Fertility and mortality

5. Educational characteristics

6. Economic characteristics

7. International migration

8. Disability characteristics

Thursday, February 23, 2023 13

 Topic 1.2.1.5.1:
Geographical and internal
migration
1. Place of usual residence

2. Place where present at time of

census, Locality

3. Place of birth

4. Duration of residence

5. Place of previous residence

6. Place of residence at a specified

date in the past

Thursday, February 23, 2023 14

 Topic 1.2.1.5.2:
Household and family
Characteristics
1. Relationship to head or other
reference member of household

2. Household and family

composition

3. Household and family status

Thursday, February 23, 2023 15

 Topic 1.2.1.5.3:
Demographic and social
Characteristics
1. Sex

2. Age

3. Marital status

4. Citizenship

5. Religion

6. Language

7. National and/or ethnic group

Thursday, February 23, 2023 16

 Topic 1.2.1.5.4:
Fertility and mortality
characteristics
1. Children ever born

2. Children living

3. Date of birth of last child born

alive

4. Deaths in the past 12 months

5. Maternal or paternal
orphanhood

Thursday, February 23, 2023 17

 Topic 1.2.1.5.5:
Educational characteristics

1. Literacy

2. School attendance

3. Educational attainment

4. Field of education and

educational qualifications

Thursday, February 23, 2023 18

 Topic 1.2.1.5.6:
Economic characteristics

1. Activity status

2. Time worked

3. Occupation

4. Industry

5. Status in employment

6. Income

7. Institutional sector of
employment

8. Place of work

Thursday, February 23, 2023 19

 Topic 1.2.1.5.7:
International migration

1. Country of birth

2. Citizenship

3. Year or period of arrival

Thursday, February 23, 2023 20

 Topic 1.2.1.5.8:
Disability characteristics

1. Disability

2. Impairment and handicap

3. Causes of disability

Thursday, February 23, 2023 21

 Topic 1.2.1.6:
Analysis of Population Censuses in
Malawi
1. Analyse strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats of the
Malawi population census.

Thursday, February 23, 2023 22

 Topic 1.2.1:
Censuses

1. Meaning of population census

2. Essential features of census
3. Usefulness of census
4. Types of enumeration
5. Topical areas for census
6. Analysis of population census in
Malawi

Thursday, February 23, 2023 23

 Topic 1.2.2:
Vital Registration Systems

1. Definition
2. Importance of vital registration
3. Definition of vital event

Thursday, February 23, 2023 24

A. REGISTRATION SYSTEMS
Vital registration is the system by which a government records the
vital events of its citizens and records
Registration systems pertain to the population’s demographic
events (births and deaths and, in some places, migrations) and
measure them as they occur.
Registers are intended to cover the entire population
Registers are dynamic and continuous.
They are compiled and published annually or monthly.
Registers apply mainly to births and deaths
However, registers of marriages, divorces, and abortions,
migration may also be maintained.
Importance of vital registration

Vital statistics, or vital events or vital records as they are known generally, have become an
important resource for demographic data. It explicates statistical events such as births, deaths,
marriages, divorces

Vital registration creates legal documents which may be used to establish and protect the civil
rights of individuals, as well as providing a source of data ...

Vital events

Vital events are the events related to the human life such as birth death, marriage, divorce,
separation, adoption, sickness, population growth
 Topic 1.2.3:
Sample Surveys

1. Censuses
2. Vital Registration Systems
3. Sample Surveys

Thursday, February 23, 2023 27

A. National Censuses
it is the total process of collecting, compiling, and publishing demographic,
economic, & social data pertaining, at a specified time, to all persons in a
country or delimited territory.
The main objective of a census is to obtain data about the size, composition,
and distribution of the population.
A census collects data on the following:
 the size of the population and its social and geographic subpopulations
 age and sex composition of the population
 educational composition of the population
 industrial and occupational composition of the working population
 economic (salary and income) data.
 country or area of birth, citizenship, language, recent migration experience,
religion, and ethnic heritage
Censuses are conducted on either a decennial (every 10 years) or quinquennial
(every 5 years) basis.
Censuses cover the entire population i.e. everyone in the population is supposed to
be enumerated, and all the demographic events (births, deaths, and so forth) that
occur in the population are supposed to be registered.
Ways of counting people in a census
de jure method – the census covers the entire territory of the country & counts
persons according to their “usual” or “normal” place of residence in the country
de facto method – also covers the entire territory of the country but counts each
person in the population according to his/her geographical location on the day of the
census undertaking.
Sample Surveys

Sample surveys of population are another useful method of collecting

demographic data.

They are useful complements to demographic information obtained through

censuses, and other sources.

Surveys have a number of advantages.

They tend to be less costly than censuses

Can be designed with a specific purpose in mind and can dwell in depth into
the subject matter.

Further, they can be used in combination with demographic data obtained

from other sources.
There are two major types of sample surveys:
those based on probability samples and those not based on probability
samples.

In probability samples each individual in the target population has an equal

chance of being selected and thus the probability of selection can be estimated
numerically.

Non-probability samples take many different approaches and formats. Among

them, convenience or accidental sampling is a non-random sample used
because of ease of access to the individuals being sampled.
 Quota sampling involves the non-random selection of individuals with different
characteristics such as sex to ensure that they are represented in the sample.

This method may use a proportional approach in considering the adequacy of

representation, for example, a sample in which half of the total number are
males and the other half are females.

Purposive or judgmental sampling involves another non-random selection of

subjects. The selection is based on the knowledge of those undertaking the
survey of the types of individuals that should be included in the survey.

Yet another kind of non-random sampling is snowball sampling.

It consists of the selection of some individuals of interest for the survey and
then using their knowledge to reach others of interest for the survey.
 Topic 1.3:
Demographic data
collection methods
• Survey
• Census
• Focus group discussion
• Observation
• Desk research

Thursday, February 23, 2023 33

Focus group Discussion

A focus group discussion involves gathering people from

similar. backgrounds or experiences together to discuss a specific topic
of. interest.

It is a form of qualitative research where questions are. asked about their

perceptions attitudes, beliefs, opinion or ideas

Observation

A way to gather data by watching people, events, or noting physical

characteristics in their natural setting.

Observations can be overt (subjects know they are being observed) or covert
(do not know they are being watched). Participant Observation
Desk Research

Desk research is a type of research that is based on the material published in reports
and similar documents that are available in public libraries

Desk research is another name for secondary research.

Broadly speaking, there are two types of research activity: primary research (where you
go out and discover stuff yourself); and secondary research (where you review what
other people have done).

Desk research is not about collecting data. Instead, your role as a user researcher
carrying out desk research is to review previous research findings to gain a broad
understanding of the field
 Topic 1.4:
Demographic data
analysis methods
• Measures of central tendency;
mean, median and mode
• Measures of variation and
dispersion; range, variation and
standard deviation

Thursday, February 23, 2023 36

Measures of central tendency are summary statistics that represent
the centre point or typical value of a dataset

Calculating the mean, add up all of the values and divide by the
number of observations in your dataset.

The median is the middle value. It is the value that splits the dataset
in half, making it a natural measure of central tendency.

To find the median, order your data from smallest to largest, and then
find the data point that has an equal number of values above it and
below it.
When there is an even number of values, you count in to the two
innermost values and then take the average

The mode is the value that occurs the most frequently in your data
set, making it a different type of measure of central tendency than the
mean or median.
To find the mode, sort the values in your dataset by numeric values or
by categories. Then identify the value that occurs most often.
Measures of variation and dispersion

Range

variation

standard deviation
Measures of variation

Dispersion is the state of getting dispersed or spread. Statistical dispersion means the extent to which
numerical data is likely to vary about an average value. In other words, dispersion helps to understand the
distribution of the data.

What are the 4 main measures of variability?

Range: the difference between the highest and lowest values.

Interquartile range: the range of the middle half of a distribution.

Standard deviation: average distance from the mean.

Variance: average of squared distances from the mean

Range: It is simply the difference between the maximum value and the minimum value given in a data set.
Example: 1, 3,5, 6, 7 => Range = 7 -1= 6

Variance: Deduct the mean from each data in the set, square each of them and add each square and
finally divide them by the total no of values in the data
Variance (σ2) = ∑(X−μ)2/N

Standard Deviation: The square root of the variance is known as the standard deviation i.e. S.D. = √σ.
Variance and Standard Deviation
Standard deviation is the positive square root of the variance. The symbols σ and s are used correspondingly to
represent population and sample standard deviations.
Standard Deviation is a measure of how spread out the data is. Its formula is simple; it is the square root of the
variance for that data set. It’s represented by the Greek symbol sigma (σ).
How to Calculate Variance
Variance can be calculated easily by following the steps given below:
Find the mean of the given data set. Calculate the average of a given set of values
Now subtract the mean from each value and square them
Find the average of these squared values, that will result in variance
Say if x1, x2, x3, x4, …,xn are the given values.
Therefore, the mean of all these values is:
x̄ = (x1+x2+x3+…+xn)/n
Now subtract the mean value from each value of the given data set and square them.
(x1-x̄)2, (x2-x̄)2, (x3-x̄)2,…….,(xn-x̄)2
Find the average of the above values to get the variance.
Var (X) = [(x1-x̄)2+ (x2-x̄)2+ (x3-x̄)2+…….+(xn-x̄)2]/n
Hence, the variance is calculated.

Example of Variance
Let’s say the heights (in mm) are 610, 450, 160, 420, 310.
Mean and Variance is interrelated.

The first step is finding the mean which is done as follows,

Mean = ( 610+450+160+420+310)/ 5 = 390
So the mean average is 390 mm.

To calculate the Variance, compute the difference of each from the mean, square it and find then find the average
once again.

So for this particular case the variance is :

= (2202 + 602 + (-230)2 +302 + (-80)2)/5
= (48400 + 3600 + 52900 + 900 + 6400)/5
Final answer : Variance = 22440
 Topic 1.5:
Demographic data presentation
methods
• Population pyramids
• Life tables

Thursday, February 23, 2023 43

 Topic 1.5.1.1:
Meaning of Population Pyramids

• Population pyramids are simple

graphs that show the age and
sex of a population.

Thursday, February 23, 2023 44

 Topic 1.5.1.1:
Meaning of Population Pyramids

Thursday, February 23, 2023 45

 Topic 1.5.1.1:
Meaning of population Pyramids

• Each bar shows the percentage

of the total population made up
by a particular age–sex group.
• Sex – divided into male (left) and
female (right)
• Age – divided into 5-age cohorts
i.e 0-4, 5-9, 10-14, 15-19, 20-24,
25-29, ………., 70-74, 75+

Thursday, February 23, 2023 46

 Topic 1.5.1.2:
Construction of population Pyramids

• Create columns for

1. total age group
2. total population for both sexes,
3. population male,
4. percentage of population male,
5. population female,
6. percentage of population
female,
• in excel spreadsheet

• Insert data in excel spread sheet

Thursday, February 23, 2023 47

 Topic 1.5.1.2:
Construction of population Pyramids

• Calculate percentages
• Construct the pyramids using
excel
• Ref: spreadsheethttp:
• //www.slideshare.net/blueboyned
a/how-to-make-your-own-
population-pyramid-in-six-
simple-steps#

Thursday, February 23, 2023 48

 Topic 1.5.1.3:
Types of population pyramids

• Four types;
1) Stationery
2) Early expansive
3) Late expansive
4) Constractive/Constrictive

Thursday, February 23, 2023 49

 Topic 1.5.1.3:
Stationery population pyramids

Thursday, February 23, 2023 50

 Topic 1.5.1.3:
Stationery population pyramids

• A population pyramid typical of countries with high fertility and high mortality

• Stationary, or near stationary, population pyramids are used to describe

populations that are not growing.

• They are characterized by their rectangular shape, displaying somewhat

equal percentages across age cohorts that taper off toward the top.

• These pyramids are often characteristic of developed nations, where birth

rates are low and overall quality of life is high.

Thursday, February 23, 2023 51

 Topic 1.5.1.3:
Early expansive population
pyramids

Thursday, February 23, 2023 52

 Topic 1.5.1.3:
Early expansive population
pyramids
• A population pyramid typical of countries with high fertility rate and
declining mortality rate
• These types of populations are typically representative of developing nations, whose
populations often have high fertility rates and lower than average life expectancy

• Expansive population pyramids are used to describe populations that are young and
growing.
• They are often characterized by their typical ‘pyramid’ shape, which has a broad base
and narrow top.
• Expansive population pyramids show a larger percentage of the population in the
younger age cohorts, usually with each age cohort smaller in size than the one below it.

Thursday, February 23, 2023 53

 Topic 1.5.1.3:
Late expansive population
pyramids

Thursday, February 23, 2023 54

 Topic 1.5.1.3:
Late expansive population
pyramids

• A population pyramid typical of

countries with high declining fertility
rate and low mortality rate

Thursday, February 23, 2023 55

 Topic 1.5.1.3:
Constractive population pyramids

Thursday, February 23, 2023 56

 Topic 1.5.1.3:
Constractive population pyramids

• A population pyramid typical of countries with low fertility and low

mortality
• Constrictive population pyramids are used to describe populations that are
elderly and shrinking.
• Constrictive pyramids can often look like beehives and typically have an
inverted shape with the graph tapering in at the bottom.
• Constrictive pyramids have smaller percentages of people in the younger
age cohorts and are typically characteristic of countries with higher levels of
social and economic development, where access to quality education and
health care is available to a large portion of the population.

Thursday, February 23, 2023 57

 Topic 1.5.1.4:
Uses of population pyramids

• Population pyramids are used by

demographers as a tool for
understanding the make-up of a
given population, whether a city,
country, region, or the world.

Thursday, February 23, 2023 58

 Topic 1.5.1.4:
Uses of population pyramids

• Demographers use population

pyramids to see population
trends in the past, examine the
current resident profile, and also
to project how the population
will increase/ decrease in the
future.

Thursday, February 23, 2023 59

 Topic 1.5.1.4:
Uses of population pyramids

• Population pyramids can

be used to find the
number of economic
dependents being
supported in a particular
population.
• Economic dependents are
defined as those under 15
(children who are in full
time education and
therefore unable to work)
and those over 65 (those
who have retired).
Thursday, February 23, 2023 60
 Topic 1.5.1.4:
Uses of population pyramids

• Population pyramids are also

useful in planning for the future.
They can be used in helping to
predict changes in the age
structure of the population over
the next fifty or so years so that
plans can be introduced to cope
with the predicted changes.

Thursday, February 23, 2023 61

 Topic 1.5.1.5:
Criticism of population pyramids

• A population pyramid does not

tell you the actual population in
numbers. Rather, it displays
percentages and shows what
portion of people fall into each
cohort.

Thursday, February 23, 2023 62

 Topic 2:
Population distribution and density

• Meaning of population
distribution and density
• Types of population distribution
and density
• Proxy determinants of
population distribution and
density
• Measures of population
distribution and density

Thursday, February 23, 2023 63

 Unit 2.1:
Meaning of Population Density

• According to Waugh (2000), population density describes the number of people

living in a given area, usually a square kilometer

• Haupe and Kane (1978), defined population density as population per unit land
area.

• Calculated by diving the total population of an area by the total area of that
area.

• Often shown by means of a colour map

Thursday, February 23, 2023 64

 Population Density Indices:
Man/Land Use
• Physiological density
• Agricultural density
• Comparative density
• Critical Density of Population (CDP)

Thursday, February 23, 2023 65

 Man/Land Use Density:
Physiological Density

• This measure of population density refers to the

number of people per unit area of arable land, a
basic indicator of a country's food-producing
capability—and the human pressures placed upon
it
• The physiological density or real population density
is the number of people per unit area of arable
land.
• A higher physiological density suggests that the
available agricultural land is being used by more
and may reach its output limit sooner than a
country that has a lower physiological density

Thursday, February 23, 2023 66