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5.1 CONCEPT OF STATE VARIABLES

State space analysis is an excellent method for the design and analysis of control
systems. The conventional and old method for the design and analysis of control systems
is the transfer function method. The transfer function method for design and analysis had
many drawbacks.
Drawbacks of transfer function model analysis:
a. Transfer function is defined under zero initial conditions
b. Transfer function is applicable to linear time invariant systems
c. Transfer function analysis is restricted to single input and single output systems
d. Does not provide information regarding the internal state of the system
Advantages of state variable analysis:
o It can be applied to linear system
o It can be applied to non-linear system
o It can be applied to time varying system
o It can be applied to time invariant system
o It can be applied to multiple input multiple output system
o Its gives idea about the internal state of the system
A state variable is one of the set of variables that are used to describe the mathematical
"state" of a dynamical system. Intuitively, the state of a system describes enough about
the system to determine its future behaviour in the absence of any external forces
affecting the system. The state variable analysis can be applied for any type of systems.
In this method of analysis, it is not necessary that the state variables represent physical
quantities of the system, but variables that do not represent physical quantities and those
that are neither measurable nor observable may be chosen as state variables.

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STATE SPACE FORMULATION

State:
The state of a dynamic system is the minimal set of variables called state variables such
that the knowledge of these variables at time t = t0 (initial condition), together with the
knowledge of input for t ≥ 𝑡0, completely determines the behaviour of the system for any
time 𝑡 > 𝑡0. (or) A set of variables which describes the system at any time instant are
called state variables. In the state variable formulation of a system, in general, a system
consists of m-inputs, p-outputs and n-state variables. The state space representation of
the system may be visualized as shown in figure 5.1.1.

Figure 5.1.1 State space representation of a system

[Source: “Control Systems” by A. Nagoor Kani, Page: 5.2]

Let us consider a multi input & multi output (MIMO) system is having
m inputs: u1(t), u2(t), ……., um(t)
p number of outputs: y1(t), y2(t), ……., yp(t)
n number of state variables: x1(t), x2(t), ……., xn(t)
The different variables may be represented by the vectors (column matrix) as shown
below:
Input vector
𝑢1(𝑡)
𝑢2(𝑡)
𝑈(𝑡) = [ ]
⋮
𝑢𝑚 (𝑡)

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Output vector
𝑦1(𝑡)
𝑦2(𝑡)
𝑌( 𝑡) = [ ⋮ ]
𝑦𝑝(𝑡)
State variable vector
𝑥1(𝑡)
𝑥2(𝑡)
𝑋(𝑡) = [ ]
⋮
𝑥𝑛(𝑡)
State vector:

If n state variables are needed to completely describe the behaviour of a given system,
then these n state variables can be considered the n components of a vector X. Such a
vector is called a state vector.
State space:
The n-dimensional space whose co-ordinate axes consists of the x1 axis, x2 axis………..
xn axis, where x1, x2, , xn are state variables is called a state space.

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5.4 CONCEPTS OF CONTROLLABILITY AND OBSERVABILITY

CONCEPT OF CONTROLLABILITY
A system is said to be completely controllable, if it is possible to transfer the system
state from any initial state x(t0) to any desired state x(t) in specified finite time by a
control vector u(t).
If any of the state variable is independent of the control u(t), there would be no way
of driving this particular state variable to desired state in finite time by means of control
effort. Therefore, this particular state is said to be uncontrollable. As long as there is at least
one uncontrollable state, the system is said to be not completely controllable or
'uncontrollable'.
Consider a single input, linear time invariant system:
𝑋̇(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑡)
Let the initial system state be x(0) and the final state be x(tf). The system is controllable
if it is possible to construct a control signal, which in finite time interval 0 < t <= tf, will
transfer the system state from x(0) to x(tf ). The above equation is completely controllable
if and only if the rank of the composite matrix is n.
𝑄𝐶 = [𝐵 ⋮ 𝐴𝐵 ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ 𝐴𝑛−1𝐵]
Since only matrices A and B are involved, we may say that the pair (A;B) is controllable
if rank of QC is n.
CONCEPT OF OBSERVABILITY
A system is said to be completely observable, if every state x(t0) can be completely
identified by measurement of outputs y(t) over a finite time interval. Given a LTI system
that is described by the dynamic equations, the state x(t0) is said to be observable if given
any input u(t), there exists a finite time tf >= t0 such that knowledge of u(t) for t0
<= t < tf, matrices A,B,C, & D and the output y(t); for t0 <= t < tf are sufficient to determine
x(t0). The necessary and sufficient condition for the system to be completely observable
it is necessary and sufficient that the following n x np observability matrix has rank of n.
𝑄𝑂 = [𝐶𝑇 𝐴𝑇𝐶𝑇 (𝐴2)𝑇𝐶𝑇 ⋯ (𝐴𝑛−1)𝑇𝐶𝑇]

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5.3 SOLUTION OF STATE AND OUTPUT EQUATION IN CONTROLLABLE

CANONICAL FORM
Consider the state equation of a linear time invariant system as,
𝑋̇(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑡)
The matrices A and B are constant matrices. This state equation can be of two types,
1. Homogeneous
2. Non-homogeneous
HOMOGENEOUS EQUATION
If A is a constant matrix and input control forces are zero then the equation takes the form
𝑋̇(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡)
Such an equation is called homogeneous equation. The obvious equation is considered if
input is zero. In such systems, the driving force is provided by the initial conditions of
the system to produce the output. For example, consider a series RC circuit in which a
capacitor is initially charged to V volts. The current is the output. Now there is no input
control force, i.e., external voltage applied to the system. But the initial voltage on the
capacitor drives the current through the system and capacitor starts discharging through
the resistance, R. such a system works on the initial conditions without any input applied
to it is called homogeneous system.
NON-HOMOGENEOUS EQUATION
If A is a constant matrix and matrix U(t) is non-zero vector i.e. the input control forces
are applied to the system then the equation takes normal form as,
𝑋̇(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑡)
Such an equation is called non-homogeneous equation. Most of the practical systems
require inputs to dive them. Such systems arc nonhomogeneous linear systems. The
solution of the state equation is obtained by considering basic method of finding the
solution of homogeneous equation.

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STATE TRANSITION MATRIX

Properties of State Transition Matrix
1. 𝜙(0) = 𝑒 𝐴×0 = 𝐼(𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥)
2. 𝜙(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝐴𝑡 = (𝑒−𝐴𝑡)−1 = [𝜙(−𝑡)]−1
or 𝜙−1(𝑡) = 𝜙(−𝑡)
3. 𝜙(𝑡1 + 𝑡2) = 𝑒 𝐴(𝑡1+𝑡2) = 𝑒 𝐴𝑡1 𝑒 𝐴𝑡2 = 𝜙(𝑡1)𝜙(𝑡2)
Computation of State transition matrix
The state transition matrix, eAt can be computed by any one of the following two methods:
Method 1: Computation of eAt using matrix exponential
If the system matrix ‘A’ is an (n×n) square matrix, then each of these exponentials is an
(n×n) square matrix of time functions, and one of the consequences of a theorem
developed in linear algebra, known as the Cayley-Hamilton theorem, shows that such a
matrix may be expressed as an (n−1)st degree polynomial in the matrix A.
That is,
1 1 1
𝑒 𝐴𝑡 = 𝐼 + 𝐴𝑡 + 𝐴2𝑡2 + 𝐴3𝑡3 + ⋯ + 𝐴 𝑖𝑡𝑖
2! 3! 𝑖!
where, eAt – State transition matrix of order n x n
A – System matrix of order n x n
I – Unit matrix of order n x n
Method 2: Computation of eAt using Laplace transform
The theorem also states that the equation remains an equality if I is replaced by unity and
A is replaced by any one of the scalar roots sI of the nth-degree scalar equation, det(sI-
A) = 0. The expression det(sI-A) indicates the determinant of the matrix (sI-A). This
determinant is an nth-degree polynomial ins. Let us assume that then roots are all
different. This equation is called the characteristic equation of the matrix a, and the values
of s which are the roots of the equation are known as the eigen values of A.
Consider the state equation without input vector,
𝑋̇(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡)
On taking Laplace transform, we get,
𝑠𝑋(𝑠) − 𝑋(0) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑠)
𝑠𝑋(𝑠) − 𝐴𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑋(0)

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𝑠𝐼𝑋(𝑠) − 𝐴𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑋(0) (𝑠𝐼

− 𝐴)𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑋(0)
Pre-multiplying both sides by (sI-A)-1,
𝑋(𝑠) = (𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1𝑋(0)
On taking inverse Laplace transform,
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐿−1[(𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1]𝑥(0)
On comparing with solution of state equation,
𝑒 𝐴𝑡 = 𝐿−1[(𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1]
Also,
𝑒 𝐴𝑡 = 𝜙(𝑡)
where,
𝜙(𝑠) = (𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1
which is the resolvent matrix.

Consider the state equation with input vector,

𝑋̇(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡) +𝐵𝑈(𝑡)
On taking Laplace transform, we get,
𝑠𝑋(𝑠) − 𝑋(0) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑠) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑠)
𝑠𝐼𝑋(𝑠) − 𝐴𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑋(0) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑠) (𝑠𝐼
− 𝐴)𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑋(0) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑠)
Pre-multiplying both sides by (sI-A)-1,
𝑋(𝑠) = (𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1𝑋(0)+(𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1𝐵𝑈(𝑠)
𝑋(𝑠) = 𝜙(𝑠)𝑋(0) + 𝜙(𝑠)𝐵𝑈(𝑠)
On taking inverse Laplace transform,
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝜙(𝑡)𝑥(0) + 𝐿−1[𝜙(𝑠)𝐵𝑈(𝑠)]
Solution of output equation by Laplace Transform
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐶𝑋(𝑠) + 𝐷𝑈(𝑠)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐿−1[𝐶𝑋(𝑠) + 𝐷𝑈(𝑠)]

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CONTROLLABLE CANONICAL FORM (CCF)

Probably the most straightforward method for converting from the transfer function of a
system to a state space model is to generate a model in "controllable canonical form."
Consider a system defined by,
𝑦(𝑛) + 𝑎1𝑦(𝑛−1) + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑦̇ + 𝑎𝑛𝑦 = 𝑏0𝑢(𝑛) + 𝑏1𝑢(𝑛−1) + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛−1𝑢̇ + 𝑏𝑛𝑢
where u is the control input and y is the output. It can be written as,
𝑌(𝑠) [𝑏0𝑠𝑛 + 𝑏1𝑠𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛−1𝑠 + 𝑏𝑛]
=
𝑈(𝑠) [𝑠𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑠𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 + 𝑎 𝑛]

Controllable canonical form of this system is given by,

𝑥1 0 1 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥1 0

𝑥2 0 0 1 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥2 0
𝑥3 0 0 0 1 ⋮ 0 𝑥3 0 𝑢
= +
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑥̇𝑛−1 0 0 0 0 ⋮ 1 𝑥𝑛−1 0

[ 𝑥𝑛̇ ] [−𝑎𝑛 −𝑎𝑛−1 −𝑎𝑛−2 −𝑎𝑛−3 ⋮ −𝑎1] [ 𝑥𝑛 ] [1]

𝑥1
𝑥2
𝑏2 − 𝑎2𝑏0 𝑏1 − 𝑎1𝑏0] ⋮
𝑦 = [𝑏𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛𝑏0 𝑏𝑛−1 − 𝑎𝑛−1𝑏0 ⋯ ⋯ ⋮ + 𝑏0𝑢
𝑥𝑛−1

[ 𝑥𝑛 ]
OBSERVABLE CANONICAL FORM
The observable canonical form of the state-space representation of this system is given
by

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𝑥1 0 0 0 ⋮ 0 −𝑎𝑛 𝑥1 𝑏𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛𝑏0
𝑥2 1 0 0 ⋮ 0 −𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥2
1 0 ⋮ 0
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ −𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥3
𝑥3 0 + 𝑢
⋮ = ⋮ 0 0 ⋮ 0 ⋮ ⋮
0 0 ⋮ 1 𝑛−1 − 𝑎𝑛−1𝑏 0
𝑏𝑛−2 − 𝑎𝑛−2𝑏0
𝑥̇𝑛−1 0 −𝑎2 𝑥𝑛−1 ⋮
𝑏2 − 𝑎2𝑏0
[ 𝑥𝑛̇ ] [0 −𝑎1 ] [ 𝑥𝑛 ] [ 𝑏1 − 𝑎1𝑏0 ]
𝑥1
𝑥2
𝑦 = [0 0 0 ⋯ 0 1] 𝑥3 +𝑏𝑢

⋮ 0
𝑥𝑛−1
[ 𝑥𝑛 ]

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DIAGONAL CANONICAL FORM

There are cases where the dominator polynomial involves only distinct roots. For the
distinct root case, we can write the equation in the form of
𝑌(𝑠) [𝑏0𝑠𝑛 + 𝑏1𝑠𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛−1𝑠 + 𝑏𝑛] 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐𝑛
= = 𝑏0 + + + ⋯+
𝑈(𝑠) (𝑠 + 𝑝1 )(𝑠 + 𝑝2 ). . . (𝑠 + 𝑝𝑛 ) 𝑠 +𝑝 𝑠 + 𝑝2 𝑠 + 𝑝𝑛
1

The diagonal canonical form of the state-space representation of this system is given by
𝑥1 −𝑝1 0 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥1 1

𝑥2 0 −𝑝2 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥2 1
𝑥3 0 −𝑝3 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥3 1 𝑢
=0 +
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑥̇𝑛−1 0 0 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥𝑛−1 1

[ 𝑥𝑛̇ ] [ 0 0 0 0 ⋮ −𝑝𝑛] [ 𝑥𝑛 ] [ 1]
𝑥1

𝑥2
𝑦 = [𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 ⋯ 𝑐𝑛−1 𝑐𝑛] 𝑥3 +𝑏𝑢
1 2 3 0
⋮
𝑥𝑛−1
[ 𝑥𝑛 ]

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5.2 STATE MODELS FOR LINEAR AND TIME INVARIANT SYSTEMS

State model is given by state and output equation
State equation:
𝑋̇(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑡)
Output equation:
𝑌(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐷𝑈(𝑡)
where,

A is state matrix of size (n x n)

B is the input matrix of size (n x m)
C is the output matrix of size (p x n)
D is the direct transmission matrix of size (p x m)
X(t) is the state vector of size (n x 1)
Y(t) is the output vector of size (p x 1)
U(t) is the input vector of size (m x 1)

Figure 5.2.1 State space model diagram

[Source: “Modern Control Engineering” by Katsuhiko Ogata, Page: 828]

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STATE SPACE REPRESENTATION USING PHYSICAL VARIABLES

In state-space modelling of systems, the choice of state variables is arbitrary. One
of the possible choices of state variables. The physical variables of electrical systems are
current or voltage in the R, L and C elements. The physical variables of mechanical
systems are displacement, velocity and acceleration. The advantages of choosing the
physical variables (or quantities) of the system as state variables are the following,
1. The state variables can be utilized for the purpose of feedback
2. The implementation of design with state variable feedback becomes straight
forward
3. The solution of state equation gives time variation of variables which have direct
relevance to the physical system.
The drawback in choosing the physical quantities as state variables is that the solution of
state equation may be a difficult task. In state space modelling using physical variables,
the state equations are obtained from a basic model of the system which is developed
using the fundamental elements of the system.
Electrical System
The basic model of an electrical system can be obtained by using the fundamental
elements Resistor, Capacitor and Inductor. Using these elements, the electrical network
or equivalent circuit of the system is drawn. Then the differential equations governing the
electrical systems can be formed by writing Kirchhoff’s Current Law equations by
choosing various nodes in the network or Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law by choosing various
closed path in the network. A minimal number of state variables are chosen for obtaining
the state model of the system. The best choice of state variables in electrical system are
currents and voltages in energy storage elements. The energy storage elements are
inductance and capacitance. The physical variables in the differential equations are
replaced by state variables and the equations are rearranged as first order differential
equations. These set of first order equations constitutes the state equation of the system.
The inputs to the system are voltage sources or current sources. The outputs in electrical
system are usually voltages or currents in energy dissipating elements. The resistance is
energy dissipating element in electrical network. In general, the output variables can be
any voltage or current in the network.

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Mechanical Translational System

The basic model of mechanical translational system can be obtained by using three
basic elements; mass, spring and dash-pot. When a force is applied to a mechanical
translational system, it is opposed by opposing forces due to mass, friction and elasticity
of the system. The forces acting on a body are governed by Newton’s second law of
motion. The differential equations governing the system are obtaining by writing force
balance equations at various nodes in the system. A node is a meeting points of elements.
Guidelines to form the state model of mechanical translational systems
1. For each node in the system one differential equation can be framed by equating the
sum of applied forces to the sum of opposing forces. Generally, the nodes are mass
elements of the system, but in some cases the nodes may be without mass element.
2. Assign a displacement to each node and draw a free body diagram for each node. The
free body diagram is obtained by drawing each mass of node separately and them
marking all the forces acting on it.
3. In the free body diagram, the opposing forces due to mass, spring and dash –pot are
always act in a direction opposite to applied force. The displacement, velocity and
acceleration will be in the direction of applied force or in the direction opposite to that
of opposing force.
4. For each free body diagram write one differential equation by equating the sum of
applied forces to the sum of opposing forces.
5. Choose a minimum number of state variables. The choice of state variables are
displacement, velocity or acceleration.
6. The physical variables in differential equations are replaced by state variables and the
equations are rearranged as first order differential equations. These set of first order
equations constitute the state equation of the system.
7. The inputs are the applied forces and the outputs are the displacement, velocity or
acceleration of the desired nodes.

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Mechanical Rotational System

The basic model of mechanical rotational system can be obtained by using three
basic elements moment of inertia of mass, rotational dash-pot and rotational spring. When
a torque is applied to a mechanical rotational system, it is opposed by opposing torques
due to moment of inertia, friction and elasticity of the system. The torque acting on a
body are governed by Newton’s second law of motion. The differential equations
governing the system are obtained by writing torque balance equations at various nodes
in the system. A node is a meeting point of elements.
Guidelines to form the state model of mechanical rotational systems
1. For each node in the system one differential equation can be framed by equating the
sum of applied torques to the sum of opposing torques. Generally, the nodes are mass
elements of the system, but in some cases the nodes may be without mass element.
2. Assign an angular displacement to each node and draw a free body diagram for each
node. The free body diagram is obtained by drawing each mass of node separately and
them marking all the torques acting on it.
3. In the free body diagram, the opposing torques due to mass of inertia, spring and
dashpot are always act in a direction opposite to applied force. The angular
displacement, velocity and acceleration will be in the direction of applied torque or in
the direction opposite to that of opposing torque.
4. For each free body diagram write one differential equation by equating the sum of
applied torques to the sum of opposing torques.
5. Choose a minimum number of state variables. The choice of state variables are angular
displacement, velocity or acceleration.
6. The physical variables in differential equations are replaced by state variables and the
equations are rearranged as first order differential equations. These set of first order
equations constitute the state equation of the system.
7. The inputs are the applied torques and the outputs are the angular displacement,
velocity or acceleration of the desired nodes.

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STATE SPACE REPRESENTATION USING PHASE VARIABLES

The phase variables are defined as those particular state variables which are obtained
from one of the system variables and its derivatives. There are three methods of modelling
a system using phase variables. They are,
METHOD 1
Consider the following nth order linear differential equation relating the output y(t) to the
input u(t) of a system,
𝑦̇ 𝑛 + 𝑎1𝑦̇ 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2𝑦̇𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−2𝑦̈ + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑦̇ + 𝑎𝑛𝑦 = 𝑏𝑢
By choosing the output, y and their derivatives as state variables, we get,
𝑥1 = 𝑦
𝑥2 = 𝑦̇
𝑥3 = 𝑦̈
⋮
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑦̇𝑛−1
𝑥𝑛̇ = 𝑦̇ 𝑛
𝑥𝑛̇ + 𝑎1𝑥𝑛 + 𝑎2 𝑥𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥3 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥1 = 𝑏𝑢
𝑥𝑛̇ = −𝑎1 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑎2 𝑥𝑛−1 − ⋯ − 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥3 − 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥2 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑢
The state equations of the system are
𝑥1̇ = 𝑥2
𝑥2̇ = 𝑥3
𝑥3̇ = 𝑥4
⋮
𝑥̇𝑛−1 = 𝑥𝑛
𝑥𝑛̇ = −𝑎1 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑎2 𝑥𝑛−1 − ⋯ − 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥3 − 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥2 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑢
On arranging the above equations in the matrix form, we get,
𝑥1 𝑥1 0

𝑥2 𝑥2 0
𝑥3 0 1 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥3 0 𝑢
= 0 +
0 1 0 ⋮ 0
⋮ 0 0 0 1 ⋮ 0 ⋮ ⋮
𝑥̇𝑛−1 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ 𝑥𝑛−1 0
0 0 0 0 ⋮ 1
[ 𝑥𝑛̇ ] [−𝑎𝑛 −𝑎𝑛−1 −𝑎𝑛−2 −𝑎𝑛−3 ⋮ −𝑎1] [ 𝑥𝑛 ] [𝑏]

𝑋̇ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈
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This form of matrix A is known as Bush form (or) Companion form.

𝑥1
𝑥2
𝑥
𝑦 = [1 0 0 ⋯ 0 0] ⋮ 3

𝑥𝑛−1
[ 𝑥𝑛 ]
𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋
METHOD 2

Consider the following nth order linear differential equation relating the output y(t) to the
input u(t) of a system,
𝑦̇ 𝑛 + 𝑎1𝑦̇ 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2𝑦̇𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−2𝑦̈ + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑦̇ + 𝑎𝑛𝑦 = 𝑏𝑢
Let n = m = 3
𝑦⃛ + 𝑎1𝑦̈ + 𝑎2 𝑦̇ + 𝑎3 𝑦 = 𝑏0 𝑢
⃛ + 𝑏1 𝑢̈ + 𝑏2 𝑢̇ + 𝑏3 𝑢
On taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions, we get,
𝑠3𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑎1𝑠2𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑎2𝑠𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑎3𝑌(𝑠)
= 𝑏0𝑠3𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑏1𝑠2𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑏2𝑠𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑏3𝑈(𝑠) [𝑠3 + 𝑎1𝑠2
+ 𝑎2𝑠 + 𝑎3]𝑌(𝑠) = [𝑏0𝑠3 + 𝑏1𝑠2 + 𝑏2𝑠 + 𝑏3]𝑈(𝑠)
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
3 2 𝑠3[𝑏 + 1 + 2 + 3] [𝑏 + + + ]
𝑌(𝑠) = [𝑏0𝑠 + 𝑏1𝑠 + 𝑏2𝑠 + 𝑏3] = 0 𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠3 = 0 𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠3
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑈(𝑠) [𝑠3 + 𝑎1𝑠2 + 𝑎2𝑠 + 𝑎3] 𝑠3[1 + 1 + 2 + 3] 1 − [− 1 − 2 − 3]
𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠3 𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠3

From Mason’s gain formula, the transfer function of the system is given by,
1
𝑇(𝑠) = ∑ 𝑃𝐾 ∆𝐾
∆
𝐾
where, PK – path gain of Kth forward path
Δ = 1 – (sum of loop gain of all individual loops) + (sum of gain products of all
possible combinations of two non-touching loops) – ……..
ΔK = Δ for that part of the graph which is not touching Kth forward path
The transfer function of the system with four forward paths and three feedback loops
(touching each other) is given by,
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + 𝑃4
𝑇(𝑠) =
1 − (𝑃11 + 𝑃12 + 𝑃13)
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By comparing the above equations,

𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3

𝑃1 = 𝑏0; 𝑃2= ; 𝑃3 = ; 𝑃4 = ; 𝑃11 = − ; 𝑃12 = − ; 𝑃13 = −

𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠3 𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠3

On arranging the above equations in the matrix form, we get,

𝑥1 −𝑎1 1 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥1 𝑏1 − 𝑎1𝑏0
𝑥2 −𝑎2 0 1 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥2 𝑏2 − 𝑎2𝑏0

𝑥3 −𝑎3 0 0 1 ⋮ 0 𝑥3 𝑏3 − 𝑎3𝑏0 𝑢
= +
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
−𝑎𝑛−1 0 0 0 ⋮ 1 𝑥𝑛−1
𝑥̇𝑛−1 [ 𝑏𝑛−1 − 𝑎𝑛−1𝑏0 [
𝑥𝑛̇ ] [ −𝑎𝑛 0 0 0 ⋮ 0] [ 𝑥𝑛 ] 𝑏𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛𝑏0 ]

𝑋̇ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈
𝑥1
𝑥2
𝑦 = [1 0 0 ⋯ 0 0] 𝑥3 +𝑏𝑢

⋮ 0
𝑥𝑛−1
[ 𝑥𝑛 ]
𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋 + 𝐷𝑈
METHOD 3

Consider the following nth order linear differential equation relating the output y(t) to the
input u(t) of a system,
𝑦̇ 𝑛 + 𝑎1𝑦̇ 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2𝑦̇𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−2𝑦̈ + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑦̇ + 𝑎𝑛𝑦 = 𝑏𝑢
Let n = m = 3
𝑦⃛ + 𝑎1𝑦̈ + 𝑎2 𝑦̇ + 𝑎3 𝑦 = 𝑏0 𝑢
⃛ + 𝑏1 𝑢̈ + 𝑏2 𝑢̇ + 𝑏3 𝑢
On taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions, we get,
𝑠3𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑎1𝑠2𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑎2𝑠𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑎3𝑌(𝑠)
= 𝑏0𝑠3𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑏1𝑠2𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑏2𝑠𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑏3𝑈(𝑠) [𝑠3 + 𝑎1𝑠2
+ 𝑎2𝑠 + 𝑎3]𝑌(𝑠) = [𝑏0𝑠3 + 𝑏1𝑠2 + 𝑏2𝑠 + 𝑏3]𝑈(𝑠)
𝑌(𝑠) [𝑏0𝑠3 + 𝑏1𝑠2 + 𝑏2𝑠 + 𝑏3] [𝑠3 +
=
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑎 1 𝑠 2 + 𝑎2𝑠 + 𝑎3]
Let,
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𝑌(𝑠) 𝑋1(𝑠)
𝑌(𝑠) .
= 𝑋 (𝑠) 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑈(𝑠) 1

𝑋1(𝑠) 1
=
𝑈(𝑠) [𝑠3 + 𝑎 2
1 𝑠 + 𝑎2 𝑠 + 𝑎3]

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𝑌(𝑠) 𝑠3 + 𝑏1 𝑠2 + 𝑏2
= [𝑏0 𝑠 + 𝑏3]
𝑋1(𝑠)
State Equation

On cross multiplying the equation, we get,

𝑋1(𝑠)[𝑠3 + 𝑎1𝑠2 + 𝑎2𝑠 + 𝑎3] = 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑠3𝑋1(𝑠) + 𝑎1𝑠2𝑋1(𝑠) + 𝑎2𝑠𝑋1(𝑠) + 𝑎3𝑋1(𝑠) = 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑥⃛1 + 𝑎1 𝑥1̈ + 𝑎2 𝑥1̇ + 𝑎3 𝑥1 = 𝑢
Let the state variable be x1, x2, x3.
𝑥2 = 𝑥̇1
𝑥3 = 𝑥1̈ = 𝑥̇2
𝑥̇ 3 = 𝑥⃛1
On substituting the state variables, we get,
𝑥̇3 + 𝑎1𝑥3 + 𝑎2𝑥2 + 𝑎3𝑥1 = 𝑢
The state equations are
𝑥̇1 = 𝑥2
𝑥̇2 = 𝑥3
𝑥̇3 = −𝑎1𝑥3 − 𝑎2𝑥2 − 𝑎3𝑥1 + 𝑢
Output Equation

On cross multiplying the equation, we get,

𝑌(𝑠) = [𝑏0𝑠3𝑋1(𝑠) + 𝑏1𝑠2𝑋1(𝑠) + 𝑏2𝑠𝑋1(𝑠) + 𝑏3𝑋1(𝑠)]
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get,
𝑦 = 𝑏0 𝑥⃛1 + 𝑏1 𝑥1̈ + 𝑏2 𝑥1̇ + 𝑏3 𝑥1
On substituting the state variables, we get,
𝑦 = 𝑏0𝑥̇3 + 𝑏1𝑥3 + 𝑏2𝑥2 + 𝑏3𝑥1
Substituting 𝑥̇3 = −𝑎1𝑥3 − 𝑎2𝑥2 − 𝑎3𝑥1 + 𝑢, we get,
𝑦 = 𝑏0(−𝑎1𝑥3 − 𝑎2𝑥2 − 𝑎3𝑥1 + 𝑢) + 𝑏1𝑥3 + 𝑏2𝑥2 + 𝑏3𝑥1
𝑦 = (𝑏3−𝑎3𝑏0)𝑥1 + (𝑏2−𝑎2𝑏0)𝑥2 + (𝑏1−𝑎1𝑏0)𝑥3 + 𝑏0𝑢

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Framing the state and output equation in matrix form, we get,

𝑥1 𝑥1 0

𝑥2 𝑥2 0
𝑥3 0 1 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥3 0 𝑢
= 0 +
0 1 0 ⋮ 0
⋮ 0 0 0 1 ⋮ 0 ⋮ ⋮
𝑥̇𝑛−1 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ 𝑥𝑛−1 0
0 0 0 0 ⋮ 1
[ 𝑥𝑛̇ ] [−𝑎𝑛 −𝑎𝑛−1 −𝑎𝑛−2 −𝑎𝑛−3 ⋮ −𝑎1] [ 𝑥𝑛 ] [1]

𝑋̇ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈
This form of matrix A is known as Bush form (or) Companion form.
𝑥1
𝑥2
⋮
𝑦 = [𝑏𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛𝑏0 𝑏𝑛−1 − 𝑎𝑛−1𝑏0 ⋯ ⋯ 𝑏2 − 𝑎2𝑏0 𝑏1 − 𝑎1𝑏0] ⋮ + 𝑏0𝑢

𝑥𝑛−1
[ 𝑥𝑛 ]
𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋

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STATE SPACE REPRESENTATION USING CANONICAL VARIABLES

In canonical form (or normal form) of state model, the system matrix A will be a
diagonal matrix. The elements on the diagonal are the poles of the transfer function of
the system. By partial fraction expansion, the transfer function Y(s)/U(s) of the nth order
system can be expressed as,
𝑌(𝑠) 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛
= 𝑏0 + + + ⋯+
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠+𝜆 1 𝑠 + 𝜆2 𝑠 + 𝜆𝑛

where, C1, C2, C3, ….., Cn are residues and λ1, λ2, λ3, ….., λn are roots of denominator
polynomial (or poles of the system).
𝑌(𝑠) 𝐶1/𝑠 𝐶2/𝑠 𝐶𝑛/𝑠
= 𝑏0 + + + ⋯+
𝑈(𝑠) 1+𝜆 1 /𝑠 1 + 𝜆2 /𝑠 1 + 𝜆𝑛 /𝑠
𝐶1/𝑠 𝐶2/𝑠 𝐶𝑛/𝑠
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑏0𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑈(𝑠) + ⋯ + 𝑈(𝑠)
1+𝜆 1 /𝑠 1 + 𝜆2 /𝑠 1 + 𝜆𝑛 /𝑠

The state equation can be framed as,

𝑥̇1 = −𝜆1𝑥1 + 𝑢
𝑥̇2 = −𝜆2𝑥2 + 𝑢
⋮
𝑥̇𝑛 = −𝜆𝑛𝑥𝑛 + 𝑢
The output equation can be framed as,
𝑦 = 𝐶1𝑥1 + 𝐶2𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛𝑥𝑛 + 𝑏0𝑢
The canonical form of state model in the matrix form is given by,
𝑥1 −𝜆1 0 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥1 1

𝑥2 0 −𝜆2 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥2 1
𝑥3 0 −𝜆3 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥3 1 𝑢
=0 +
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑥̇𝑛−1 0 0 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥𝑛−1 1

[ 𝑥𝑛̇ ] [ 0 0 0 0 ⋮ −𝜆𝑛] [ 𝑥𝑛 ] [ 1]
𝑥1

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𝑥2
𝑦 = [𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 ⋯ 𝐶 𝐶] 𝑥3 +𝑏𝑢
1 2 3 𝑛−1 𝑛 0
⋮
𝑥𝑛−1
[ 𝑥𝑛 ]

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JORDAN CANONICAL FORM

−𝜆1 0 0 0 ⋮ 0
0 −𝜆1 0 0 ⋮ 0
0 0 −𝜆1 0 ⋮ 0
𝐴 =𝐽= ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
0 0 0 0 ⋮ 0
[ 0 0 0 0 ⋮ −𝜆𝑛]
0
0
1
𝐵=
⋮
1
[1]

𝑍̇ = 𝐽𝑍 + 𝐵̃ 𝑈
𝑌 = 𝐶̃𝑍 + 𝐷𝑈
where,
𝐽 = 𝑀−1𝐴𝑀; 𝐵̃ = 𝑀−1𝐵; 𝐶̃ = 𝐶𝑀

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