Williamstown High School Mathematical Methods 1&2 Calculus Notes 4

Topics

ˆ Estimating the area under a graph

ˆ The definite integral

ˆ Antidifferentiation of polynomial functions

ˆ The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

ˆ Signed area

Textbook exercises: 17E, 21A, 21B, 21C

1 Average rate of change

For a given function y = f (x), the average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval [a, b] is the
gradient of the line ℓ through P (a, f (a)) and Q(b, f (b)). The line ℓ is called secant P Q.

y
Q(b, f (b))

ℓ y = f (x)

P (a, f (a))
x

average rate of change = gradient of secant P Q

rise
=
run
f (b) − f (a)
=
b−a

2 Instantaneous rate of change

Informally, for a given function y = f (x) the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x = a
is the gradient of the line T through P (a, f (a)) that “covers” the graph of y = f (x) around P . The line T is
called the tangent line to y = f (x) at x = a.

1
 y
y = f (x)

P (a, f (a))

e.g.1 Find the instantaneous rate of change of y = x2 at x = 1.4 graphically.

solution

The equation of the line passing through (1.4, 1.42 ) is:

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
⇒ y − 1.42 = m(x − 1.4)
⇒ y = m(x − 1.4) + 1.42

Graphing y = x2 and y = m(x − 1.4) + 1.42 on the CAS produces:

2
Setting m = 3 gives:

Zooming in produces:

Setting m = 2.8 gives:

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Zooming in several times shows that the graph of y = x2 is now completely covered by the line:

Thus the instantaneous rate of change of y = x2 at x = 1.4 is 2.8. Zooming back out shows the tangent line:

The equation of the tangent line is:

y = 2.8(x − 1.4) + 1.42

= 2.8x − 1.96

3 Limits
For a given function y = f (x) the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at P can be estimated by
considering what happens to the gradient of secant P Q as Q approaches P .

4
 y
Q(b, f (b))

Q(b, f (b))

P (a, f (a))
T x

y = f (x)

e.g.2 Find the instantaneous rate of change of y = x2 at x = 1.4 using a table.

solution

Choose a point close to a = 1.4, e.g. b = 1.5 and calculate the gradient MP Q of secant P Q:

1.52 − 1.42
MP Q =
1.5 − 1.4
= 2.9

Now choose a point even closer to a = 1.4, e.g. b = 1.45 and calculate the gradient of the new secant P Q:

1.452 − 1.42
MP Q =
1.45 − 1.4
= 2.85

To speed up the calculations use the following calculator program:

Running the program with f (x) = x2 , a = 1.4 and the following values of b gives:

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 b MP Q
1.5 2.9
1.45 2.85
1.41 2.81
1.401 2.801
1.4001 2.8001
1.40001 2.80001
1.400001 2.800001

From the table it can be seen that as Q approaches P , i.e. as b approaches 1.4, the gradient of the secant P Q
approaches 2.8. Thus the instantaneous rate of change of y = x2 at x = 1.4 is 2.8, agreeing with the earlier
result obtained graphically.

The same result is obtained if the values of b approach 1.4 from “below”:

b MP Q
1.3 2.7
1.35 2.75
1.39 2.79
1.399 2.799
1.3999 2.7999
1.39999 2.79999
1.399999 2.799999

We say that the limit of MP Q as b approaches 1.4 is 2.8, written:

lim MP Q = 2.8
b→1.4
b2 − 1.42
⇒ lim = 2.8
b→1.4 b − 1.4

4 Differentiation by first principles

We now formally define the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x = a for a given function
y = f (x) as:
f (b) − f (a)
instantaneous rate of change = lim
b→a b−a
For a given function y = f (x), the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x = a is called the
derivative of f (x) at x = a and is denoted by f ′ (a) (read “f dashed a” or “f prime a”). So:
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
b→a b−a
e.g.3 Let f (x) = x2 . Find f ′ (1.4).

solution
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
b→a b−a
f (b) − f (1.4)
⇒ f ′ (1.4) = lim
b→1.4 b − 1.4
b2 − 1.42
= lim
b→1.4 b − 1.4

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The limit can be evaluated by substituting b = 1.4 into the expression provided division by 0 does not
occur. To avoid division by 0 we use D.O.P.S to simplify the expression:

b2 − 1.42
f ′ (1.4) = lim
b→1.4 b − 1.4
(b − 1.4)(b + 1.4)
= lim
b→1.4 b − 1.4
= lim (b + 1.4)
b→1.4
= 1.4 + 1.4
= 2.8

Finding the derivative by evaluating the limit is called differentiating by first principles.

e.g.4 Let f (x) = x2 . Show that f ′ (a) = 2a by differentiating by first principles. Hence find f ′ (1.4).

solution
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
b→a b−a
b − a2
2
= lim
b→a b − a
(b − a)(b + a)
= lim
b→a b−a
= lim (b + a)
b→a
= a + a = 2a
⇒ f ′ (1.4) = 2 × 1.4 = 2.8

Many textbooks (including ours) use an alternative definition for f ′ (a):

f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
h→0 h
This result can be obtained by letting b = a + h in the original definition:

f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
b→a b−a
f (a + h) − f (a)
= lim
b→a a+h−a
f (a + h) − f (a)
= lim
b→a h
Now
b=a+h
⇒h=b−a

It follows that as b approaches a, h approaches 0. Thus

f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
b→a h
f (a + h) − f (a)
= lim
h→0 h

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e.g.5 Let f (x) = x2 . Show that f ′ (x) = 2x by differentiating by first principles.

solution
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
(x + h) − x2
2
= lim
h→0 h
x + 2xh + h2 − x2
2
= lim
h→0 h
h(2x + h)
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (2x + h)
h→0
= 2x + 0
= 2x
dy
The function f ′ (x) is called the derivative of f (x). The symbol (read “dee y dee x”) is also used to denote
dx
dy
the derivative, i.e. = 2x.
dx
e.g.6 Let f (x) = x2 − 2x − 3. Find the derivative of f (x) by differentiating by first principles.

solution
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
(x + h)2 − 2(x + h) − 3 − (x2 − 2x − 3)
= lim
h→0 h
x2 + 2xh + h2 − 2x − 2h − 3 − x2 + 2x + 3
= lim
h→0 h
2xh + h2 − 2h
= lim
h→0 h
h(2x − 2 + h)
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (2x − 2 + h)
h→0
= 2x − 2 + 0
= 2x − 2

5 Differentiation using rules

The following rules greatly simplify the calculation of the derivative.
1. f (x) = k ⇒ f ′ (x) = 0, where k is a constant
2. f (x) = xn ⇒ f ′ (x) = nxn−1 , where n is a constant
3. if h(x) = f (x) ± g(x) then h′ (x) = f ′ (x) ± g ′ (x)
e.g.6 Let f (x) = x2 − 2x − 3. Find the derivative of f (x).

solution
f ′ (x) = 2x − 2 − 0
= 2x − 2

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6 Increasing functions, decreasing functions and stationary points
A function f (x) is said to be strictly increasing on an interval I if b > a ⇒ f (b) > f (a) for all a, b in I.

Similarly, a function f (x) is said to be strictly decreasing on an interval I if b > a ⇒ f (b) < f (a) for all a, b
in I.

A function f (x) is said to have a stationary point at x = a if f ′ (a) = 0.

The following two theorems can be used to determine where a function is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing:

ˆ if f (x) > 0 for all x in an interval I, then f (x) is strictly increasing on I

ˆ if f (x) < 0 for all x in an interval I, then f (x) is strictly decreasing on I

e.g.7 Let f (x) = x2 − 2x − 3. Find where f (x) is strictly increasing, strictly decreasing and any stationary
points of f (x).

solution
f (x) = x2 − 2x − 3
⇒ f ′ (x) = 2x − 2

Then
f ′ (x) > 0
⇒ 2x − 2 > 0
⇒ 2x > 2
⇒x>1

Hence f (x) is strictly increasing on (1, ∞) (or on [1, ∞)). Similarly f (x) is strictly decreasing on (−∞, 1) (or
on (−∞, 1]) and has a stationary point at x = 1.

y = x2 − 2x − 3
2

x
−2 −1 1 2 3
−2

−4

7 Graphing f ′ (x)
Given the graph of y = f (x), we can sketch the graph of y = f ′ (x) without actually finding the derivative by
noting the values of x for which the function is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing, and by determining
the location of any stationary points.

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e.g.8 The graph of y = f (x) is shown below. Sketch the graph of y = f ′ (x).

y = f (x)
2

x
−1 1 2 3 4 5

−2

solution
y
6

4
y = f ′ (x)
2
x
−1 1 2 3 4 5
−2

−4

−6

8 Equations of tangent lines and normal lines

The normal line to the graph of y = f (x) at x = a is the line passing through (a, f (a)) that is perpendicular
to the tangent line.

To find the angle θ (−90◦ < θ < 90◦ ) that a line with gradient m makes with the x-axis use the formula

m = tan θ

9 Continuous functions
Informally, a function f (x) is continuous on an interval I if the graph of y = f (x) can be drawn without lifting
the pen from the paper.

Formally, a function f (x) is continuous at x = a if

1. f (x) is defined at x = a, and

2. lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

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Note that, in order for lim f (x) to exist, both the limit from the left-hand side (written lim f (x)) and the
x→a x→a−
limit from the right-hand side (written lim f (x)) must exist and be equal.
x→a+

If either condition 1. or condition 2. in the definition above is not met then the function is said to be discon-
tinuous at x = a.

If a function f (x) is continuous for all x ∈ R, then f (x) is said to be continuous everywhere.

10 Differentiable functions
f (a + h) − f (a)
A function f (x) is differentiable at x = a if lim exists. Again, both the limit from the
  h→0 h  
f (a + h) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a)
left-hand side lim and the limit from the right-hand side lim must
h→0− h h→0+ h
exist and be equal.

11 Problems
1) Let f (x) = x2 . Find the average rate of change of f (x) with respect to x over the interval [1, 4].

2) For each of the following find f ′ (a):

ˆ graphically

ˆ using a table (calculator program)

ˆ by differentiating by first principles

ˆ by differentiating using rules

a) f (x) = x2 , a = −2.3 b) f (x) = x2 + 3x − 10, a = 1.1

3) For each of the functions in Question 2) above find the equation of the tangent line and the equation of the
normal line at the specified value of a.

4) Find the equation of the normal line to y = x3 − 2x2 − 6x + 1 at x = 2. What angle does the normal line
make with the x-axis?

dy
5) Let y = x3 . Show that = 3x2 by differentiating by first principles.
dx
6) Where is the function f (x) = x2 −4x+5 increasing and where is it decreasing? Does f (x) have any stationary
points? If so, where? Use your results to sketch the graph of y = f (x).

7) Suppose
x2 − 4
f (x) =
x−2
Does lim f (x) exist? Is f (x) continuous everywhere? Give reasons for your answer.
x→2

8) Let
f (x) = |x − 1|
Is f (x) differentiable at x = 0? At x = 1?

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